Results of the International Workshop on Constitutive Relations for Soils / Grenoble /6-8 September 1982

Predictions of the results of laboratory tests 3.1

on a clay using a critical state model

G.T.HOULSBY & C.P.WROTH

Oxford University, UK
D.M.WOOD
Cambridge University, UK

ABSTRACT; An elastic-plastic model for describing the stress-strain behaviour of a clay

is presented. The model is based on the Modified Cam-Clay model, but includes an
additional yield surface to model failure o f overconsolidated samples on a Hvorslev sur
face. The model is used to predict the behaviour of a kaolinite in a number of repeated
loading tests, based on the results of monotonic triaxial compression and extension
tests. Special account is taken in the model of the possibility of the clay being
unsaturated.

1 INTRODUCTION behaviour of two natural clays and of

reconstituted kaolin.
The authors were invited to participate in It is well recognised that one defi
the International workshop on Constitutive ciency of this model is that it leads to
Behaviour of SOils, to be held at Grenoble overestimates of the strengths of heaVily
in September 1982. The purpose of the Work overconsolidated clays which are better
shop was to allow a critical comparison to described by the Hvorslev failure cri
be made of various mathematical models of terion. Consequently, for this Workshop,
mechanical behaviour of soils. Carefully the Modified Cam-Clay Model was adapted
controlled laboratory tests on both recon to incorporate the Hvorslev failure
stituted clay and sand were conducted criterion. In order to avoid possible con
at the university of Karlsruhe; some of the fusion and misunderstanding this new model
test results were -proided to the is called the Roscoe-Hvorslev model. It is
participants as "input" tests for fitting fully described in a later section of this
of their models and establishment of soil paper.
properties. The remaining tests ("output" A further minor variation of the model
tests) are those for which the participants had to be introduced to allow for the con
were expected to make predictions, which sequences of the samples of clay not being
had to be compared in detail with the ex fully saturated, and being tested without
perimental data at the Workshop. back pressure. Initial perusal of the data
In view of the proven success of the con of the input tests suggested that this had
cepts of Critical State Soil Mechanics, and occurred; subsequently, it was found that
in particular the family of Cam-Clay models, the data could only be fitted well by the
to describe the data from high quality tests Roscoe-Hvorslev model (RHM) if allowance
on reconstituted clays, it was decided to was made for incomplete saturation. The
accept the invitation and to use these con method adopted to allow for partial satu
cepts as the basis of the predictions called ration is described later.
for by the organisers of the Workshop. Because it was considered that none of
A similar exercise took place at the the existing family of Critical State
Symposium on Plasticity and Generalised models adequately represents the behaviour
Stress-Strain Behaviour of Soils, held at of sand, no predictions for the output
McGill University, Montreal, in May 1980. tests on sand have been attempted.
The predictions made on that occasion, and
a full description of the assumptions made
and methods used, were given by Wroth 2 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF SOIL MODELS
Houlsby (1980). In that event the Modified
Cam-Clay model was used for predicting the The role of a mathematical model for the

99
description of soil behaviour is twofold:
firstly, as a simple quantitative framework
against which soil behaviour may be asses
sed and, secondly, as a complete quali
tative model for analysis and design. In
its first role the model is of use both in
judging the quality and consistency of
data, and in predicting the character and
trends of behaviour of a soil under a
variety of circumstances. For this purpose
the model must represent the essential
features of soil behaviour in as simple a
manner as possiOle.
A simple model is also desirable for the
second role; this is because, in a debUled
numerical calculation (such as one carried
out by means of the finite element method),
an excessively complex model may be diffi
cult to impement and expensive to use.
Very often the quality of the available
data about the actual soil from the field
will not warrant the additional precision
of calculation achieved using a complex
model. If, however, the model is to be
used for mathematical calculations, it is
important that it should be properly
founded in the theory of continuum mechan
ics and should be internally consistent.
A simple model will require few para
meters for the description of a soil, and
each of these should have a definite phys
ical significance so that an assessment can
easily be made of its importance and the
likely results of any changes in its value.
The parameters should be measurable
directly in a small number of simple tests.
Both the purpose and the limitations of
the model should be well understood. The
extensive use of one model should lead to
an understanding of its range of applica
bility and of the types of problem for
which it may be useful. The trends of
behaviour predicted by the model under
extreme conditions should be explored and
their importance assessed.
Some essential features of soil beha
viour under conditions of monotonic loading
which should be included in a model are
listed below. The importance lies not in
the fact that these features should be
included but that the model should repro
duce well-established experimentally
determined behaviour.
1 . A two (or more) phase material
(material properties must be expressed in
terms of effective stresses)
2. Both non-linear response and irre
coverable strains
3 . Plastic dilation or compression
4. Failure conditions (e.g. Mohr
Coulomb or Hvorslev)
5. The influence of consolidation history
6. Time effects (both primary consoli-
100
dation and time dependent behaviour of the
soil skeleton)
7 . Anisotropy
8. Certain well-established empirical
relationships which should be reproduced
by the model, e.g. the ratio of undrained
shear strength Cu to effective overburden
pressure 0v' may be expressed as a function
of overconsolidation ratio.
All the above features are included in
the model described below, except that:
t. Only the time effects due to primary
consolidation are considered (i.e. those
which arise through the flow of water
within the soil skeleton) , whereas creep,
secondary consolidation, aging and cemen
tation are excluded; thus the behaviour of
the soil skeleton is rate and time inde
pendent;
2 . The model is isotropiC, so that cer
tain effects due to the reversal or rota
tion of the principal stress axes are not
included.
The Roscoe-Hvorslev model was chosen for
use in the prediction workshop since it is
a development of a well-established and
understood model (the Modified Cam-Clay
model) which satisfies the general require
ments of simplicity and completeness, which
are essential for the economic solution of
real problems. The new model is suitable
for the analysis of tests on both normally
consolidated and highly overconsolidated
clays, but is not thought to be suitable
for sands.
3 THE ROSCOE-HVORSLEV MODEL
The name of the model is taken from the
two separate surfaces, the Roscoe surface
and the Hvorslev surface in (q,p' ,V) space
as described by Atkinson & Bransby (1978) .
The Roscoe-Hvorslev model (referred to
hereafter as RHM) consists of the Modified
Cam-Clay model (MCCM) (Roscoe & Burland
1968) with the additional feature of the
Hvorslev failure criterion. The latter is
a special case of the better-known Mohr
Coulomb failure criterion in which the
cohesive component of strength is not con
stant, but is an exponential function of
the current water content of the clay.
The RHM has three separate and distinct
ingredients: (i) the Modified Cam-Clay
model, (ii) the Hvorslev failure criterion
and (iii) the simulation of partial satura
tion. It is described in this sequence in
the three following sections of the paper.
3 . 1 The Modified cam-Clay model
The theory of perfect plasticity is fOunded
on the hypothesis that, during plastic
deformation of a material, the strain
increments are functions of the absolute
stresses. The theory evolved from careful
observations of the behaviour of ductile
metals whose response to loading is typi
fied by an initial phase of elastic,
recoverable deformation until a yield
condition is reached; after yield, a of hysteresis) until at point E it experi
second phase of behaviour occurs which is
a combination of elastic and plastic
irrecoverable deformation. In general,
plastic deformations are greater by an
order of magnitude than the accompanying
elastic ones.
The study of a typical stress-strain
curve for a soil in which the stress is
cycled one or more times, for example,
one-dimensional consolidation test on a
clay, reveals qualitatively similar
behaviour. However, there is one essential
difference and that is that soils, as
opposed to metals, experience irrecoverable
volumetric as well as irrecoverable shear
strains. The classical theory of plasticity
developed for describing the large strain
response of ductile metals, has had to be
extended to account for plastic volumetric
strains in order to become applicable to
soils.
Making use of this analogy with metal
behaviour, and coupled with the experimen
tal evidence for a critical state for
deforming soil, a family of elasto-plastiC
stress-strain models has been developed at
Cambridge. One such model, known as Modi
fied Cam-Clay, initially proposed by
Burland (1967) has been used extensively
in finite element computations. A qualita
tive description of this model follows,
and the mathematical details are provided
in Appendix A.
In detail, the typical behaviour of a
soil specimen in a triaxial compression
test can be characterised by the curve of
p'
F
DB
C
E -v
(0)
Beh'aviour in shear
Fig.i. Typical behaviour of soil specimen in consolidation and shear tests
Fig.l(a). If the speCimen is loaded along
the path OA and then unloaded along ABC,
the path ABC can be approximated as elas
tic behaviour, with the strain represented
by OC being a permanent, irrecoverable
plastic strain denoted by P. On reloading,
the speCimen behaves essentially elastic
ally along CDE (displaying a small amount
ences the previous maximum deviator stress;
it yields and undergoes further plastic
the strain. Point F denotes failure (a unique
condition for this particular test) ;
failUre must be distinguished from yield
which is a progressive phenomenon and
which may occur at any point along the
primary loading curve OAEF,depending upon
a the exact loading sequence followed in the
test.
Analogous behaviour will be displayed by
a soil specimen if tested in a consolido
meter, as shown in Fig.1{b), which is an
unconventio'nal plot of effective pressure
against specific volume (V) (V: 1 +e, wher.e
e is the voids ratio). If this diagram is
rotated clockwise through 900 to give
Fig.l(c), the more usual plot of consoli
dation is obtained.
It should be realised that for a speci
men that is in the overconsolidated state,
represented by point C in Fig.i(cl, its
preconsolidation pressure p, given by
point A, is the current yield stress for
further consolidation; it is the pressure
at which further plastic volumetric strains
begin to occur,
Now consider a soil specimen that has
been isotropically normally consolidated
(with 0i: O2 = o;l to point A in Fig.2(a),
and then allowed to swell isotropically to
some state along the unloading curve ABC.
If the specimen were then subjected to a
variety of different effective stress
paths, it is assumed that there would be a
well-defined region of stress states for
v
p'
p;
I b) Ie)
Behaviour in consolidation
101
 which the specimen would remain elastic.
v
(The stress variables used for representing

i(O'i+o;+o;)
the data of triaxial tests are the mean
normal effective stress p ' = and
deviator stress q" oi-3, The corresponding

1+2+3
strain variables are the volumetric strain

(1-3)')
v,. and the deviatoric strain [: =

This region is bounded by a

yield curve. If the stresses applied to the
specimen take its state outside the curr
yield curve, it will yield and experience
both plastic volumetric and plastic shear
strains.
Consider a second specimen that has been
' normally consolidated to G and then aLWMed
p
lal to swell to some point on the unloading
curve GHI. Associated with this specimen is
a larger yield curve, Fig.2(b), but one
Direction
that has in practice approximately the
of plastic

strain
shape as that for the first specimen.
q,f:P incre..ent The sizes of the yield curves are dicta
vector ted by the points A and G, which lie on the
0 .p
v.,
normal isotropic consolidation curve. The
choice of yield curve appropriate for any
specimen depends on the maximum consoli
dation pressure (i.e. the pre-consolidatmn

J pressure, pc)'
The shape of the yield curve, Fig.3(a),
Elastic is assumed to be elliptical; this choice is
based on considerations of energy dissi

, 'p
pated plastically within the specimen
c B A G p,V (Roscoe & Burland 1968; Soulsby 1981). One

Ibl semi-axis of the ellipse SA is fixed by the

consolidation history relevant to the
specimen. The other semi-axis BXl is given
Fig.2. Yield curves for specimens with by the assumption that the point Xl is on
different consolidation histories the line of critical states q = Mp', of
failure states of normally consolidated
specimens. The critical state line is
assumed to be parallel to the normal con
solidation line in the logarithmic plot of
Fig.3(b).

Failure line Failure line

ICritical states) tnV (Critical states)
q

V,r
x,
Yield
/1 surface
/ ,
/ 1

Gradient-X
/ I
/

o 8 A p' p':' .tn p'

p;
10) Ib)

Fig.3. Details of yield surface for Modified cam-Clay model

102
 As shown in Fig. 3(b), both consolidation elastic incremental bulk modulus, derived
and swelling lines are considered as from the local gradient of the swelling
straight in tn V - tn p' space. This repre line, can be written
sents a very minor alteration of the model
K "" p'/K*. . (1)
from previously published descriptions of
Modified Cam-Clay, for which the lines The elastic shear response is specified by
were taken as straight in V - tn p' space. assuming a constant shear modulus, G, since
Consequences of the changes are: any assumption of variation of G with
1 . The numerical values of the parameters pressure can result in a model which is
A* and K* (see below) are reduced by a thermodynamically unacceptable.
factor approximately equal to V from the Now" suppose the state of stress experi
original parameters A and K; enced by tHe specimen is at point J in
2. The bulk modulus becomes truly pro Fig.2(b) close to the relevant yield curve.
portional to pressure rather than depending If the stress increment JKL is applied to
also upon specific volume (see Appendix A); the spe Cimen, the increment JK will cause
3. Evidence in support of this change is elastic strain increments only, whereas
given by Butterfield (1979), and a further the increment KL will cause both elastic
advantage is a slight simplification of the and plastic strain increments. As the
mathematics of the model. For a specimen specimen yields at K, the yield curve is
undergoing small strains the new version expanded as the specimen undergoes consoli
of the model is identical to the old one. dation. The plastic volumetric strain
The complete description of the model increment that occurs from K to L is given
requires five parameters to specify the by a hardening law,
shape and size of the yield locus for a
soil specimen at a given pressure and p'c
; ;
(;\* - K*) (2)
specific volume, as well as the elastic P'
c
properties of the material. The parameters
are:
1. A*, the gradient of the consolidation
line in tn V - tn p' space. This is related
v
directly to the conventional compression
index Cd for a remoulded material by
A* Cc'/(2.303V);
2. K*, the gradient of the swelling line,
similarly related to the swelling index
CS' by K*=Cs/(2. 303V);
3. M, the gradient of the critical state
line in q - p' space. This is related to the
angle of shearing resistance ,' CV of a
normally consolidated clay by
M" 6 sin ,' cv /() - sin .' CV);
4. G, the elastic shear modulus, taken
to be constant;
p'
(a)
5. r.
The last parameter r is required solely
to locate either the critical state line
or the isotropic normal consolidation line
in Fig.)(b); it is the voids ratio on the
critical state line for which p' has unit q
value. It is in some ways analogous to the
liquid limit (see Schofield & Wroth 1968)
and increases markedly with the plasticity
Applied (total)
index of the clay being considered.
The elastic behaviour of the specimen for
stress path
stress states within the current yield
locus is assumed to be isotropic, but with
the bulk modulus directly dependent upon
the current mean stress p'. This latter
feature is a consequence of the volumetric
strains associated with the swelling and p'
recompression lines AXl and GXz in Fig.3(b). (b)
Simple calculation shows that for a Fig.4. Stress paths for conventional
specimen experiencing a pressure p' the undrained triaxial compression test

103
which is derived from the normal consoli
dation line,
(3)
(The dot notation of plasticity theory has
been adopted to indicate a small (time
independent) increment.) The details of
this derivation are not given here but can
be found in Schofield & wroth (196B). The
important point is that no additional soil
parameter is required.
The flow rule governing the ratio of the
plastic strain increments is given by the
condition of normality. This condition
stipulates that if the associated plastic
strain increments y P and P are plotted on
the same axes as the stresses in Fig.2(b),
the vector KM of plastic strain increment
is normal to the yield curve at K. The
gradient o the curve at K is known from
its elliptical shape, so that the ratio
yp/iP can be calculated and, since vP is
already established (from the hardening
law), iP can be evaluated.
Consider now a specimen undergoing a
conventional undrained triaxial compression
test, with initial state as shown by point
A in Fig.4. The condition of the test is
such that the total volume must stay con
stant, i.e. that the path in Fig.4(a)
coincides with a line of constant voids
ratio, that is, constant specific volume.
The initial response of the specimen must
be elastic as the point A lies within the
current yield curve, Fig.4(b). Thee can
be no change of p' during elastic defor
mation as the point A in Fig.4(a) is con
strained to lie on both the elastic swel
ling line and the constant voids ratio
line. When the effective stress path
reaches the point B, the specimen yields.
Beyond this point, both plastic and elas
tic volumetric strains occur, of equal
magnitude but opposite sign so as to main
tain the total volume constant. The ratio
of the plastic volume change to the
plastic shear strain is calculated as
before, and the test proceeds to failure
at point D. The effective stress path ABeD
is as shown in Fig.4{b). The total stress
path for a triaxial compression test (with
constant cell pressure) is given by AE.
The pore pressure at any stage of the test
is simply the difference in mean stress
between the two curves, as shown in
Fig.4(b) .
This model successfully reproduces the
major deformation characteristics of soft
clay, and is expressed in terms of effec
tive stress allowing prediction to be made
of pore pressures in undrained tests.
104
3.2 Hvorslev's failure criterion
The classic tests carried out by Hvorslev
in the mid-1930's consisted of stress con
trolled direct shear tests on two recon
stituted clays. His results and findings
were published in 1937 in his doctoral
thesis in German, and published in English
many years later (Hvorslev 1969).
His failure criterion has been confirmed
since for strain controlled triaxial tests
on clays by other workers, e.g. data
presented by Parry (1960), as interpreted
by Schofield & Wroth (196B). The criterion
will be discussed in this paper in terms
of triaxial test data, and is presented
diagrammatically in Fig.5.
In Figs 5(a) and 5(b), the conditions at
failure are plotted in terms of the vari
ables qf, P'f and vf. Hvorslev showed that
for a set of speCimens which failed at the
same value of water content (i.e. the same
specific volume for a saturated clay) the
locus of failure points was a straight
line such as AIBICI or A2B2C2 in Fig.5(a).
Further, he showed that the end points of
these lines, C1, Cz . . . lay on a straight
line passing through the origin, which is
now recognised as the Critical State Line.
He defined the "equivalent pressure" P'e
as the pressure on the normal consolidation
line corresponding to the current water
content of the specimen in question
(point E in Fig.5{b) for states AI' Bl
I
and C ). By normalising the results by
I
means of the equivalent pressure he pro
duced the simple unique failure criterion
illustrated in Fig.5(c).
This failure criterion is a special and
subtle version of the widely-used Mohr
Coulomb failure criterion. The essential
difference is that the cohesive component
of strength is seen to be a simple explicit
function (exponential) of the current water
content and not a constant as usually
assumed.
The elliptical yield loci of the HOCM
are associated with swelling curves as
shown in Figs 5(d) and 5(e). For a set of
spec!mens which fail so that their speCi
fic volumes V f lie along a swelling curve
such as DFG 1n Fig.5(e) the locus of their
failure states (q f, P'f) will be the curved
line shown in Fig.5{d) which lies between
the critical state line and the elliptical
yield locus. The surface in (q ,p',V) space
containing the failure states A,B,C,D,F,G
is known as the Hvorslev surface, and that
formed by the right-hand part of the
elliptical yield locus GHI is termed the
Roscoe surface.
 Hvorslev Roscoe
surface / surface

i
p p'
(0) (d)

o
F

p'

p' p'
(b) (e)

q
pr
,
p. C
c

~ /
/

/
,- I
i
p' p
(c I p' (f) p

Fig.5. Hvorslev's failure criterion

The gently curving I1ne DFG has a
relatively complex algebraic form,
a first attempt to incorporate the
Bvorslev criterion into the family of
Cam-Clay models, it has been assumed for
simplicity to be straight. Furthermore,
for convenience, normalisation has been
and as done by means of the isotropic preconsoll
dation pressure P'e rather than by the
equivalent (one-dimenalonal) pressure p'e.
which affects the arithmetic but not the
principle involved. The result of these

105
assumptions iil the reduced form of
Fig.S(f)
Because Hvorslev's original tests were
stress-controlled he studied conditions at
failure and he could not study post-peak
behaviour. This is now possible with
strain-controlled triaxial tests. Suppose
a drained test with mean normal effective
stress p' kept constant is conducted on an
overconsolidated specimen with initial
state at L in Fig.G. The response of the
specimen is expected to be of the form
given in the diagram with a quasi-elastic
stage LM, failure observed at M, and sub
sequent work-softening as the specimen
dilates, sucks in water and approaches a
critical state condition at N.
The post-peak behaviour MN causes real
difficulties both experimentally and numeri
cally. The specimen is almost certain to
behave non-homogeneously and to develop a
q q
/
'1/
i
L p
(0 )
p'
(c)
Fig.G. Post-peak behaviour of clay in drained triaxial test
106
narrow rupture zone undergoing intense
shear (and softening) while the surrounding
clay marginally unloads elastically. This
form of behaviour has been discussed more
fully by Schofield & Wroth (196B B.S).
On the macroscopic scale the dilation
and increase in water content (or specific
volume) of the saturated specimen which
occurs in the rupture zone will not be
observed at the boundaries of the specimen.
In order to represent this phenomenon in a
realistic and simple way, the microscopic
softening is neglected. The consequence is
that the specimen is simulated as having
an elastic, perfectly plastic response PQR,
as illustrated in Fig.7(b). This means that
the Hvorslev failure surface is being
treated as a yield surface with a non
associated flow rule.
In reality, this simplification means
that the post-peak drop in strength is
N
II
L
(b)
 Non-associated
q \:wru: q

....,.-- R

y
e:
p p p' p

(a) ( b)
Fig.? Assumed Roscoe-Hvorslev yield surface

being ignored. Should the introduction of until the pore pressure parameter B equals
the Hvorslev failUre surface prove to be a unity. It was evident from careful scrutiny
useful development 1n modelling soil beha of the input test data that some of the
viour, but this deficiency turns out to be specimens of clay were not fully saturated.
important. then it would be possible to In order to model these data, a simple
adopt a different flow-rule which allows method had to be devised to simulate the
dilation with a consequent amount of sof effects of incomplete saturation. The
tening as the specimen approaches the problem only arises in simulating the
critical state. behaviour of soils in conventional undrai
The introduction of the Hvorslev surface ned tests, because the increased compres
(taken as straight in the section shown 1n sibility of the pore fluid will have no
Flg.6(f requires only one additional effect on a fully-drained test .

parameter for complete specification of In the undrained tests (without back

the model. This is because the critical
state line forms the outer edge of the
surface; in Flq.7(a) the point X which is
the crown of the ellipse forming the HOC
yield surface establishes the poSition of
the end of the straight line forming the
section of the Hvorslev surface. The addi
tional parameter chosen is the positive
(dimensionless) constant a, where the
abscissa of point Yin Fig.7(a) is given
by -ap'x, or by -llp'c/2.
3.3 Incomplete saturation
Many natural clays are not fully saturated
having gas present in the pore fluid.
if the gas is mostly dissolved in the pore
water, the pore water will be relatively
compressible, and it cannot be assumed to
be incompressible in comparison with the
soil skeleton (as is usual for a saturated
soil). For such a case, an undrained test
when no pore fluid is allowed to cross the
boundary of the specimen is not synonymous
with a constant volume test.
It is difficult in preparing specimens
of reconstituted clay to ensure full satu
ration, and the only guarantee of achieving
it is to apply sufficient back pressure,
pressure) each specimen was assumed at
first to behave as fully drained. Speci
mens subjected to triaxial compression, or
which yield at low overconsolidation ra
in triaxial extension, undergo compressive
volumetric strains. At a certain compres
sive strain, Vsat, it was assumed that all
gas bubbles within the specimen were com
pressed to zero volume and the sample was
then assumed to behave in the usual un
drained manner undergoing zero volumetric
strain.
In the absence of back pressure it would
be expected that the bubbles might reappear
when the pore pressure falls to a low
value. This value was arbitrarily set as
Even atmospheric pressure, so that whenever the
lateral total stress becomes equal to the
cell pressure it is again assumed that the
sample behaves as fully drained, i.e. it
is assumed that the sample can develop
only positive, never negative, pore pres
sures with respect to atmospheric.
The above procedure attributes zero
stiffness to any bubbles in the pore water,
treating them as infinitely compressible
until a sudden point at which they are
reduced to zero volume, and the pore fluid
can be taken as incompressible.

107
4 SELECTION OF MATERIAL PARAMETERS ship between 1n V and 1n p' is approxi
mately linear for any constant stress ratio
The Roscoe-Hvorslev model used in this path, and that the gradient is independent
prediction exercise involves six material of the stress ratio. The gradient of this
parameters, each of which has a clear line is termed }.* (cf. the use of ). for the
physical meaning. In this section each of gradient in V - 1n p' space).
these parameters is defined, its physical The value of }.* may be obtained from that
significance noted and the means for part of a consolidation test which exceeds
determining it described. the initial preconsolidation pressure. The
most readily available tests are usually
one-dimensional oedometer tests, in which
4.1 The Critical State stress ratio M V and "v are measured. For a normally
consolidated material it is found that Ko
The concept of Critical States is central (the coefficient of earth pressure at rest)
to the model. The critical state is is reasonably constant, so that the gra
approached asymptotically by a normally dient in 1n V - 1n "v space is the same as
consolidated or lightly overconsolidated that in 1n V - 1n p' space.
'
sample as it is sheared monotonically, and Plots of test 2 in 1n V - 2.n 0l space and
represents a state in which the soil can test 3 in 1n V - 1n p' space were therefore
be sheared indefinitely with no further used to determine }.*, with a value of
change of effective stresses or specific 0.1225 being chosen. This value is reason
volume. It is found empirically that, at able for a clay, with values in the range
the critical state, the stress ratio q!p' 0.01-0.2 being common. The lower values
is essentially independent of p', and apply to less compressible, siltier
this critical state stress ratio is deno materials.
ted by M (capital ).
The value of M is sometimes found to
differ between triaxial compression and 4.3 The gradient of swelling lines K*
extension tests, and this effect could be
incorporated within the model by adopting The gradient of swelling and reconsoli
a non-circular generalisation of the yield dation lines is also found to be approxi
locus in the octahedral plane. For sim mately constant in i.n V - 1n p' space for
plicity a circular generalisation (i.e. samples subjected to constant stress ratio
equ al M in compression and extension) is paths, and this gradient is denoted by K*
adopted here. (cf. the use of K for the slope in V - i.n p'
The value of M is most easily deter space).
mined by plotting the stress paths of Since Ko is not constant for overconsoli
shear tests on normally consolidated dated samples, but varies with OCR, it
samples in p'-q space and determining the follows that p' is not a constant multiple
stress ratio at the end of the test (i.e. of "v during rebound and that K* cannot
at very large strain). Adopting this pro be obtained directly from the slope of a
cedure for tests 1.1 and 1.2 yields a i.n V - 1n "v plot from an oedometer test.
value. 0.74 in compression and 0.78 in
of The variation of Ko with OCR is not
extension. The value of 0.74 has been used usually known for any particular clay, so
for all predictions, which is a fairly it is necessary to use the gradient of the
typical value for M, which usually falls 1n V - i.n OJ line to determine K*. The data
in the range 0.7-1.2. The value of M is from test 3 are typical, showing some hys
directly related to an angle of friction teresis, and a value of K* of 0.0165 was
at constant volume ' e,g. for triaxUU chosen.
,'cv
compression Tfle ratio of K*!}.* is therefore 0.135.
This value is occasionally as high as 0.3
6 sin , 'cv
and may be as small as 0.05 for sensitive
M (4)
3 - sin ,'cv clays.
The elastic bulk modulus may be calcu
Thus, M of 0.74 corresponds to "cv of lated as proportional to pressure and equal
19.2. to p'!K*.

4.2 The gradient of normal consolidation 4.4 The shear modulus G

lines }.*
It is well known that the shear modulus of
It is observed empirically that for a a soil varies with the mean effective
normally consolidated clay the relation- stress, and also with the preconsolidation

108
pressure. Introducing a variation of G
with pressure results, however, in non
conservative elasticity if the bulk modu
lus does not depend on shear stress. Simi
larly, the introduction of G dependent on
Pc means that the model becomes one of
coupled elastic-plastic behaviour, which
is considerably more complicated than
uncoupled plasticity. A constant shear
modulus is therefore used in the model for
simplicity.
The value of the shear modulus was
chosen from the gradient of the first few
loading increments on overconsolidated
samples. It is obtained by plotting the
tests in -q space, with the gradient
being equal to 3 G. A value of 7000 kN/ml
was chosen. This may be compared with the
correlation G; 75 C u suggested by Wroth et
al. (1979) ; taking a typical test (input
test 1.1) with Cu 90 kNfm1 would indi
= in Fig.a. The effective stress path is
cate G of the order of 6750 kN fm' . For the
tests at lower pressures, a lower value of
G might be more appropriate, and for very
small values of shear strain a higher
value of G should be used.
4.5 Critical specific volume at unit
pressure r
One parameter is needed to locate the iso
tropic normal consolidation line, or the
critical state line in v-p' space; this is
usually chosen to be the specific volume
on the critical state line corresponding
to unit pressure 1 kN/m1, and denoted by
r (capital gamma) .
It is only required if absolute values
of specific volume (or water content) are
needed. In this exercise the volumetric
strains (related to the differences of
specific volume) are asked for, so that
the value of r is irrelevant and it has
not been determined.
4.6 Hvorslev surface intercept a assumed to apply to all the tests was
Those samples with an OCR greater than 2
or so (the exact value will depend on the
type of test chosen to bring the sample to
failure) will be expected to fail in a
brittle manner on the Hvorslev surface.
Since the surface is chosen to pass through
the point (Pef2, MPe/2) in p ' -q space it
'is only necessary to determine one para
meter in order to locate the surface.
This is conveniently taken as a (see
Fig.7(a where the surface is described
by:
M a
q -- (p' + apc'/2).
1+a
Substituting the values of p', q, Pc and M
for the failure points of tests 1.4.2 and
1.4.4 results in a value of a=0.141,
which compares well with data for other
clays.
5 EVIDENCE OF INCOMPLETE SATURATION
At the start of the exercise of fitting
the input data to the Roscoe-Hvorslev
model, the first event was to plot the
results of the consolidation tests in the
conventional manner, and the results of
the triaxial tests in terms of the vari
ables p', q, V and .
The results of input test 1.1, which is
an undrained triaxial compression test on
an isotropically normally consolidated
sample, are plotted as individual crosses
evident in Fig.a{a) . All evidence from
other undrained tests on saturated samples
of clay is that the effective stress path
curves to the left immediately at the
start of the test at point A. If, however,
the sample behaves initially as though it
were drained, it would have an effective
stress path (in a conventional test with
constant cell pressure) of gradient 3. It
is considered to be most significant that
the path is initially at gradient 3 from
A to B, and at B it undergoes a marked
change to the curved path BCD, as positive
excess pore-pressures develop. It was on
the basis of this evidence that it was
believed that the test could not have been
conducted with back pressure, and that the
sample in question was not fully saturated.
Similar evidence from the other input tests
was observed and two other examples are
shown in Figs 9 and 10. consequently
enquiries were made at that time (March
1982) and it was confirmed that back pres
sures had not been used in the series of
input tests.
The single set of basic soil properties
selected as described in section 4 and
Table 1. Selected values of soil proper
ties for Roscoe-Hvorslev model.
M Critical state stress ratio 0.74
" Gradient of normal consoli-
dation line 0.1225
. ' Gradient of swelling line 0.0165
G Shear modulus 7000 kN/m1
r Critical specific volume
at unit pressure Undetermined
Hvorslev surface intercept 0.141
(5)
109
q kN/m2 q kN/m2
300 300

200 200 o
o-.....

100
B

o 100 200 300 500 o 10 ,

p'kN/m2
10) Ibl
Fig.B. Input test 1.1

listed in Table 1. For each of the input For input test 1.1 (Fig.S) the value of
triaxial tests the value of the partial Vsat was 0.012, i.e. 1.2% compressive
saturation parameter Vsat was chosen on a volumetric strain was allowed to occur
trial and error basis to provide the best before the sample was assumed to become
fit to the data. These values are included effectively saturated and thereafter
in Table 2. behave in an undrained (constant volume)
manner. In Fig.S the continuous line rep
resents the results computed for the test,
Table 2. Initial states of input tests
which provide a very close fit to the
experimental data points. The part AB of
Test 1.1 1.2 1. 4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4
the effective stress path, in Fig.8(a), of
gradient 3 is the drained response of the
PC: kN/m' 400 400 301 68 101 22
sample (which yields at A and is always
Pel kN/m' 400 400 600 600 200 200
behaving plastically); at B a total com
Vsat .012 .03 .0025 .0055 .0017 .006
pressive volumetric strain of 1.2% has

q kN/m' q kN/m2
300 300

H
G G__-- ----------H
----

200 200

100 100

E
o 200 o 10 ,
p'kN/m2
10) Ib)

Fig.9. Input test 1.4.1

110
occurred whereupon the sample is modelled The results are displayed in Fig.lO; IJ
by the undrained path BCD, asymptotically represents the elastic drained phase, JK
reaching the critical state 0 after infi the elastic undrained phase, and K repre
nite shear strain. Note that in Fig.B(b) sents the state at which the stresses
the computed result shows a small increase reach the Hvorslev failure surface. There
in stiffness at B when the abrupt change after the sample is assumed to behave
from drained to undrained behaviour is perfectly plastically K to L. It should be
assumed to occur. For a fuller discussion remembered that the Hvorslev surface has
of the problem of unsaturation, see been selected to go through the failure
Appendix B. (i.e. the peak) point, so that the computed
Input test 1.4.1 is an undrained test on result for K in Fig.lO(a) does not repre
a sample with an initial isotropic over sent a match but a fit of the experimental
consolidation ratio of 2, shown in Fig.9. data.
The value of V sat adopted was 0.25\, which
corresponds to the volumetric strain ex
5.1 Summary of input tests
perienced by the sample during the initial
drained phase from E to F. This phase is Each test was analysed as fully saturated
entirely within the yield surface so there throughout, and also as partially satur
is zero plastic volumetric strain, and the ated by an amount to give the best fit.
total volumetric strain consists solely of The optimum values of vsat are listed
the elastic component. in Table 3.
At point F the sample becomes "saturate:j"
and behaves in an undrained manner. The
Table 3. Optimum values of parameter repre
effective stress state is still within the
senting partial saturation in input tests
yield locus, so that the sample is assumed
to behave in an (isotropic) elastic manner
Optimum
with the consequence that p ' remains con Test
Vsat
stant and the effective stress path FG is
parallel to the q-axis. At point G, the
1.1 400 400 0.012 0.16
stress state reaches the Roscoe yield sur
1.2 400 400 0.03 -0.1
face, the sample yields and approaches the
1.3 400 400 0.01 3 cycles
critical state at H. In this case the
0.007 ++ - 0.0064
general character of the stress path is
1.4.1 300 600 0.0025 0.16
well represented, but the stress-strain
1.4.2 68 600 0.0055 0.16
curve EFGH in Fig.9(b) is a poor match to
1.4.3 101 200" 0.0017 0.16
the experimental data.
1.4.4 22 200 0.006 0.16
Input test 1.4.2 was on a heavily over
consolidated sample with OCR"' B.B. The Better fit with Pc s 525 .
value of Vsat was also very small (0.55\). Better fit with Pc' = 175.

2 2
q kN/m q kN/m
100 100

K,L K

J


J . .

50 so

o 50 2 100 o 10 ,
p'kN/m
10) Ib)

Fig.10. Input test 1.4.2

111
6 OUTPUT TESTS toct kN/m 2

Having established the importance and in

fluence of the incomplete saturation of the
clay samples of the input tests, a major
problem arises in making predictions for
the output tests as the degree of partial
saturation of each sample (which will
almost certainly vary, as was the case of
the input tests) is unknown and unspecified.
It was decided to make predictions for

E,
the two following cases for each output
test, (a) full saturation, and (b) incom
0015
plete saturation, with a value of Vsat B
0.01. This figure was chosen as a round
number close to the average of the optimum
values found for the input tests.
The predictions are given in the form of
plots as specified in the following Figs
11-24.

6. t Summary of output tests

Fig.tt. Predicted results: test 1.1

Each was modelled as fully saturated
fully saturated
throughout and also as partially saturated
with Vsat O.Ot (i.e. experiencing a total
compressive volumetric strain of 1% before
becoming fully saturated). test is a shear test at constant volume.
The test conditions are listed in None of the input tests provides adequate
Table 4. information about the shape of the yield
No predictions are made for output test locus very close to the origin. Tests in
2.0 since the details specifying the test
were inadequate. It is thought that since
this output test is referred to as corres
ponding to input test 3.0, it involved an
initial stress condition of approximately
zero. However, unlike input test 3.0,
which is essentially a consolidation test
p'kN/m2
at fixed strain rate ratio (and hence 500
would be expected, and is observed, to
follow a constant stress ratio path), this

Table 4. Conditions of output tests

'
Pc
Test Selected test conditions
!tN/m'

1.1 .00 .00 25 cycles of strain

from O . O t to- 0.01
1
1.2.1 .00 '00 64 cycles of shear stress 200
q from + 59 to - 64 kN/m2
1.2.2 '00 '00 6' cycles of shear stress
q from + 80 to - 90 kN/m2
1. 2. 3 .00 .00 6. cycles of shear stress 100
q from +100 to -122 kN/m'
1.3 300 600 Extension test to
=- 0.15 E,

-001 o 0005 001 0015

Notes: II) For an undained test: =: '
1
3 Fig.12. Predicted results: test 1. 1
(2) q 7iToct
fully saturated

112

E"
00'

002

E,
I I
(){)05 (){)1 0015
0 1\ \ 'og N
'0 100

-002

Fig.!3. Predicted results: test 1.1 Fig.IS. Predicted results: test 1.2.1
unsaturated fully saturated

p' kNlm'

E"

004

0-02

200 0 tc ====
10
'==
=+== +===+===
100
1 logN

E, -(}04
-001 o 0005 001 0015

Fig.14. Predicted results: test 1.1 Fig.16. Predicted results: test 1.2.1
unsaturated unsaturated

113

'"

'"
004

O'+===========-
10 100
logN

-002 -002

- 00L.

Fig.!? Predicted results: test 1.2.2 Flg.19. predicted results: test 1.2.3
fully saturated fully saturated

'OE
'"
004 0-01.

0 f=
======
==
10
=F===F==
KXl
logN

-002

-(}04 - 0-04

Fig.lS. Predicted results: test 1.2.2 Fig.20. Predicted results: test 1.2.3
unsaturated unsaturated

114
 ,
toct kN/m ,
"rod kN/m
150 150

100 100

50 50

01+---------1_-- ., 0 +---------1_-- .,
005 01 015 005 01 015

Fig.21. Predicted results: test 1.3 Fig.23. Predicted results: test 1.3
fully saturated unsaturated

' '
p kN/m ' 2
p kN/m
1.00
400

200 200

o,+-------+--- ., 0' +------+--< .,

005 01 015 005 01 015

Flg.22. Predicted results: test 1.3 Fig.24. Predicted results: test 1.3
fully saturated unsaturated

115
this region of stress space are difficult The model makes use o f isotropiC harden
to carry out and little information about ing, with the parameter Pc' which estab
t h e general b ehaviour o f clays in this lishes t h e size of the above lo ci being
region is available. linked to the plastiC volumetric strain.
It is certainly not sensible to extra The relationship is most conveniently
polate t h e elliptical yield locus (princi given in incremental form:
pally valid on the " wet" side of critical)
P '
or the Hvorslev surface to points close to c
().*-K*)' (A3)
the origin. There is some evidence that at Pc
very low effective stress l evels t h e
strength o f t h e clay is determined b y ten Plastic potentials may b e defined for
sile cracking, when zero no rmal effective the model. For the Roscoe surface the flow
stress occurs on any plane. rule is associated so that the plastic
If the test do es indeed start at virtu potential i s :
ally zero mean normal stress and precon
solidation pressure then t h e only predic (A4)
tion that can be made is that all stresses
will remain virtually z ero throughout this For t h e Hvorslev surface a non-associated
test. This result would, however, be very flow rule with z ero dilation is used, so
sensitive to the exact ratio between t h e that the plastic potential is given by:
strains,
constant
and any minute variation from
volume could result in any of a
q -q
c :: 0 (A5 )

variety of stress paths. Problems of un where q c is a constant dependent o n t h e

saturation are also liable to introdu ce current stress state.
significant uncertainties at very low The model does not make use of yield
stress levels. vertices ( although at the critical state
which forms the transition from the Roscoe
to Hvorslev surfaces there is a corner in
APPENDIX A t h e yield locus ) .
Coaxiality of strain rate and stress is
BRIEF SPECIFICATION OF THE MODEL assumed dur ing plastiC behaviour .
If the Hvorslev surface is not included
in the model, it is then able to predict
The assumptions embodied in the model are strain softening on t h e " dry" side of ti1
given in detail in sections 2 and 3 o f t h e critical state. This process is thought " to
paper. This appendix cont ains only a brief b e unstabl e, with localisation into narrow
mathematical specification. shear bands occurring. The use of t h e
Hvorslev surface i n effect precludes this
softening by modelling the fo rmation o f
A. 1 FUNDAMENTAL S narrow shear bands by a perfectly plastic,
non-dilatant behaviou r.
The model is elastoplastic in concept. The model fulfils all the requirements
Within the yield locus t h e material of a physically meaningful and mathemati
behaves elastically with a bulk modulus cally consistent model in continuum
pro portional to pressure and a constant mechanics. As a consequ ence of t h e above
shear modulus. The yield locus consists o f the mo del should generate well pos e d
two sections. One s ection i s elliptical in problems subject to appropriate boundary
q-p ' ( Toct-p' ) space and involves an associ conditions. III conditioning could o f
ated flow rule and work hardening linked cou rse occur i f certain combinations o f
to t h e plastic volumetric strain. The conditions are imposed, for example, a
other section is a straight line in q-p' rapid rate of loading resulting in
(Toct-p' ) space and involves perfectly "undrained" conditions linked to entirely
plastic behaviour with a no n-associated deformation-controlled bou ndary conditions
flow rule. may result in ill conditioning if a finite
The yield surfaces in the model are bulk modulus of t h e pore fluid is not
expressed as: "admitted.

,
Roscoe surface:

p ' (p ' -Pc' ) + :: 0, (Al )

A . 2 INCREMENTAL RELATIONS

Elastic behaviou r

( )
Hvorslev surface:
M a pe'
q p' (A2) is specified by:
t l +a O.
.
+ -2
- '"'

,,6
p' z
'e
v , lAG)
/unloading on the dry side of critical are
a particular area where a detailed under
standing of the prinCiples of the model
"e
q .. 3G e: (A7) are required. The precise numerical formu
lation used is important as the critical
state is approached if numerical diffi
Behaviour on Roscoe surface culties are to be avoided. The details of
a subroutine depend too strongly on the
The conventional assumption of additive constraints of the calling program to give
elastic and plastic strains is made . Using a suitably general routin e .
the associated flow rule and the conven For isotropic loading the model simpli
tional formulation: fies to the incremental form :

(A8) p' < P '

c
v K*P' (A15)
p'

which results in
p'
p '
c v p' pc' . (Al6)
p' > D
"
"
} p'

Closed form. for the triaxial test may be

. (A9) obtained but is rather lengthy .

APPENDIX B

The work hardening equation :

UNDRAINED TESTS ON KAOLIN

p-"'
vP = P.*-K*)-
p '
. . (AIO)
Any soil test, whether performed in the
c
laboratory or the field, can be considered
is combined with the consistency condition as a miniature boundary value problem. A
obtained by differentiatio? of the yield triaxial test is no exception . An initially
locus : cylindrical sample is subjected to a uni
form overall axial deformation through the
(Al l ) rigid end platens, and to a uniform lateral
total pressure by means of the cell fluid
Compari son with the appropriate term from acting on the encapsulating rubber mem
lAID) , brane. Only in certain circumstances will

q(2P'-P))
the boundary conditions result in the soil
vP = ),,(p' ( 2p ' _p ) 1 + . . (Al2) deforming as a Single homogeneous element
and it will not necessarily be correct to
then yields the value of the hardening assume that conditions of stress and strain
parameter A: within the sample are uniform.. Test pro
cedures can be chosen in order to try and
()"*-K*)
)" = (A13) encourage the development of uniform con
p'p ' (2p' P ')
c c ditions : for example, lubricated end platens
and short samples may be desirable; a slow
rate of testing will give the pore pressures
Behaviour on Hvorslev surface within the sample an opportunity to reach
equilibrium in drained or undrained tests.
Similarly the behaviour on the Hvorslev It is also important to appreciate that
surface may be determined a s : the so-called undrained test, conven
tionally interpreted as a constant volume
test, is really a constant overall mass
. (A14 ) test: the term isomassic might be appro
priate to describe it. Assuming .no leakage
occurs, once the drainage valves are closed,
no mass of sail or pore fluid can move into
where, since perfect plasticity is or out o f the sample, but this does not
assumed , the value of the scalar multi prevent the sample from changing in volume .
plier )" may be determined, for instanc e , If the pore fluid is not incompressible,
by Hill ' s method (Hill 1951). for example , because the soil is not satu
I n writing a FORTRAN subroutine to rated, then a soil sample can change in
implement the above calculations, great volume as it is sheared, even though the
care must be exercised in attention to deformations and stresses within the sample
details in the model. Criteria for loading remain uniform. On the other hand, even if

117
the overall sample does not change in
volume , it is quite possible for local
changes in volume to occur within the
sample, as a consequence of end restraint
or rate of resting, as shown by the analy
ses of Carter (1982 ) . A true constant
volume test path , the so-called isochoric,
i s best achieved as a drained test in a
device such as a true triaxial apparatus
in which a combination of deformations can
be imposed on " a sample, such that no
change in the volume occupied by the soil
skeleton can occur, always assuming that
the true triaxial sample can itself be
treated as a single element of soil.
When a new testing procedure is to be
used to study the undrained behaviour of
soil , whether it uses a new pore pressure
probe or merely a new rate of testing, it
is important to check that the results
produced by this new procedure are not
inconsistent with existing knowledge of
soil behaviour, or at least not without
some good explanation. There are only four
pa.rameters to measure in the undrained
triaxial test: the total radial stress
(cell pressure ) , the total axial stress
(cell pressure plus deviator stress) , the
pore pressure and the axial strain.
The background of critical state soil
mechanics makes it clear that the behaviour
of soils is best understood in terms of
effective stresse s , and that significant
patterna are more likely to emerge when
soil response is studied in terms of
effective stresses and volumetric pack
ings, which are limited parameters, rather
than in terms o f stress: strain curves ,
shear strain being an unlimited parameter.
The best way to examine the results of an
undrained test i s therefore to plot the
effective stress path in a convenient
stress space , such as deviator stress q :
mean effective stress p ' . Plotting q, p '
or pore pressure u against strain is
unlikely to show up problems , particularly
if the test has been taken to large strains;
the significant changes in effective stress
occur at small deformations.
The effective stress paths for an un
drained compression test and an undrained
extension test performed by Kuntsche on
kaolin at Karlsruhe are shown in Fig . B l .
For comparison, two pairs of effective
stress paths for undrained compression and
extension tests performed by Nadarajah
(1973) on kaolin in Cambridge are shown in
Fig . B 2 . Some points of dissimilarity may
be noted:
(i) Nadarajah ' s compression and exten
sion paths are broadly of the same shape ;
Kuntsche ' s are very different. For an
initially isotropiC material the effect of
a small increase or decrease in deviator
stress should be essentially identical ,
there can be no theoretical explanation
for the difference;
(ii) Nadarajah finds a lower ratio of q
to p' at failure in extension than in com
pression and lower values of q at failure
in extension than in compreSSion; Kuntsche
finds a higher strength in extension than
in compression and the same value of q/p ' .
The total stress paths for Kuntsche ' s
tests have been shown in Fig . B 1 . It is
clear that , for the first part of the com
prcosion test and for virtually the whole
of the extension test, zero pore pressure
was recorded. Kuntsche measures pore pres
sures by means of a rigid porous probe
extending from the base to the centre of
the sample. Evidently the average pore
pressure recorded by this probe is zero.
perhaps it provides a drainage path for
positive pore pressures near the centre of
the sample to compensate for negative pore

Table Bl

Cambridge kaolin Karlsruhe kaolin

Material
(Nadarajah (1973) (Kuntsche 1982)

Index LL 72.1\ LL SO.

properties PL 40.4\ PL 16'
G 2 . 63 G 2 . 72
s s
Sample mix at 160\ mix at 100\
preparation 10 to 195 kN/m1 over 8 days iso to 80 kN/m2 over 7 days
1so. from 103 kN/m3 in 69 kN/m3 /12 h steps iso to 400 kN/ml in 1 step
then 2 4 h rest
(typically 3-4 days)
B values 0 . 97-0 .99 B values 0 . 97-0 . 9 9

Testing load controlled: 2 . 25 kgf/h redUCing strain controlled: 1 2\/h

procedure to 0 . 45 or 0 . 22 kgf/h
(typical initial strain rate 0 . 1 25\/h

118
pressures developing near the base.
It is worthwhile to compare the procedures
used by Nadarajah and Kuntsche for their
tests: these are summarised in Table B t .
The kaolins being tested are rather differ
ent. The plasticities are about the same
but the Cambridge kaolin has a much higher
liquid limit. Nadarajah' s isotropic consol i
dation procedure was much slower than
Kuntsche ' s and one may wonder whether the
Karlsruhe kaolin is completely consolidated
at the start of the tests. A condition of
initial under-consolidation could well give
rise to a tendency for continuing pore pres
sure development later in the tests, thus
obscuring the attainment of critical states.
The final isotropic consolidation , from
80 kN/mz to 400 kN/mz in one step , could
conceivably leave the sample initially non
uniform as a result of the Mandel-cryer
effect.
The rate of testing used by Kuntsche is
initially typically about 100 times faster
than that used by Nadarajah (who was con
ducting the tests with careful load control)
and this high rate of testing may have led
to inaccurate observation of pore pressures .
For an isotropic sample deforming uniformly,
an excessive rate of testing should, how
ever, lead at worst to an effective stress
path with no initial change in effective
mean stress (6p'=O, ou=oq/J) as for the
elastic material but not a path with an
increase in p ' .
Effective stress paths predicted by Cam
Clay models for undrained tests have the
same shape , independent of consolidation
pressure. Using volume change due to'lack of
saturation as an explanation of the results
that are shown in Fig . B t , an estimate of the
lack of saturation can be made by fitting
curved undrained effective stress paths
through as much as possible of the paths
obtained experimentally; these curves are
also shown in Fig . B t . The compression and
extension paths expected for kaolin con
solidated to 400 kN/ml are shown . Much of
the compression path is fitted by using
the undrained effective stress path for a
sample consolidated to 440 kN/ml

compression

200 kN/m2
q

100

,
,
,
,
,
,,
100


,
,

--
- ---

;#,;'/
.'

200

extension

Kartsruhe kaolin
300
Fig. B 1 .

119
 compression Cambridge kaol in

0
0
200 kN/m2 0 0 0
0 0
q 0 0
0
0 0
100 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
a I I I . I 0
100 200 :m
p
' 400 kr;m{l 500
0 0

0
0
100
0
0
0

200 extension
0

Fig. B2

tnv/vo - -X* 1n p'/p'

1n v
0

X* .. 0 . 1225

2
v - 1 . 665 at p' K 400 kN/m

10 p '

for change o f p ' 400. 440 kN/m

2 400 -+ 550 kN/m2

vol strain ov - 1 . 17\ 3 . 901

OV - 0.0194 -0.0637

fir - 0.97 ? 0.90 ?

Fig. B3

1 20
 The normal compression of the clay can -Strain in Geotechnical Engineering
be described by the expression (Fig.B3 ) : p . 592-627.
Wroth , C . P . , M . F . Randolph , G . T . Houlsby &
In VIvo ., A* 1n p' /pd
M. Fahey 1979. A study of the engineering
with A* ; 0 . 1225 and V
1 . 665 at p' - = properties of soils with particular
400 kN/m' . A change of p' from 400 to reference to the shear modulus. Univer
440 kN/m' implies a volumetric strain of sity of Cambridge : Technical Report
ov '" 1 . 17\ (cf. 1 . 2\ used in prediction (Soils TR75) .
exercise ) , a change in specific volume
oV ; -0.0194 and a saturation S r ; 0 . 97 .
The last part only of the extension test
is fitted by using the undrained effective
stress path for a sample consolidated to
550 kN/m' . A change of p ' from 400 to
550 kN/mz implies a volumetric strain of
ov ; 3 . 90\ (cf . 3\ used in prediction exer
cise) , a change in specific volume 6V
-0.0637 and a saturation S r 0 . 90 .

REFERENCES

Atkinson , J . H . & p . L . Bransby 1978. The

mechanics of soils: an introduction to
critical state soil mechanics. London :
McGraw Hill.
Burland , J . B . 1967. Deformation of soft
clay. University of Cambridge : PhD thesis.
Butterfield, R . 1979. A natural compression
l.aw for soils (an advance on e-log p ' ) .
Gotechnique 2 9 : 469-480.
Carter, J . P . 1982. Predictions of the non
homogeneous behaviour o f clay in the
triaxial test. Gotechnique 3 2 : 55-58.
Hill, R. 195 1 . The mathematical theory of
plasticity. Oxford university Press.
Houlsby , G. T. 1981 . A study of plasticity
theories and their applicability to
soils. University of Cambridge : PhD
thesis.
Hvorslev, M . J . 1969. Physical properties
of remoulded cohesive soils. Vicksburg :
US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station , Translation 69-5.
Nadaraj ah, V. 1 9 7 3 . Stress-strain proper
ties of lightly overconsolidated clays.
university of Cambridge: PhD thesis.
Parry , R . H . G . 1960. Triaxial compression
and extension tests on remoulded satur
ated clay. Gotechnique 1 0 : 166-180.
Roscoe, K . H . & J . B . Burland 1968. On the
generalised behaviour of 'wet' clay. In
J .Heyman & F.A. Leckie (eds . ) , Engineering
plasticity, p . 536-609. Cambridge
University Press.
Schofield, A . N . & C . P .Wroth 1968. Critical
state soil mechanics. London : McGraw
Hill.
Wroth , C . P . & G . T . Houlsby 1980. A critical
state model for predicting the behaviour
of clays . In workshop on Limit Equili- .
brium, Plasticity and Generalised Stress

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