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Assessment 4
Teach Someone with a Disability a Skill
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Emily Goode
2136610

DSRS2234
Direct Instruction
Due Date: 28th October 2015

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Learner

The individual who participated in this training consented to revealing her real name and
identity for the purpose of this assignment. The consent was given after a discussion with
the individual and her mother as well as through a signed consent form. The young
womans name is Hannah, she is 18 years old and lives at home with her mother.
Hannah lives with Down syndrome and is partially blind in one eye. Despite her
disabilities, Hannah is a very high functioning individual and is encouraged to be as
independent as possible. She is able to read, write and tell the time and often helps her
mother prepare lunch and dinner.

Goal

Hannah will be able to independently prepare and cook a meal once a week, for 3
weeks.

Skill

The skill was chosen after a person-centered discussion with Hannah and her mother,
regarding what Hannah would like to learn and what her mother believed would enhance
her childs independence. It was decided that Hannah would learn to cook a meal
independently using a recipe. The recipes that will be used to teach this skill will be from
the company Hello Fresh, as the ingredients for these recipes are delivered to
Hannahs household weekly. Learning to cook using these recipes serves as a
functional skill as Hannah needs to be able to read and understand the structure of the
Hello Fresh recipes to cook a meal at home. A functional skill is referred to as the
ability to fully perform an age appropriate skill in a typical environment (Westling &
Fox, 2009). Learning to cook a meal independently is an age appropriate skill as a
majority of individuals who are 18 and older, who do not have a disability are able to
cook and read recipes. Having the ability to cook independently will also provide her with
more choice and freedom with when and what she eats. The skill will be taught within
Hannahs home as it is a familiar environment and is where the skill will predominately
be used.
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Strategy

The strategy used to teach this skill was total task presentation. The reason this
strategy was used to teach Hannah how to cook using a recipe is because Hannah was
already familiar with cooking as she had helped her mother in the kitchen on numerous
occasions. According to Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007), forward chaining is useful
when the learner can perform many tasks in the chain, but needs to learn how to
perform them in sequence. This was true for Hannah as she was already familiar with
many of the skills required for cooking a recipe including how to turn on the oven and
chop vegetables but was not able to cook a meal independently. Cooper, Heron and
Heward (2007) suggest that total task presentation, forward chaining and backward
chaining are equally effective in teaching individuals living with disabilities necessary
skills and behaviours required for self care, vocation and independent living. However,
based on Hannahs skill set prior to the commencement of training, total task
presentation seemed to be the most appropriate strategy.

Prompts

A least to most prompting procedure was used throughout this training (Cooper, Heron &
Heward, 2007). According to Wolery, Ault, and Doyle (1992a) a least to most prompting
procedure is named as such as it begins with the least intrusive to most intrusive
prompt. This ranged from performing the steps independently without a prompt, using
gestural prompting, verbal prompting or physical prompting. On the task analysis [see
appendix] / symbolises that the learner was able to perform the task without a prompt
from the trainer, G means that the step was performed after the trainer used a gestural
prompt, V means that the trainer had to verbalise instruction and P means that the
learner required physical guidance. The learner was first given the opportunity to
perform the step independently. If the learner was unable to perform the task a gesture
was used to remind her what she needed to do. In some circumstances a verbal prompt
was required to remind Hannah of the next step in the recipe or to correct her before she
made a mistake. The trainer stood very close to Hannah during each session to ensure
that a prompt could be delivered quickly and effectively as well as to avoid mistakes
being made. If a mistake was made, such as an ingredient being spilled, the trainer said
my mistake to take responsibility for not paying enough attention to the learner. By
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saying this it ensured that the learner understood that the mistake was not her fault and
would therefore not lose motivation or feel discouraged.

Task Analysis & Data

The task analysis and data can be seen in appendix 1. A task analysis was used for
each session, as different skills were needed for each recipe.

Graph

Number of Steps Completed

Independently 45
Number of independent steps

45
40 37
35 31
30 26
23
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5
Trial Number

The graph above shows the increase in the number of steps Hannah was able to
complete independently during each training session. Each task analysis included 45
steps. During the first session Hannah completed 23 steps without a prompt, in the
second session Hannah was able to complete 26 steps independently. In the third
training session Hannah completed 31 steps without a prompt, in the forth session she
completed 37 and in her fifth and final session she was able to independently perform all
45 steps in the task analysis.

Reinforcer(s)
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Martin and Pear (2011) describe a positive reinforcer as a stimulus that is used directly
after behaviour to increase its frequency. When teaching Hannah how to cook using a
recipe, a natural reinforcer was used to motivate her to complete the skill. Hannah
enjoys cooking, loves the taste of food and has a desire to be independent, therefore the
natural reinforcer of being able to cook and eat a meal by herself motivated her to want
to learn the skill. Martin and Pear (2011) state that the ultimate goal is for the learners
behaviour to be reinforced by the natural environment. As Hannah is already motivated
by the natural reinforcer she is more likely to practice using this skill after the completion
of training.

Fading

Fading is the process of slowly removing prompts and reinforcers after a skill has been
learned or a behaviour has been established (Matt Wiley, 2012). It is important to fade
reinforcers and prompts when training so that the learner is able to perform the task
independently without relying on the trainer for support. In this circumstance it was not
necessary to fade the reinforcer as the natural reinforcer was used to motivate learning.
However, it was important to fade the prompts. The prompts were faded after each
training session by allowing more time for the learner to respond after each step. For
example, Hannah required a verbal prompt to remind her to read the recipe at first. This
prompt was faded in the following session by providing Hannah time remember what
was required of her. If Hannah could not remember this step, a gestural prompt was
used in the place of a verbal prompt. The process of allowing more for the learner to
respond and reducing the intrusion of the prompts continued until Hannah was able to
perform the task independently.

Diary
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28/9/15
Rocket and Parmesan Tagliata

The training today was quite difficult. As this was the first time the trainer met Hannah, it
was challenging to determine what her cooking capabilities were. The trainer was
informed by the learners mother and support worker that Hannah loves to cook and is
able to read, tell the time as well as operate the oven and stove. However, during this
session it was discovered that although Hannah is able to read the recipe, she struggles
with comprehension and putting the steps in order. It was also evident that there was
some confusion around some terms in the recipe, such as telling the difference between
tbsp. and tsp. as well as knowing the difference between a frying pan and a saucepan.
The kitchen was also very small and cluttered and it was therefore difficult to prepare all
ingredients prior to cooking. During the next session it will be important to gather all of
the ingredients and utensils prior to cooking rather than gathering them during, as this
will make things much less confusing for both the trainer and for Hannah.

Overall, despite the problems that occurred, Hannah was able to make a delicious meal
mostly by herself and was very happy with the result. This experience has highlighted
the importance of knowing the capabilities of the learner extremely well prior to training.

Hannah dividing the food between two plates

29/09/15
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Lime & Pepper Chicken with Quinoa

As the trainer is now familiar with the learners capabilities the training session went
smoothly. It was a lot easier to prepare for the training with a greater awareness of how
much space was available in the kitchen and what skills needed to be developed.
Despite the improved organisation of the trainer, Hannah appeared to be less interested
in todays session and thus it was difficult to keep her focused on the task. Despite this,
the quality of the food prepared seemed to increase dramatically.

Hannah demonstrating her lime and pepper chicken with

quinoa

08/10/15
Honey Sesame Chicken with Broccoli

The recipe prepared today was slightly more challenging than the meals cooked in the
previous training sessions, however Hannah was very focused and was able to perform
a large number of steps independently without prompting. It seems that Hannah is less
distracted at lunch time than at dinner time, as the session went much quicker than the
training that occurred at dinner time the previous week. Some soy sauce was spilled
during todays session however the trainer said my mistake to reassure the learner that
it was not her fault. This helped Hannah maintain focused and reminded the trainer that
she needs to stay close to the learner at all times.

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 Hannah cooked and prepared vegetables

13/10/15
Mushroom and Feta Salad

Todays session occurred at 11am and went extremely well. The recipe that was used
was very simple and Hannah remained focused throughout the entire session. It is
evident that Hannah is improving as she is now independently referring to the recipe
when she is unsure of what to do next. A majority of steps were completed
independently, which is a huge improvement from the first training session. It is also
evident that Hannah is feeling more confident and independent as she verbalised that
she is proud of the meals she has cooked and would like to cook dinner for herself and
her mother. It is very rewarding for the trainer to witness this confidence, as it is
important that Hannah understands that she is capable of cooking a meal
independently. It also helps the trainer to stay motivated and feel like she is capable of
teaching an individual with a disability a skill.

Hannah preparing the lettuce

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18/10/15
Chicken with Greek Pearl Barley

Today will be the last training session as Hannah is back at school and unable to
participate in any more training sessions before this report is submitted. However, today
Hannah showed an enormous improvement, as she was able to independently perform
all steps. The training sessions are still taking longer than it would typically take to cook
a meal however the speed can be focused on and increased after Hannah has met her
criterion. The trainer is also feeling much more confident in her abilities. During the first
session the trainer struggled to remain focused throughout the training and was easily
distracted. It was also difficult for the trainer to not interfere and do tasks for Hannah
when she was having difficulties or taking a long time to perform a step. However, by the
final session the trainer was much more patient and had increased confidence in both
her own abilities as well as Hannahs. A definite improvement of Hannahs skills was
witnessed which highlights that she is able to learn and the trainer had the ability to
teach. In this session the trainer stood close to Hannah and allowed her time to perform
each step independently. The trainer stayed focused and was not easily distracted by
outside stimuli. The skills of both Hannah and the trainer will continue to develop in
follow up sessions. The follow up sessions will ensure that the learner meets her
criterion and decreases the amount of time taken to prepare and cook a meal.

Hannah preparing chicken and dishing up pearl

barley

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Generalisation

According to Wolery, Ault and Doyle (1992b), generalisation refers to the ability to apply
the skill to a situation other than the one used in training. It is important that the learner
is able to apply the skill in all appropriate situations other than training to ensure that the
skill has really been learned (Wolery, Ault & Doyle, 1992b). In this case, generalisation
has been facilitated through cooking at different times of the day with different recipes.
Hannah is most likely to cook within her home and therefore her kitchen was the only
environment the skill was performed in. In the future Hannah may require further
training in cooking in kitchens other than her own, but for now this was not necessary.
However, it is important that she is able to cook a variety of different meals at different
times of the day. During each training session a different recipe was used. Each recipe
involved understanding both familiar and unfamiliar vocabulary as well as applying a
range of different skills. This was done to allow Hannah to become familiar with a range
of recipe terminology as well as skills that are frequently used when cooking, such as
using the oven, boiling water and using the frying pan. By using different recipes
Hannah will have the ability to read and cook any recipe that interests her, rather than
only being able to use recipes that require the use of the same or similar skills. The
training also facilitated generalisation by cooking at different times of the day. Three
sessions were cooked during lunchtime and two were at dinnertime, this allowed
Hannah to experiment making lunch and dinner and understand the differences in
quantity.

Maintenance

Maintenance refers to the ability to continue performing a skill after teaching has
stopped (Wolery, Ault & Doyle, 1992b). Hannah is likely to maintain her cooking skills,
as the reinforcement she received throughout training was natural. The most beneficial
reinforcement for Hannah was being able to eat her own food after she made it. She
also enjoyed cooking and liked the idea that having the ability to cook her own meal
would bring her much more independence. According to Wolery, Ault and Doyle
(1992b), natural reinforcement promotes maintenance of a skill, as the learner is more
likely to want to use it after the training has stopped. Wolery, Ault and Doyle (1992b)
also recommend that an individual overlearn a skill in order to facilitate maintenance.
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This can be done by continuous practice of the skill (Wolery, Ault & Doyle. 1992b). Prior
to training Hannah spent a lot of time helping her mother in the kitchen with small tasks
such as peeling potatoes and cutting vegetables, now she able to help her mother using
more advanced cooking skills, or cook a meal independently for them both.

Assistive Technology

Haynes (2013) describes assistive technology as any item that is used to improve,
maintain or increase an individual living with a disability's ability to function. Throughout
the training of Hannah, no assistive technology was used. However, if the training were
to be repeated, there are several adaptations that could be made to improve Hannahs
ability to learn. A low-tech adaptation could be to write the steps in the recipe out in
order. Hannah is a competent reader, however at times she struggles with
comprehension. By ordering the recipe into simple steps this will help Hannah to know
which task she needs to perform first and avoid confusing terminology such as
meanwhile. This will also help her to know when food needs to be taken out of the oven
or removed from heat. A high-tech adaptation could be to read the recipe off of an ipad
or tablet. Hannah is partially blind in one eye and therefore struggled to read the recipe
when not in appropriate lighting. By allowing the learner to read the recipe off of an ipad,
she would have the ability to adjust the size of the writing, brighten the screen or use
text to speech technology to listen to the instructions.

Fluency

Fluency refers to the accuracy and speed of which a task can be performed (Binder,
1996). Following the five training sessions, Hannah was able to independently cook a
meal, however her speed and accuracy could be improved. The meal that was cooked
during Hannahs final training session was a relatively simple recipe, which required
using skills that Hannah had used in previous sessions. Therefore, it is unclear whether
she would have the ability to independently cook a meal that includes more complex
instructions. More practice is required to improve Hannahs accuracy when cooking. To
increase Hannahs speed when cooking, a video self-modeling (VSM) strategy may be
used. VSM involves a learner viewing a video of his or herself performing a particular
task successfully (Buggey & Ogle, 2012). The video is typically edited in some way to
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show the learner performing at a level beyond that they already perform (Buggey &
Ogle, 2012). In Hannahs case, VSM could be used to show her a video of herself
cooking a meal quickly and without error.

Criterion

A criterion is the standard that the success of instruction can be based on (Mager,
1997). The criterion reveals whether the learner has met expectations and is able to
successfully perform the skill they have been taught (Mager, 1997). The goal for
teaching this skill was for Hannah to independently cook and prepare a meal once a
week for three weeks. The training went on for five weeks and Hannah demonstrated
significant improvement after each session. After five sessions that were around two to
three hours in length, Hannah was able to successfully cook a meal without requiring
any guidance from the trainer. However, due to time constraints, the criterion has not yet
been met. Training will continue following the submission of this report in order to
ensure that the skill is maintained and the criterion is met.

Self-Reflection

The experience of teaching an individual living with a disability a skill has been a
fantastic opportunity that has strengthened the trainers teaching skills and broadened
the knowledge of how to directly instruct people with disabilities. The importance of
knowing the learner has been emphasised throughout this experience, as it is evident
that a trainer must be aware of the learners skills prior to training in order to know what
skills need to be taught. It is also important to be aware of the learners capabilities in
order to plan for which strategies will be used to teach the skill and what prompts will be
required. The unpredictability of working with other individuals has also been
highlighted throughout this experience. During some training sessions Hannah was very
engaged and eager to start cooking, however on different occasions she was
disinterested and distracted. It is important to be aware of what engages and distracts
the learner in order to create the optimum learning environment and provide appropriate
positive reinforcements. The process of training a learner with a disability was a
challenging, yet very rewarding experience. The ability to see the learner proud of her
own achievements made the difficult training sessions extremely worthwhile.
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References

ABA Autism Training. (2012). Chapter 3 prompting. (Video). Adelaide: Matt Wiley.

Binder, C. (1996). Behavioural fluency: Evolution of a new paradigm. Behaviour Analyst,

19(2), 163 197. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2733609/
Buggy, T., & Ogle, L. (2012). Video self-modeling. Psychology in the schools, 49(1), 52
70. doi: 10.1002/pits.20618

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Behaviour chaining methods. In J.
Cooper, T. Heron, & W. Heward (Eds.). Applied behaviour analysis (pp. 442-447).
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River.: Peason/Merrill.

Haynes, S. (2013). In-service assistive technology training to support people with

intellectual and developmental disabilities: a case study. Rehabilitation Research,
Policy, and Education, 27(1), 18-31. Retrieved from
search.proquest.com.ezproxy.flinders.edu.au/docview/1346942756/abstract?accou
ntid=10910

Mager, R. F. (1997). Criterion. In R. F. Frank (Ed.). Preparing instructional objectives: a

critical tool in the development of effective instruction (109 129). Atlanta, GA.:
Center for Effective Performance.

Martin, G. & Pear, J. (2011). Getting a behaviour to occur more often with positive
reinforcement. In G. Martin, & Pear, J (Eds.). Behaviour modification: what it is and
how to do it (pp. 31 49). Boston.: Pearson Education/Allyn & Bacon.

Westling, D. L., & Fox, L. (2009). Contemporary best practices for students with severe
disabilities. In D. L. Westling , & L. Fox (Eds.). Teaching Students with Severe
Disabilities (pp. 33 36). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson.

Wolery, M., Ault, M., Jones, M., & Doyle, P. (1992a). System of least prompts
procedure. In M. Wolery, M. Ault, M. Jones, & P. Doyle (Eds.). Teaching students
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 with moderate to severe disabilities: use of response prompting strategies (pp. 91
98), White Plains, NY.: Longman.

Wolery, M., Ault, M., Jones, M., & Doyle, P. (1992b). Maintenance. In M. Wolery, M.
Ault, M. Jones, & P. Doyle (Eds.). Teaching students with moderate to severe
disabilities: use of response prompting strategies (pp. 19 21), White Plains, NY.:
Longman.

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Appendix 1

Task Analysis & Data

Training Session 1: Cooking Rocket and Parmesan Tagliata

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Training Session 2: Cooking Lime & Pepper Chicken with Quinoa

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Training Session 3: Honey Sesame Chicken with Broccoli

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Training Session 4: Mushroom and Feta Salad

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Training Session 5: Chicken with Greek Pearl Barley

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Appendix 2

Marking Sheet/Rubric

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