Chapter One

Introduction
Preface
More than 4.6 billion years, huge amounts of energy is generated in the Sun through thermonuclear
reactions. The Sun radiates energy at a rate of 3.8_1026 J/sec[]. The generated energy is primarily)
mainly released as electromagnetic waves, and by electromagnetic wave its meant the entire spectrum
(Radio waves, Micro waves, IR, Light, UV, X-Ray and, - Ray) (photons), which are slowly finding
their way to) through the internal layers to the surface of the Sun over the course) period of _ 105 years[].
We) scientists are usually looking at the surface information of the Sun, (which is transmitted by
photons) and these information are emitted and transmitted by the photons of entire spectrum. However,
all the information these photons might contain regarding the nuclear reactions that created them is lost
in the repeated interactions of these photons undergo) as they percolate out of the Sun.

On the other hand, the neutrinos which are created in the core can provide direct information of) from
the centre) core of the Sun. Since they have very small reaction) interaction cross section, even in the
highest densities. Solar neutrinos can pass through very dense matter and they travel the long distance
of 1.49 x108 km from the Sun to the Earth. Thus, the study of solar neutrinos can serve as important test
for theories of stellar evolution and structure. [ http://www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/sk/pub/mitsuda-
doctor2.pdf ]

This study is tracking solar neutrinos, observing weather its related to solar activities or not, by
measuring its flow variation rate and comparing it with the solar activities. This study is going to
explain the general ideas about solar activities and then we will go through the solar neutrinos through
simple and yet effective explanations in terms of by studying datas from main international
detectors like . This field of study is very interesting for many researchers, astrophysicists and
particle physicists, as the door of wonders and unanswered questions are still opened wide.
((there is much about the Sun is not known and not understood yet and itsve been welling to be
known and understood.))

1.1 The conception of the Sun

1.1.1properties of Sun
The Sun is the closest star to planet Earth, its a gigantic sphere of high energetic gas and plasma[1],
in a continues dynamical motion, fully powered by thermonuclear reactions, mainly by fussing H to
He [2]. In the H-R diagram the Sun lies along the main-sequence stars with spectral type G2V[3][4].
The
Suns main-sequence lifetime is estimated at about 10 billion years. Approximately
4.5 billion of those years have already passed.
To remain stable for such a long time, stars must meet two equilibrium conditions,

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM & HYDROSTATIC

EQUILIBRIUM. The Sun has six regions the core, radiative zone, and convective
zone in the interior; visible surface (the photosphere); chromosphere; and outermost region, the
corona. The Sun has no solid surface [4].

Figure 1.1 the active regions spin out bright loops above the Suns surface that trace
magnetic field lines (SDO image in extreme ultraviolet light)[4].

Table 1.1 main physical charecterictics of the Sun, from National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA)[4] and, quantitie are calculated by the aid of the solar standard model (SSM)
[5]

Parameters Value
Spectral Type of Star G2V
Age 4.6 billion years
Mean Distance to Earth 149.60 million km (92.96 million mile) ( 1
astronomical unit)
Rotation Period at Equator 26.8 days
Rotation Period at Poles 36 days
Equatorial Radius 695,500 km (432,200 mi)
Mass 1.989 x 1030 kg
Density 1.409 g/ cm3
Composition 92.1% hydrogen, 7.8% helium, 0.1% other
elements
Surface temperature (Photspheer) 5,500 deg C (10,000 deg F)
Luminosity 3.83 x 1033 ergs/sec
Effective (Surface) temperature 5.78 x 103 k
 Central density 148 g cm-3
Central temperature 1.56 x 106 k
Neutrino flux from pp reaction 6 x 1010 cm-2 s-1
Neutrino flux from 8B decay 6 x 106 cm-2 s-1
Fraction of energy from pp chain 0.984
Fraction ofenergy from CNO cycle 0.016

1.1.2 The magnetic field and the charged particles

The magnetic field is created in the solar interior,

can be measured with highest accuracy on the Sun s visible surface (the photosphere)
and controls most physical processes in the solar atmosphere.
The magnetic field of the Sun is the underlying cause of the many diverse phenomena
combined under the heading of solar activity [https://arxiv.org/abs/1410.4214]. It pushes its
way from the bottom of the convection zone, where it is built up by the solar dynamo (due to
its different pa11rts rate of rotation (see table 1.1)), to the solar surface, where it manifests
itself in the form of sunspots and faculae, and beyond into the outer solar atmosphere and,
finally, into the heliosphere. On the way it transports energy from the surface and the
subsurface layers into the solar corona, where it heats the gas and accelerates the solar wind [
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1008.0771.pdf].
A dynamo mechanism operating in the lower part of the solar convection zone is generally
considered to be the source of the Sun s magnetic field.
Dynamo action[] can exist in plasmas with a seed magnetic field and flow fields. For solar
and stellar physics it is particularly important that dynamo processes can result in a cyclic
behaviour. Mean- field MHD[] theories of solar and stellar dynamos predict the cyclic
behaviour, which resembles the observed properties such as the butterfly diagram[] for
sunspot formation zone and polar field polarity reversals.
[http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/114380/1/114380.pdf ]
Figure 1.3 [book DJV]
The energy of the sun derives from the conversion of mass to energy when hydrogen
atoms are converted by fusion to helium and helium converted to carbon. This energy is
radiated
from the core into the layers above. At about 0.75 solar radii (Rs) heat transport by radiation
drops in efficiency below that of convection and, the outer layer transports the escaping heat
to
the surface by convection. This mass motion results in cooler material sinking from the
photosphere into the convection layer and hot material rising toward the photosphere. The
mass
motion drives the magnetic dynamo that we see on the sun and whose time variations are so
very
important for solar terrestrial relations.[Solar wind_ magnetosphere_tutorial.pdf]

Coupling .
Magnetic field lines thread the convective layers of the Suns interior and its atmosphere.
They couple these parts of the Sun in the sense that energy is transported from the Suns
interior and surface into its atmosphere, where it is deposited, leading to a heating of the
gas present there.
The role ascribed to the magnetic field is to transport the abundantly present energy from
the solar interior into the upper solar atmosphere, releasing it there. The magnetic field
 lines, some of which thread all layers from the solar convection zone right out to the
heliosphere, thus couple these regions with each other.
Magnetic coupling between different parts of the Sun plays a fundamental role in
determining the structure, dynamics and thermodynamics of the upper solar atmosphere.[
http://www2.mps.mpg.de/dokumente/publikationen/solanki/r48.pdf]

Fig. [r75.pdf]

1.1.3 Solar Activities

Solar activities mainly include Solar wind, and Sunspots. Solar wind a continuous stream of ions and
electrons escaping from the Suns corona and moving through interplanetary, through explosions on
the surface of the sun [book DJV]. Sunspots in the photosphere are areas with strong magnetic fields
that are cooler, and thus darker, than the surrounding region. Sunspot usually fluctuate every 11 years
on average as part of the Suns magnetic activity cycle, as the Sun's magnetic poles change their
polarity.
magnetic polarity []. When this happens, the sun's photosphere, chromosphere and corona undergo
changes from quiet and calm to violently active. Also connected to this cycle are bright solar flares and
huge coronal mass ejections (CME) that blast off of the Sun through solar wind.
Figure 1.3 (1) huge Sun spot group. It was the source of numerous flares and coronal mass
ejections[6]. (2)[ Chapter_2_]

Solar Flare
A flare is defined as a sudden, rapid, and intense variation in brightness. A solar flare occurs when magnetic
energy that has built up in the solar atmosphere is suddenly released. Radiation is emitted across virtually the
entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves at the long wavelength end, through visible light to x-rays and
gamma rays [ https://hesperia.gsfc.nasa.gov/rhessi3/home/mission/science/overview-of-solar-flares/index.html ]

The first Solar flare was observed in 1859 by Richard Carrington, who was drawing sunspots, when
he suddenly noticed two bright spots in one of the sunspot groups. They brightened and faded in
just ten minutes. Carrington already noticed that this phenomena was followed by the appearance
of northern lights on the following night.
Solar flares are explosive phenomena that e
mit electromagnetic
radiation extending from radio to -rays. It is generally
agreed that magnetic energy stored in the solar corona and released
through reconnection is the source of plasma heating
and acceleration of electrons and ions to relativistic energies.[Ackermann_2014_Abd_787_15.pdf]

The biggest flares are known as "X-class flares" based on a classification system that divides solar flares
according to their strength. The smallest ones are A-class (near background levels), followed by B, C, M and X.
Similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes, each letter represents a 10-fold increase in energy output. So an X is
ten times an M and 100 times a C. Within each letter class there is a finer scale from 1 to 9.[
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/X-class-flares.html]

Figure [https://solarmonitor.org/forecast.php?date=20170427] , Figure

[https://solarmonitor.org/full_disk.php?date=20170427&type=hxrt_flter&indexnum=1#]
Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (photosphere, chromosphere, and corona),
when the plasma medium is heated to tens of millions kelvins, while the cosmic-ray-
like electrons, protons, and heavier ions are accelerated to near the speed of light. They
produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths, from radio
waves to gamma rays, although most of the energy is spread over frequencies outside the visual
range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be
observed with special instruments. Flares occur in active regions around sunspots, where
intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere to link the corona to the solar interior. Flares
are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic
energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may produce coronal mass
ejections (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well established.

Figure [https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/News051213-flare.html]

After an initial flash of gamma rays, a longer-lived "afterglow" is usually emitted at longer
wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, microwave and radio).[ Vietri, M.; Stella, L. (1998).
"A Gamma-Ray Burst Model with Small Baryon Contamination". Astrophysical Journal Letters. 507: L45
L48.arXiv:astro-ph/9808355 . Bibcode:1998ApJ...507L..45V.doi:10.1086/311674.]
Nuclear -ray lines in the 110 MeV range
and continuum radiation above 100 MeV produced by accelerated
protons, particles, and heavier ions have been detected
with instruments on board the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM),
the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO), and RHESSI
(Lin et al. 2002). The lines are due to de-excitation of ambient
(or accelerated) ions excited by interactions with accelerated (or ambient) ions. The continuum radiation is
produced by interactions
of >300 MeV protons and >800 MeV particles
with ambient ions producing neutral and charged pions (Murphy
et al. 1987). The neutral pions decay into a pair of 67.5 MeV
-rays (in the rest frame of the pion), and the charged pions
decay ultimately into energetic electrons, positrons, and neutrinos.
The secondary electrons and positrons emit bremsstrahlung
-rays in the tens of MeV energy range. These particles also
produce inverse Compton X-rays by up-scattering solar optical
photons and terahertz synchrotron radiation. [Ackermann_2014_Abd_787_15.pdf]

Nuclear Reactions in the Sun

1.1.4 Standard Model of the Sun

The standard solar model is one of the most complete and successful theories in modern
astronomy
Much work has been done in trying to model the Sun, and we will limit the discussion to aspects
relevant to 8B neutrinos. Most of the leading research on solar physics has been carried out by the
late John Bahcall and his collaborators who have been publishing up-to date solar models roughly
every two years since 1998 ([36], [37]). The work in this thesis has mostly been carried out using
the 2000 Bahcall-Pinsonneault solar model [36], which will be referred to as the BP2000 model.
We will not go into the details of solar physics and simply state that the hydrodynamic stability
of the Sun results from the balance between its self-gravity and the outward pressure of the nuclear
fusion reactions that take place in the interior. The nuclear reactions produce neutrinos, and some
produce intermediate states that _-decay and produce additional neutrinos. For example, the 8B
neutrinos are produced through the following branch of reactions in the p-p chain: [rmartin_msc]

The Standard Solar Model (SSM) is an important reference in Astrophysics as the

Sun stays today the most observed star. This model is used to predict the internal observables
like neutrino uxes and oscillation frequencies and consequently to validate its assumptions
for its generalization to other stars. The model outputs result from the resolution of the
classical stellar equations and the knowledge of fundamental physics like nuclear reaction rates,
screening, photon interaction, plasma physics. The plasma conditions remained unmeasurable
in laboratory for long due to the high temperature and high density conditions of the solar
interior. Today, neutrino detections and helioseismology aboard SoHO have largely revealed
the solar interior, in particular the nuclear solar core so one can estimate the reliability of SSM
and also its coherence with the di_erent indicators and between them. This has been possible
thanks to a Seismic Solar Model (SeSM) which takes into account in addition the observed
sound speed pro_le.[ Turck-Chize_2016_J._Phys.%3A_Conf._Ser._665_012078]

1.1 Solar Neutrinos

The Sun is an intense generator of electron neutrinos. Many experiments have utilised
this naturally abundant source in order to observe the interactions of neutrinos. Solar
neutrino experiments can be separated into two main categories, according to the
method
of particle detection: radiochemical and water _Cerenkov. These are described in more
detail in section 1.4. A de_cit of _e in comparison to the predicted ux from theoretical solar
models was observed in both types of experiment, implying some level of oscillation
 of _e to _x. The resulting best-_t values for the relevant oscillation parameters [12] are:
tan2 _12 = 0:45 +0:09
0:04 _m2
12 = 8:0 +0:6
0:4 _ 105 eV2 [OrebiGannThesis.pdf]

1.2.1 Neutrinos as elementary particles

... a way out for saving the law of conservation of energy. Namely, the possibility that there could
exist in the nuclei electrically neutral particles, that I will call neutrons which have spin 1/2 and follow
the exclusion principle. The continuous _-spectrum would then be understandable assuming that in
_-decay together with the electron, in all cases, also a neutron is emitted...
Wolfgang Pauli, 1930

Neutrinos play a key role in several fields of physics including elementary particle
physics, unified field theories, cosmology, and astrophysics. They are
excellent probes of environments that are concealed from other observational
methods, but the difficulty in detecting them has left many important questions
surrounding them unanswered.

1.3 significance of this study

References
[1] "First Ever STEREO Images of the Entire Sun". NASA. 6 February 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
[2] Nasas Heli physics division of the science mission directorate, Mysteries of the Sun, National
Aeronautics and space Administration
[3]G. P. Kuiper, The Magnitude of the Sun, The stellar temperature scale, And Bolometric
Corrections, Harvard, 1938ApJ....88..429K.

[4] Nasa (national aeronautics and national administration) , Our Star The Sun, July.
2013(Accessible Source: ww )

[5] Gabrielle Berthomieu and Michel cribier, Inside the Sun, Proceedings of the 121st
colloquium of the international astronomical union,Held at Versailles, France, 22_26, 1989
[6] https://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/gallery/images/bigspotfd.html