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Amygdala
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Mainpage Forotheruses,seeAmygdala(disambiguation).
Contents Theamygdala(plural:amygdalae
Featuredcontent Amygdala
/mdl/alsocorpus
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amygdaloideumLatinfromGreek,
DonatetoWikipedia ,amygdal,'almond',
Wikipediastore 'tonsil'[1])isoneoftwoalmondshaped
groupsofnucleilocateddeepand
Interaction
mediallywithinthetemporallobesof
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thebrainincomplexvertebrates,
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includinghumans.[2]Shownin
Communityportal Locationoftheamygdalaeinthehumanbrain
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researchtoperformaprimaryrolein
Contactpage theprocessingofmemory,decision
making,andemotionalreactions,the
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amygdalaeareconsideredpartofthe
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limbicsystem.[3]
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Specialpages Subdivisionoftheamygdala
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Latin corpusamygdaloideum
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MeSH Amygdala
Print/export NeuroNames hier219
Createabook NeuroLexID Amygdala
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SimpleEnglish Humanbraininthecoronalorientation.Amygdalae
Suomi areshownindarkred.
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Tagalog
Contents[hide]

Trke 1 Structure
1.1 Hemisphericspecializations
/Uyghurche 2 Development
2.1 Sexdistinction
Editlinks
3 Function
3.1 Connections
3.2 Emotionallearning
3.3 Memorymodulation
4 Neuropsychologicalcorrelatesofamygdalaactivity
4.1 Sexualorientation
4.2 Socialinteraction
4.3 Aggression
4.4 Fear
4.5 Alcoholismandbingedrinking
4.6 Anxiety
4.7 Posttraumaticstressdisorder
4.8 Bipolardisorder
4.9 Politicalorientation
5 Seealso
6 Furtherreading
 7 References
8 Externallinks

Structure [ edit ]

Theregionsdescribedasamygdalanuclei
encompassseveralstructureswithdistinct
connectionalandfunctionalcharacteristics
inhumansandotheranimals.[4]Among
thesenucleiarethebasolateralcomplex,
thecorticalnucleus,themedialnucleus,the
centralnucleus,andtheintercalatedcell
clusters(ITCs).Thebasolateralcomplex
canbefurthersubdividedintothelateral,
thebasal,andtheaccessorybasal
nuclei.[3][5][6]

Subdivisionsofthemouse
amygdala

Anatomically,theamygdala[7]andmore
particularly,itscentralandmedialnuclei,[8]
havesometimesbeenclassifiedasapart
ofthebasalganglia.

MRIcoronalviewoftheright Hemisphericspecializations [ edit ]

amygdala
Therearefunctionaldifferencesbetween
therightandleftamygdala.Inonestudy,
electricalstimulationsoftherightamygdalainducednegativeemotions,especially
fearandsadness.Incontrast,stimulationoftheleftamygdalawasabletoinduce
eitherpleasant(happiness)orunpleasant(fear,anxiety,sadness)emotions.[9]
Otherevidencesuggeststhattheleftamygdalaplaysaroleinthebrain'sreward
system.[10]

Eachsideholdsaspecificfunctioninhowweperceiveandprocessemotion.The
rightandleftportionsoftheamygdalahaveindependentmemorysystems,but
worktogethertostore,encode,andinterpretemotion.

Therighthemisphereisassociatedwithnegativeemotion.Itplaysaroleinthe
expressionoffearandintheprocessingoffearinducingstimuli.Fearconditioning,
whichiswhenaneutralstimulusacquiresaversiveproperties,occurswithinthe
righthemisphere.Whenanindividualispresentedwithaconditioned,aversive
stimulus,itisprocessedwithintherightamygdala,producinganunpleasantor
fearfulresponse.Thisemotionalresponseconditionstheindividualtoavoidfear
inducingstimuli.

Therighthemisphereisalsolinkedtodeclarativememory,whichconsistsoffacts
andinformationfrompreviouslyexperiencedeventsandmustbeconsciously
recalled.Italsoplaysasignificantroleintheretentionofepisodicmemory.
Episodicmemoryconsistsoftheautobiographicalaspectsofmemory,permitting
youtorecallyourpersonalemotionalandsensoryexperienceofanevent.This
typeofmemorydoesnotrequireconsciousrecall.Therightamygdalaplaysarole
intheassociationoftimeandplaceswithemotionalproperties.[11]

Development [ edit ]

Thereisconsiderablegrowthwithinthefirstfewyearsofstructuraldevelopmentin
bothmaleandfemaleamygdalae.[12]Withinthisearlyperiod,femalelimbic
structuresgrowatamorerapidpacethandomales.Amongstfemalesubjects,the
amygdalareachesitsfullgrowthpotentialapproximately1.5yearsbeforethepeak
ofmaledevelopment.Thestructuraldevelopmentofthemaleamygdalaoccurs
overalongerperiodthaninwomen.Despitetheearlydevelopmentoffemale
amygdalae,theyreachtheirgrowthpotentialsoonerthanmales,whoseamygdalae
continuetodevelop.Thelargerrelativesizeofthemaleamygdalamaybe
attributedtothisextendeddevelopmentalperiod.

Inadditiontolongerperiodsofdevelopment,otherneurologicalandhormonal
factorsmaycontributetosexspecificdevelopmentaldifferences.Theamygdalais
richinandrogenreceptorsnuclearreceptorsthatbindtotestosterone.Androgen
receptorsplayaroleintheDNAbindingthatregulatesgeneexpression.Though
testosteroneispresentwithinthefemalehormonalsystems,womenhavelower
levelsoftestosteronethanmen.Theabundanceoftestosteroneinthemale
hormonalsystemmaycontributetodevelopment.Inaddition,thegreymatter
volumeontheamygdalaispredictedbytestosteronelevels,whichmayalso
contributetotheincreasedmassofthemaleamygdala.

Inadditiontosexdifferences,thereareobservabledevelopmentaldifferences
betweentherightandleftamygdalainbothmalesandfemales.Theleftamygdala
reachesitsdevelopmentalpeakapproximately1.52yearspriortotheright
amygdala.Despitetheearlygrowthoftheleftamygdala,therightincreasesin
volumeforalongerperiodoftime.Therightamygdalaisassociatedwithresponse
tofearfulstimuliaswellasfacerecognition.Itisinferredthattheearlydevelopment
oftheleftamygdalafunctionstoprovideinfantstheabilitytodetectdanger.[12]In
childhood,theamygdalaisfoundtoreactdifferentlytosamesexversusopposite
sexindividuals.Thisreactivitydecreasesuntilapersonentersadolescence,where
itincreasesdramaticallyatpuberty.[13]
Sexdistinction [ edit ]
Seealso:Neuroscienceofsexdifferences

Theamygdalaisoneofthebestunderstoodbrainregionswithregardto
differencesbetweenthesexes.Theamygdalaislargerinmalesthanfemalesin
childrenages711,[14]inadulthumans,[15]andinadultrats.[16]

Inadditiontosize,otherfunctionalandstructuraldifferencesbetweenmaleand
femaleamygdalaehavebeenobserved.Subjects'amygdalaactivationwas
observedwhenwatchingahorrorfilmandsubliminalstimuli.Theresultsofthe
studyshowedadifferentlateralizationoftheamygdalainmenandwomen.
Enhancedmemoryforthefilmwasrelatedtoenhancedactivityoftheleft,butnot
theright,amygdalainwomen,whereasitwasrelatedtoenhancedactivityofthe
right,butnottheleft,amygdalainmen.[17]Onestudyfoundevidencethaton
average,womentendtoretainstrongermemoriesforemotionaleventsthan
men.[18]

Therightamygdalaisalsolinkedwithtakingactionaswellasbeinglinkedto
negativeemotions,[19]whichmayhelpexplainwhymalestendtorespondto
emotionallystressfulstimuliphysically.Theleftamygdalaallowsfortherecallof
details,butitalsoresultsinmorethoughtratherthanactioninresponseto
emotionallystressfulstimuli,whichmayexplaintheabsenceofphysicalresponse
inwomen.

Function [ edit ]

Connections [ edit ]

Theamygdalasendsprojectionstothehypothalamus,thedorsomedialthalamus,
thethalamicreticularnucleus,thenucleiofthetrigeminalnerveandthefacial
nerve,theventraltegmentalarea,thelocuscoeruleus,andthelaterodorsal
tegmentalnucleus.[5]

Themedialnucleusisinvolvedinthesenseofsmellandpheromoneprocessing.It
receivesinputfromtheolfactorybulbandolfactorycortex.[20]Thelateral
amygdalae,whichsendimpulsestotherestofthebasolateralcomplexesandto
thecentromedialnuclei,receiveinputfromthesensorysystems.Thecentromedial
nucleiarethemainoutputsforthebasolateralcomplexes,andareinvolvedin
emotionalarousalinratsandcats.[5][6][21]

Emotionallearning [ edit ]

Incomplexvertebrates,includinghumans,theamygdalaeperformprimaryrolesin
theformationandstorageofmemoriesassociatedwithemotionalevents.
Researchindicatesthat,duringfearconditioning,sensorystimulireachthe
basolateralcomplexesoftheamygdalae,particularlythelateralnuclei,wherethey
formassociationswith
memoriesofthestimuli.The
associationbetweenstimuli
andtheaversiveeventsthey
predictmaybemediatedby
longtermpotentiation,[22][23]a
sustainedenhancementof
signalingbetweenaffected
neurons.[24]Therehavebeen
studiesthatshowthatdamage
totheamygdalacaninterfere
withmemorythatis
strengthenedbyemotion.One
studyexaminedapatientwith
bilateraldegenerationofthe
amygdala.Hewastolda Coronalsectionofbrainthroughintermediatemass
ofthirdventricle.Amygdalaisshowninpurple.
violentstoryaccompaniedby
matchingpicturesandwas
observedbasedonhowmuchhecouldrecallfromthestory.Thepatienthadless
recollectionofthestorythanpatientswithfunctionalamygdala,showingthatthe
amygdalahasastrongconnectionwithemotionallearning.[25]

Emotionalmemoriesarethoughttobestoredinsynapsesthroughoutthebrain.
Fearmemories,forexample,areconsideredtobestoredintheneuronal
connectionsfromthelateralnucleitothecentralnucleusoftheamygdalaeandthe
bednucleiofthestriaterminalis(partoftheextendedamygdala).Ofcourse,these
connectionsarenotthesolesiteoffearmemoriesgiventhatthenucleiofthe
amygdalareceiveandsendinformationtootherbrainregionsthatareimportant
formemorysuchasthehippocampus.Somesensoryneuronsprojecttheiraxon
terminalstothecentralnucleus.[26]Thecentralnucleiareinvolvedinthegenesisof
manyfearresponsessuchasdefensivebehavior(freezingorescaperesponses),
autonomicnervoussystemresponses(changesinbloodpressureandheart
rate/tachycardia),neuroendocrineresponses(stresshormonerelease),etc.
DamagetotheamygdalaeimpairsboththeacquisitionandexpressionofPavlovian
fearconditioning,aformofclassicalconditioningofemotionalresponses.[24]

Theamygdalaearealsoinvolvedinappetitive(positive)conditioning.Itseemsthat
distinctneuronsrespondtopositiveandnegativestimuli,butthereisnoclustering
ofthesedistinctneuronsintoclearanatomicalnuclei.[27][28]However,lesionsofthe
centralnucleusintheamygdalahavebeenshowntoreduceappetitivelearningin
rats.Lesionsofthebasolateralregionsdonotexhibitthesameeffect.[29]Research
likethisindicatesthatdifferentnucleiwithintheamygdalahavedifferentfunctions
inappetitiveconditioning.[30][31]Nevertheless,researchersfoundanexampleof
appetitiveemotionallearningshowinganimportantroleforthebasolateral
amygdala:Thenavefemalemiceareinnatelyattractedtononvolatile
pheromonescontainedinmalesoiledbedding,butnotbythemalederived
volatiles,becomeattractiveifassociatedwithnonvolatileattractivepheromones,
whichactasunconditionedstimulusinacaseofPavlovianassociativelearning.[32]
Inthevomeronasal,olfactoryandemotionalsystems,Fosproteinshowthatnon
volatilepheromonesstimulatethevomeronasalsystem,whereasairbornevolatiles
activateonlytheolfactorysystem.Thus,theacquiredpreferenceformalederived
volatilesrevealsanolfactoryvomeronasalassociativelearning.Moreover,the
rewardsystemisdifferentiallyactivatedbytheprimarypheromonesand
secondarilyattractiveodorants.Exploringtheprimaryattractivepheromone
activatesthebasolateralamygdalaandtheshellofnucleusaccumbensbutneither
theventraltegmentalareanortheorbitofrontalcortex.Incontrast,exploringthe
secondarilyattractivemalederivedodorantsinvolvesactivationofacircuitthat
includesthebasolateralamygdala,prefrontalcortexandventraltegmentalarea.
Therefore,thebasolateralamygdalastandsoutasthekeycenterforvomeronasal
olfactoryassociativelearning.[33]

Memorymodulation [ edit ]

Theamygdalaisalsoinvolvedinthemodulationofmemoryconsolidation.
Followinganylearningevent,thelongtermmemoryfortheeventisnotformed
instantaneously.Rather,informationregardingtheeventisslowlyassimilatedinto
longterm(potentiallylifelong)storageovertime,possiblyvialongterm
potentiation.Recentstudiessuggestthattheamygdalaregulatesmemory
consolidationinotherbrainregions.Also,fearconditioning,atypeofmemorythat
isimpairedfollowingamygdaladamage,ismediatedinpartbylongterm
potentiation.[22][23]

Duringtheconsolidationperiod,thememorycanbemodulated.Inparticular,it
appearsthatemotionalarousalfollowingthelearningeventinfluencesthestrength
ofthesubsequentmemoryforthatevent.Greateremotionalarousalfollowinga
learningeventenhancesaperson'sretentionofthatevent.Experimentshave
shownthatadministrationofstresshormonestomiceimmediatelyaftertheylearn
somethingenhancestheirretentionwhentheyaretestedtwodayslater.[34]

Theamygdala,especiallythebasolateralnuclei,areinvolvedinmediatingthe
effectsofemotionalarousalonthestrengthofthememoryfortheevent,asshown
bymanylaboratoriesincludingthatofJamesMcGaugh.Theselaboratorieshave
trainedanimalsonavarietyoflearningtasksandfoundthatdrugsinjectedintothe
amygdalaaftertrainingaffecttheanimals'subsequentretentionofthetask.These
tasksincludebasicclassicalconditioningtaskssuchasinhibitoryavoidance,where
aratlearnstoassociateamildfootshockwithaparticularcompartmentofan
apparatus,andmorecomplextaskssuchasspatialorcuedwatermaze,wherea
ratlearnstoswimtoaplatformtoescapethewater.Ifadrugthatactivatesthe
amygdalaeisinjectedintotheamygdalae,theanimalshadbettermemoryforthe
traininginthetask.[35]Ifadrugthatinactivatestheamygdalaeisinjected,the
animalshadimpairedmemoryforthetask.

Buddhistmonkswhodocompassionmeditationhavebeenshowntomodulate
theiramygdala,alongwiththeirtemporoparietaljunctionandinsula,duringtheir
practice.[36]InanfMRIstudy,moreintensiveinsulaactivitywasfoundinexpert
meditatorsthaninnovices.[37]Increasedactivityintheamygdalafollowing
compassionorientedmeditationmaycontributetosocialconnectedness.[38]

Amygdalaactivityatthetimeofencodinginformationcorrelateswithretentionfor
thatinformation.However,thiscorrelationdependsontherelative"emotionalness"
oftheinformation.Moreemotionallyarousinginformationincreasesamygdalar
activity,andthatactivitycorrelateswithretention.Amygdalaneuronsshowvarious
typesofoscillationduringemotionalarousal,suchasthetaactivity.These
synchronizedneuronaleventscouldpromotesynapticplasticity(whichisinvolved
inmemoryretention)byincreasinginteractionsbetweenneocorticalstoragesites
andtemporallobestructuresinvolvedindeclarativememory.[39]

ResearchusingRorschachtestblot03
findsthatthenumberofuniqueresponses
tothisrandomfigurelinkstolargersized
amygdalae.Theresearchersnote,"Since
previousreportshaveindicatedthatunique
responseswereobservedathigher
frequencyintheartisticpopulationthanin
thenonartisticnormalpopulation,this
Rorschachtestblot03
positivecorrelationsuggeststhat
amygdalarenlargementinthenormal
populationmightberelatedtocreativementalactivity."[40]

Neuropsychologicalcorrelatesofamygdalaactivity [ edit ]

Earlyresearchonprimatesprovidedexplanationsastothefunctionsofthe
amygdala,aswellasabasisforfurtherresearch.Asearlyas1888,rhesus
monkeyswithalesionedtemporalcortex(includingtheamygdala)wereobserved
tohavesignificantsocialandemotionaldeficits.[41]HeinrichKlverandPaulBucy
laterexpandeduponthissameobservationbyshowingthatlargelesionstothe
anteriortemporallobeproducednoticeablechanges,includingoverreactiontoall
objects,hypoemotionality,lossoffear,hypersexuality,andhyperorality,acondition
inwhichinappropriateobjectsareplacedinthemouth.Somemonkeysalso
displayedaninabilitytorecognizefamiliarobjectsandwouldapproachanimate
andinanimateobjectsindiscriminately,exhibitingalossoffeartowardsthe
experimenters.ThisbehavioraldisorderwaslaternamedKlverBucysyndrome
accordingly,[42]andlaterresearchproveditwasspecificallyduetoamygdala
lesions.Monkeymotherswhohadamygdaladamageshowedareductionin
maternalbehaviorstowardstheirinfants,oftenphysicallyabusingorneglecting
them.[43]In1981,researchersfoundthatselectiveradiofrequencylesionsofthe
wholeamygdalacausedKlverBucysyndrome.[44]

WithadvancesinneuroimagingtechnologysuchasMRI,neuroscientistshave
madesignificantfindingsconcerningtheamygdalainthehumanbrain.Avarietyof
datashowstheamygdalahasasubstantialroleinmentalstates,andisrelatedto
manypsychologicaldisorders.Somestudieshaveshownchildrenwithanxiety
disorderstendtohaveasmallerleftamygdala.Inthemajorityofthecases,there
wasanassociationbetweenanincreaseinthesizeoftheleftamygdalawiththe
useofSSRIs(antidepressantmedication)orpsychotherapy.Theleftamygdalahas
beenlinkedtosocialanxiety,obsessiveandcompulsivedisorders,andpost
traumaticstress,aswellasmorebroadlytoseparationandgeneralanxiety.[45]Ina
2003study,subjectswithborderlinepersonalitydisordershowedsignificantly
greaterleftamygdalaactivitythannormalcontrolsubjects.Someborderline
patientsevenhaddifficultiesclassifyingneutralfacesorsawthemas
threatening.[46]Individualswithpsychopathyshowreducedautonomicresponsesto
instructedfearcuesthanotherwisehealthyindividuals.[47]In2006,researchers
observedhyperactivityintheamygdalawhenpatientswereshownthreatening
facesorconfrontedwithfrighteningsituations.Patientswithseveresocialphobia
showedacorrelationwithincreasedresponseintheamygdala.[48]Similarly,
depressedpatientsshowedexaggeratedleftamygdalaactivitywheninterpreting
emotionsforallfaces,andespeciallyforfearfulfaces.Interestingly,this
hyperactivitywasnormalizedwhenpatientswereadministeredantidepressant
medication.[49]Bycontrast,theamygdalahasbeenobservedtoresponddifferently
inpeoplewithbipolardisorder.A2003studyfoundthatadultandadolescent
bipolarpatientstendedtohaveconsiderablysmalleramygdalavolumesand
somewhatsmallerhippocampalvolumes.[50]Manystudieshavefocusedonthe
connectionsbetweentheamygdalaandautism.[51]

Studiesin2004and2006showedthatnormalsubjectsexposedtoimagesof
frightenedfacesorfacesofpeoplefromanotherracewillshowincreasedactivityof
theamygdala,evenifthatexposureissubliminal.[52][53]However,theamygdalais
notnecessaryfortheprocessingoffearrelatedstimuli,sincepersonsinwhomitis
bilaterallydamagedshowrapidreactionstofearfulfaces,evenintheabsenceofa
functionalamygdala.[54]

Recentresearchsuggeststhatparasites,inparticulartoxoplasma,formcystsinthe
brainofrats,oftentakingupresidenceintheamygdala.Thismayprovidecluesas
tohowspecificparasitesmaycontributetothedevelopmentofdisorders,including
paranoia.[55]

Futurestudieshavebeenproposedtoaddresstheroleoftheamygdalainpositive
emotions,andthewaysinwhichtheamygdalanetworkswithotherbrain
regions.[56]
Sexualorientation [ edit ]

Recentstudieshavesuggestedpossiblecorrelationsbetweenbrainstructure,
includingdifferencesinhemisphericratiosandconnectionpatternsinthe
amygdala,andsexualorientation.Homosexualmentendtoexhibitmorefeminine
patternsintheamygdalathanheterosexualmalesdo,justashomosexualfemales
tendtoshowmoremasculinepatternsintheamygdalathanheterosexualwomen
do.Itwasobservedthatamygdalaconnectionsweremorewidespreadfromtheleft
amygdalainhomosexualmales,asisalsofoundinheterosexualfemales.
Amygdalaconnectionsweremorewidespreadfromtherightamygdalain
homosexualfemales,asinheterosexualmales.[57][58]

Socialinteraction [ edit ]

Amygdalavolumecorrelatespositivelywithboththesize(thenumberofcontactsa
personhas)andthecomplexity(thenumberofdifferentgroupstowhichaperson
belongs)ofsocialnetworks.[59][60]Individualswithlargeramygdalaehadlargerand
morecomplexsocialnetworks.Theywerealsobetterabletomakeaccuratesocial
judgmentsaboutotherpersons'faces.[61]Theamygdala'sroleintheanalysisof
socialsituationsstemsspecificallyfromitsabilitytoidentifyandprocesschangesin
facialfeatures.Itdoesnot,however,processthedirectionofthegazeofthe
personbeingperceived.[62][63]

Theamygdalaisalsothoughttobeadeterminantofthelevelofaperson's
emotionalintelligence.Itisparticularlyhypothesizedthatlargeramygdalaeallow
forgreateremotionalintelligence,enablinggreatersocietalintegrationand
cooperationwithothers.[64]

Theamygdalaprocessesreactionstoviolationsconcerningpersonalspace.These
reactionsareabsentinpersonsinwhomtheamygdalaisdamagedbilaterally.[65]
Furthermore,theamygdalaisfoundtobeactivatedinfMRIwhenpeopleobserve
thatothersarephysicallyclosetothem,suchaswhenapersonbeingscanned
knowsthatanexperimenterisstandingimmediatelynexttothescanner,versus
standingatadistance.[65]

Aggression [ edit ]

Animalstudieshaveshownthatstimulatingtheamygdalaappearstoincreaseboth
sexualandaggressivebehavior.Likewise,studiesusingbrainlesionshaveshown
thatharmtotheamygdalamayproducetheoppositeeffect.Thus,itappearsthat
thispartofthebrainmayplayaroleinthedisplayandmodulationof
aggression.[66]

Fear [ edit ]

Therearecasesofhumanpatientswithfocalbilateralamygdalalesions,duetothe
raregeneticconditionUrbachWiethedisease.[67][68]Suchpatientsfailtoexhibit
fearrelatedbehaviors,leadingone,PatientS.M.,tobedubbedthe"womanwithno
fear".Thisfindingreinforcestheconclusionthattheamygdala"playsapivotalrole
intriggeringastateoffear".[69]

Alcoholismandbingedrinking [ edit ]

Theamygdalaappearstoplayaroleinbingedrinking,beingdamagedby
repeatedepisodesofintoxicationandwithdrawal.[70]Alcoholismisassociatedwith
dampenedactivationinbrainnetworksresponsibleforemotional
processing [clarificationneeded],includingtheamygdala.[71]ProteinkinaseCepsilonin
theamygdalaisimportantforregulatingbehavioralresponsestomorphine,
ethanol,andcontrollinganxietylikebehavior.Theproteinisinvolvedincontrolling
thefunctionofotherproteinsandplaysaroleindevelopmentoftheabilityto
consumealargeamountofethanol.[72][73]

Anxiety [ edit ]

Theremayalsobealinkbetweentheamygdalaandanxiety.[74]Inparticular,there
isahigherprevalenceoffemalesthatareaffectedbyanxietydisorders.Inan
experiment,degupupswereremovedfromtheirmotherbutallowedtohearher
call.Inresponse,themalesproducedincreasedserotoninreceptorsinthe
amygdalabutfemaleslostthem.Thisledtothemalesbeinglessaffectedbythe
stressfulsituation.

Theclustersoftheamygdalaareactivatedwhenanindividualexpressesfeelings
offearoraggression.Thisoccursbecausetheamygdalaistheprimarystructureof
thebrainresponsibleforfightorflightresponse.Anxietyandpanicattackscan
occurwhentheamygdalasensesenvironmentalstressorsthatstimulatefightor
flightresponse.

Theamygdalaisdirectlyassociatedwithconditionedfear.Conditionedfearisthe
frameworkusedtoexplainthebehaviorproducedwhenanoriginallyneutral
stimulusisconsistentlypairedwithastimulusthatevokesfear.Theamygdala
representsacorefearsysteminthehumanbody,whichisinvolvedinthe
expressionofconditionedfear.Fearismeasuredbychangesinautonomicactivity
includingincreasedheartrate,increasedbloodpressure,aswellasinsimple
reflexessuchasflinchingorblinking.

Thecentralnucleusoftheamygdalahasdirectcorrelationstothehypothalamus
andbrainstemareasdirectlyrelatedtofearandanxiety.Thisconnectionis
evidentfromstudiesofanimalsthathaveundergoneamygdalaeremoval.Such
studiessuggestthatanimalslackinganamygdalahavelessfearexpressionand
indulgeinnonspecieslikebehavior.Manyprojectionareasoftheamygdalaare
criticallyinvolvedinspecificsignsthatareusedtomeasurefearandanxiety.

Mammalshaveverysimilarwaysofprocessingandrespondingtodanger.
Scientistshaveobservedsimilarareasinthebrainspecificallyintheamygdala
lightinguporbecomingmoreactivewhenamammalisthreatenedorbeginningto
experienceanxiety.Similarpartsofthebrainareactivatedwhenrodentsandwhen
humansobserveadangeroussituation,theamygdalaplayingacrucialroleinthis
assessment.Byobservingtheamygdalasfunctions,peoplecandeterminewhy
onerodentmaybemuchmoreanxiousthananother.Thereisadirectrelationship
betweentheactivationoftheamygdalaandthelevelofanxietythesubjectfeels.

Feelingsofanxietystartwithacatalystanenvironmentalstimulusthatprovokes
stress.Thiscanincludevarioussmells,sights,andinternalfeelingsthatresultin
anxiety.Theamygdalareactstothisstimulibypreparingtoeitherstandandfight
ortoturnandrun.Thisresponseistriggeredbythereleaseofadrenalineintothe
bloodstream.Consequently,bloodsugarrises,becomingimmediatelyavailableto
themusclesforquickenergy.Shakingmayoccurinanattempttoreturnbloodto
therestofthebody.Abetterunderstandingoftheamygdalaanditsvarious
functionsmayleadtoanewwayoftreatingclinicalanxiety.[75]

Posttraumaticstressdisorder [ edit ]

Thereseemstobeaconnectionwiththeamygdalaeandhowthebrainprocesses
posttraumaticstressdisorder.Multiplestudieshavefoundthattheamygdalaemay
beresponsiblefortheemotionalreactionsofPTSDpatients.Onestudyin
particularfoundthatwhenPTSDpatientsareshownpicturesoffaceswithfearful
expressions,theiramygdalaetendedtohaveahigheractivationthansomeone
withoutPTSD.[76]

Bipolardisorder [ edit ]

Amygdaladysfunctionduringfaceemotionprocessingiswelldocumentedin
bipolardisorder.Individualswithbipolardisordershowedgreateramygdalaactivity
(especiallytheamygdala/medialprefrontalcortexcircuit).[77][78]

Politicalorientation [ edit ]

Amygdalasizehasbeencorrelatedwithcognitivestyleswithregardtopolitical
thinking.Astudyfoundthat"greaterliberalismwasassociatedwithincreasedgray
mattervolumeintheanteriorcingulatecortex,whereasgreaterconservatismwas
associatedwithincreasedvolumeoftherightamygdala."[79]

Seealso [ edit ]

Amygdalahijack
BELBIC
Listofregionsinthehumanbrain
Triunebrain
Intercalatedcellsoftheamygdala
Furtherreading [ edit ]

Amygdala JosephE.LeDoux,Scholarpedia,3(4):2698.
doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.2698

References [ edit ]

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3. ^ a bAmuntsK,KedoO,KindlerM,PieperhoffP,MohlbergH,ShahN,HabelU,
SchneiderF,ZillesK(2005)."Cytoarchitectonicmappingofthehumanamygdala,
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