Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp.

674678, 2004

Craters of Large-Scale Surface Explosions

V. V. Adushkin1 and B. D. Khristoforov1 UDC 550.348+5512

Translated from Fizika Goreniya i Vzryva, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 7175, NovemberDecember, 2004.
Original article submitted May 28, 2004.

Results of experimental studies of craters of chemical and nuclear surface explosions

with commensurable heights of the center of mass and TNT equivalents on soils of
different types are presented. Available databases were used, which are generally
utilized for predicting ecological consequences of natural and man-induced explosive
catastrophes, development of new methods of monitoring and identification of phe-
nomena under consideration, and their experimental and mathematical modeling.
Key words: explosion, explosion crater, databases, ecology.

INTRODUCTION The geological sections under the epicenters of ex-

The year 2004 is the 100th anniversary of
M. A. Sadovskii, an outstanding specialist in the field of
explosion physics, who was the academic leader of many
programs with the use of large-scale explosions [1]. The
results of those studies are still important because of
the natural and man-induced catastrophes, which have
become more frequent [2]. Some results of investigat-
ing parameters of craters formed by large-scale surface
explosions performed at different test sites, which were
based on available databases [3, 4], are described below.
CRATERS OF CHEMICAL
AND NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS
The data on conditions of explosions of high explo-
sives (HE) and crater sizes are summarized in Table 1.
The database [3] contains geological sections under ex-
plosion epicenters, obtained on the basis of geological
research and seismic logging. Soil Nos. 1 and 2 are
soft soils with shallow and deep bedding of rocks and
ground water, respectively; soil No. 3 is weathered frac-
tured rock with a density of 2800 kg/m3 and with
a velocity of longitudinal seismic waves of 3 km/sec;
the velocity of sound in individual blocks being equal
to 5.5 km/sec. In soil Nos. 2 and 3, the craters are
normally formed within the indicated layer of rocks.
Craters of large-scale explosions in soil No. 1 usually
include the bottom rock as well.
1
Institute of Geosphere Dynamics, Russian Academy
of Sciences, Moscow 119334; khrist@idg.chph.ras.ru.
674 0010-5082/04/4006-0674
c 2004 Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.
plosion No. 4 with a mass of 1000 tons under permafrost
conditions in soft soil No. 1 and explosion No. 6 with a
mass of 1152 tons in soft soil No. 2 with deep bedding
of rocks and ground waters are described in Tables 2
and 3. For conditions of explosion No. 6, the geologi-
cal section to a depth of 350400 m is a mixed bed of
sediments followed by rocks. The sediments are alter-
native strata of dense hardened clay, sand, sandstone,
siltstone, and cretaceous mudstone.
Figures 1 and 2 show the photograph and the typi-
cal profile of the crater formed by a surface HE explosion
with a TNT equivalent q = 5000 tons. Figure 3 shows
the crater dimensions (volume V [m3 ], radius R [m],
and depth H [m]) as functions of the parameter q in the
range 1 6 q 6 5000 tons for HE explosions on soft (Nos.
1 and 2) and firm (No. 3) soils (see Table 1). The values
of H and V of explosion No. 3, which took place in the
crater of the previous explosion, are ignored. Statisti-
cal processing of power lines of the trend yielded the
following empirical dependences of the crater volume,
radius, and depth as functions of the TNT equivalent
for different soils.
Soil Nos. 1 and 2:
V = 26.72q 0.999 , r2 = 0.963;
R = 3.36q 0.336 , r2 = 0.979;
H = 1.78q 0.316 , r2 = 0.907;
Craters of Large-Scale Surface Explosions 675

TABLE 1
Parameters of Craters of Surface HE Explosions

No. TS q, ton S R, m H, m V , m3 No. TS q, ton S R, m H, m V , m3

5 2 5000 1 55 21.4 120,000 52 2 50 3 10.8 3.4 600
6 7 1152 2 34.2 12 23,500 56 2 20 1 7.5 4.5 380
7 2 1013 2 34.4 14 25,900 55 2 15 3 6.6 2.28 140
4 1 1000 1 26.7 16.5 16 3 12 1 8
1 3 901 1 35 12 11,600 17 2 10 1 6.75 3.25 209
3 2 501 3 21 14.1 7791 18 2 10 1 7.53 3.5 308
2 2 500 3 20.9 7.9 5,540 19 2 10 1 7 4.75 304
27 2 500 3 22.5 7.5 6000 20 2 10 1 8.28 5.1 394
31 2 330 1 22.2 9.4 33 2 10 2 7.3 4 223
24 2 300 3 25.8 9.6 4470 34 2 10 2 8.8 4.4
12 2 280 2 26.7 14.1 13,100 35 2 10 2 7.35 4.53
22 2 250 1 19.3 8.5 5020 36 2 10 2 7.28 3.9 278
28 2 200 3 13.5 3.5 1250 37 2 10 2 7.02 3.03 218
30 2 155 1 17.2 8.9 38 2 10 2 7.3 3.2 203
29 2 150 2 21.3 10 6170 42 2 10 2 7 3.95
10 2 100 2 16.5 11 3150 43 2 10 3 6.85 3.25 190
11 2 100 2 17.5 10 3200 45 2 10 3 5.1 1.9 85.5
13 2 100 2 16.2 9 3565 46 7 10 2 6.8 2.5 173
14 2 100 2 17 10.8 4325 47 2 10 2 7 3.2
15 2 100 2 17.4 10.7 4430 51 2 10 3 4.9
21 2 100 1 15.2 7.2 2140 58 2 10 1 7.25 4.28
23 2 100 1 18.2 7.6 4200 49 2 5 3 5 2.5
25 7 100 2 14.2 6.62 1820 40 2 1 2 3.4 1.55
26 2 100 2 15.2 7 2600 41 2 1 2 2.75 1.3
32 2 100 1 18 6.6 3 440 44 2 1 3 3 1.3 20.7
57 2 80 1 16 7.4 48 2 1 2 3.5 1.5
39 2 50 1 11.9 5.5 940 53 2 1 3 3.65 0.86 12
50 2 50 3 10 3.85 54 2 1 3 3 0.96 12.5

Notes. R, H, and V are the crater radius, depth, and volume, counted from the free surface; No. is the
number of the explosion in the database [3], q is the TNT equivalent of the explosion, TS is the code of the
test site (2 and 7 refer to the Semipalatinsk test site), and S is the code of soil.

Soil No. 3: Here r2 is a statistical function determining the reliabil-

V = 16.40q 0.937 , 2
r = 0.973; ity of approximation of experimental data by empirical
0.335 formulas (if they coincide, r2 = 1). The data on crater
R = 2.76q , r2 = 0.958; (1)
depth are in worst agreement with the trend lines. The
0.305 2
H = 1.25q , r = 0.821; form of the formulas also depends on the range of q. In
Soil Nos. 1, 2, and 3: soft soil Nos. 1 and 2, for 1 6 q 6 100 tons, we have
V = 19.37q 1.021 , r2 = 0, 946; V = 18.86q 1.104 , r2 = 0.95;
R = 3.21q 0.336 , r2 = 0.961; R = 3.20q 0.355 , r2 = 0.973;
H = 1.49q 0.332 , r2 = 0.845. H = 1.55q 0.355 , r2 = 0.893.
676 Adushkin and Khristoforov

TABLE 2
Geological Section under the Epicenter of Explosion No. 4 (see Table 1)

Depth, m Material Density, tons/m3 c, km/sec

02 Crumbly crushed stone 1.75
26 Pebbles with gravel 1.62 2.92
67 Pebbles with gravel 1.85 1.01.1
79 Clay sand with pebbles and gravel 1.9 3.27
913 Sand
Below 13 Clay sand with pebbles and gravel

Note. c is the velocity of longitudinal seismic waves.

TABLE 3
Geological Section under the Epicenter of Explosion No. 6 (see Table 1)

Depth, m Material Density, tons/m3 c, km/sec

03 Sand; clay sand 1.6 0.20.4
320 Sandstone 1.71.8 0.7
2050 Loamy soil; clay with sand inclusions 1.81.9 1.01.1
50400 Clay; sandstone 1.92.0 2.02.1
Below 400 Slate 4.5

Fig. 1. Photograph of the surface HE explosion with a

TNT equivalent of 5000 tons.
Craters of Large-Scale Surface Explosions 677

Fig. 2. Typical profile of the crater produced by the

surface HE explosion with a TNT equivalent of 5000 tons:
the crater radius on the free surface is 55 m, the crater
radius over the ejection is 70 m, the radius of soil ejection
is 360 m, the radius of scattering of rock fragments is
1500 m, the crater depth from the free surface is 21.4 m,
and the crater volume over the free surface is 120,000 m3 ;
the charge is shown by the dashed curve.

The data of American researchers on contact ex-

plosions (q = 118 tons) in soft soil of the Nevada test
site are described by the dependences [5]
V = 26q, R = 3.6q 1/3 , H = 1.6q 1/3 , (2)
which are similar to formulas (1).
The empirical dependences of crater parameters as
functions of the TNT equivalent for 11 nuclear explo-
sions and 53 chemical explosions performed at differ-
ent sites of the Semipalatinsk test site are given be-
low. Based on the data of [3, 4], nuclear explosions Fig. 3. Crater volume, radius, and depth versus the TNT
(Fig. 4) commensurable in terms of the height of the equivalent of surface explosions: on soft soil of type Nos. 1
center of mass and TNT equivalents with HE explo- and 2 (a) and on firm soil of type No. 3.
sions were chosen (a total of 32 surface explosions were
performed).
For nuclear explosions with a TNT equivalent q functions is much less reliable in the case of nuclear ex-
= 30014,300 tons at heights of 0.52.1 m (H/q 1/3 plosions than in chemical explosions. The coefficients
= 0.020.2 m/tons1/3 ), we have in expressions for the volume, radius, and depth for
nuclear explosions are smaller than the coefficients for
V = 0.449q 1.084 , r2 = 0.808; chemical explosions by a factor of 41, 4.5, and 2.7, re-
R = 0.707q 0.389 , r2 = 0.855; (3) spectively. As the normalized height of nuclear explo-
sions H/q 1/3 decreases, the crater size increases and
H = 0.563q 0.327 , r2 = 0.754; approaches, with increasing charge depth, values typ-
for HE explosions with a TNT equivalent q ical of HE explosions, yet remaining significantly lower.
= 15000 tons, we have The dependence of the normalized volume of craters of
the nuclear explosions on the TNT equivalent in the
V = 18.57q 1.038 , r2 = 0.946; range 0.1 < H/q 1/3 < 2 (with q varied from 500 to
R = 3.17q 0.340 , r2 = 0.961; (4) 1200 tons and with the values of H varied from the
0.331 2
height of 1.067 m to a depth of 20.4 m), which were ob-
H = 1.49q , r = 0.828. tained in tests at the Nevada test site, has the following
form [5]:
V /q = 5.53(H/q 1/3 )2 + 39.83H/q 1/3 + 5.26. (5)
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
3
We have V /q = 5.26 m /ton for H = 0 and V /q
The approximation (r2 ) of the dependences of = 30.8 m3 /ton for the half-embedded charge of cast
crater parameters on the TNT equivalent by power TNT [5].
678
Fig. 4. Crater volume, radius, and depth versus the
TNT equivalent of nuclear surface explosions.
For the explosions considered, the dependences of
crater parameters on the TNT equivalent obey the prin-
ciple of geometric and energy similarity within the mea-
surement error. The influence of the force of gravity,
which can reduce the crater diameter because of the
fallout of the ejected soil back and for which R q 1/3.4
according to [5] and R q 1/3.5 according to [6], was not
observed here.
The data obtained allow one to determine the in-
fluence of the volume concentration of energy in the
source on the mechanical action and ecological conse-
quences of the explosion and can be used in operations
associated with safety of population and various objects
with allowance for the risk of natural and man-induced
catastrophes, including determination of criteria, meth-
ods, and systems of protection of potentially hazardous
objects.
CONCLUSIONS
1. A statistical analysis of experimental data on
the size of craters of chemical and nuclear surface explo-
sions with commensurable heights of the center of mass
and TNT equivalents q = 15000 and 30014,300 tons,
respectively, has been performed.
Adushkin and Khristoforov
2. It is shown that the coefficients in the depen-
dences of the crater volume, radius, and depth on the
TNT equivalent for nuclear explosions are smaller than
those for chemical explosions by a factor of 41, 4.5, and
2.7, respectively. The difference in the mechanical ac-
tion of nuclear and chemical explosions decreases with
increasing depth of explosion.
3. The dependences of crater parameters on the
TNT equivalent in large-scale surface explosions agree
with the principles of energy similarity and, within the
measurement error, are independent of the force of grav-
ity.
This work was supported by the Russian Founda-
tion for Basic Research (Grant No. 02-05-64134).
REFERENCES
1. M. A. Sadovskii, Geophysics and Physics of Explosion
[in Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1999).
2. V. V. Adushkin, V. V. Garnov, and B. D. Khristoforov,
Estimation of parameters of an emergency explosion
by comparisons with test explosions, Bezopas. Trud.
Prom., No. 4, 2832 (2001).
3. V. V. Adushkin and B. D. Khristoforov, Database on
nuclear and large-scale chemical explosions with ejection
into the atmosphere, Registered Certificate No. 2863
dated December 12, 1997 (Registered as No. 0229703124
in the State Register); Database Natural and man-
induced catastrophic phenomena such as explosions
with ejection of products into the atmosphere, Reg-
istered Certificate No. 7568 dated December 29, 2001
(Registered as No. 0220108099 in the State Register).
4. V. N. Mikhailov, V. V. Adushkin, I. A. Andryushin, et
al. (eds.), Nuclear Tests in the USSR [in Russian], Vol. 2,
IzdAT, Moscow (1997), p. 320.
5. L. J. Vortman, Craters from surface explosions and
scaling laws, J. Geophys. Res., 73, No. 14, 46214631
(1968).
6. B. A. Ivanov, The effect of gravity on crater formation:
thickness of ejecta and concentric basins, in: Proc. Lu-
nar Sci. Conf. 7th (1976), pp. 29472965.