9.

Case Study Of The Damodar Valley Region

9.1 Background

T
HE RIVER DAMODAR (in Eastern India) was known for frequent
floods resulting in enormous loss of life and destruction of property.
The river runs 541 km from its origins in the Khamerpet Hills, in the
eastern part of India, to meet the river Hugli. The basin area is 17,506 sq. km
(refer Figure 9.1)*. In comparison, the River Ganges (or the Ganga as it is called in
India), of which the Damodar is a tributary, is over 5,000 km long and has a basin
area about 30 times as much as the Damodar.
The Damodar runs through some of the most mineral-rich regions of India. The
basin provides the country with valuable minerals, such as coal and iron ore.
There is also considerable agriculture in the region, with rice and potatoes being
the major crops. The basin is also probably one of the dirtiest parts of the country.
The levels of dust and smoke in most of the region are unimaginably high. The
chimneys of the hundreds of industrial units vie with the domestic coal-fired chulas
(crude stoves often used for cooking in Indian homes) to make the air dense with
smoke and soot. The many coal washeries empty thick black effluents into the
river at different points in its course.
The River Damodar is entirely rainfed. About 80% of the annual discharge occurs
during the four monsoon months from June to September. This seasonality and
the consequent imbalance in the flow had resulted in frequent flash floods, which
gave the Damodar its epithetriver of sorrow. To tame the violent river, a scheme
similar to the Tennessee Valley Authority Project (TVA) in the USA, was launched
in the 1950s and the Damodar Valley Corporation came into being. The scheme
essentially involved construction of dams along the length of the river, so that the
flow could be better harnessed for agriculture and industry.

*There has been a reorganization of states in India and part of the state of Bihar is now
called Jharkhand.
PUNJAB
Figure 9.1: Location of Damodar River Basin 116
UP HILLS in the South Asian Region
Dehra
Dun

HARYANA a
ng
ga
m
Ra
Delhi Moradabad N C H I N A
E TIBET
P
UTTAR A
Ga
ng PRADESH L Khatmandu
es SIKKIM
RAJASTHAN BHUTAN
Ganges
Ya Ga
al m gha
mb un ra
Cha a BENGAL

G
Kanpur

rG
nd

an
Si ariwa I N D I A

do
k
Poing
CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

Varanasi

RAJSHAHI
San BIHAR BANGLA
DESH
DA
MO
DA
R

MADHYA PRADESH WEST BENGAL KHULNA

Kolkata
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 117

The development in the basin had its advantages and disadvantages. Flooding
became a thing of the past. Many new industries were established. The victims of
this development were the forests and the agricultural operations. As can be seen
from Table 9.1, in one of the primary coal-rich parts of the basin (Dhanbad), the
area under agriculture has come down from 59% in 1925 to just 10% in 1984. The
area under forest cover has decreased from 4.9% in 1925 to 1.25% in 1984.
Significantly, the area under mining has gone up nearly six-fold during the same
period.

Table 9.1: Land Use Pattern in Jharkand Coal Fields (JCF), Dhanbad

% of Total Area of JCF Under Activity in Various Years

Major Activity
1925 1974 1984

Mining 4.7 17.4 26.5

Settlement 8.6 16.0 10.8

Forest 4.9 2.7 1.2

Agricultural 59.4 45.6 10.0

Others* 22.6 20.4 51.5

*Others category includes natural vegetation, fallow/grasslands, water bodies, rivers, roads
and railways.
Source: Office of the Damodar Valley Corporation. (As presented in the study report titled
Socio-Economic Metabolism of the Damodar Valley Area by Center for Study of Man and
Environment, Kolkata, for ICAST, Geneva, Switzerland, 1998.)

The presence of the vast coal mining operations and the proximate availability of
iron ore prompted the setting up of many steel and power plants in the basin area,
which is now home to 6 large thermal power stations, 4 major steel plants, 14 coal
washeries and 3 coke ovens. To illustrate the magnitude of the industrial activity,
it may be mentioned that the region produces 88 million tons of coal annually,
the steel plants have a combined annual production capacity of nearly 7 million
tons, and the 6 coal-based thermal power plants together have a combined capacity
of 3,290 MW.
All these industrial operations draw water from the Damodar and discharge their
untreated effluents into the river.
118 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

9.1.1 The People

It is said of the Damodar Valley, that it is a rich land of poor people. The
economic wealth has not really permeated to the common people in the region.
Among the many reasons for this inequality, are poor governance and a poor law
and order situation, which has reportedly resulted in the local dominance of the
dreaded coal-mafia.
In order to help improve the lives of the people, the entire coal mining operation,
which was in private hands till the early 1970s, was taken over by the government.
Unfortunately, the nationalization seems to have done little for the people in the
region.
Although the living conditions of the people appear to be very poor, the population
has been growing. Jobs in the region may not be well paying and the working
conditions may be wanting. However, in view of the economic activity, job
availability is better in the Damodar Valley than in the neighboring regions. The
growth in the population can be seen from Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Population Dynamics in the Damodar Valley

Year Population Growth %

1971 10,720,485

1981 11,234,481 4.79

1991 14,076,399 25.3

Source: District Census Book, Government of India, 1971, 1981, 1991. As presented in the
CSME Final Study Report,1998.

9.2 Formulating the Study

As mentioned in Chapter 1, industrial metabolism is the whole of the material
and energy flows going through an industrial system. This approach is aimed at
understanding the materials and energy flowslinked to human activityfrom
their initial extraction to their inevitable reintegration, sooner or later, into the
overall biogeochemical cycles. The methodology of Resource Flow Analysis (RFA)
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 119

[also called Material Flow Analysis (MFA)] provides an overall picture of resource
flows in a given area. Such an understanding of the regional metabolism is
particularly relevant for well defined geographic entities like river basins
(references of MFA studies on river basins and regions in Europe and the USA are
given in the bibliography at the end of the book).
The title of the study was Socio-industrial metabolism of the Damodar Valley
Area. The potential scope of the project was so vast, that to do justice to an area as
large as the Damodar Basin would have taken a few lifetimes. Hence the first task
was to try and set boundaries that were more achievable and such that some
meaningful conclusions could be drawn within the duration of the project, which
was one year.
The study was entrusted to the Centre for Study of Man and Environment (CSME),
under the coordination of Prof. S.P. Mukherjee (Calcutta University) with an
advisory team consisting of Prof. Stefan Anderberg (University of Copenhagen,
Denmark), Dr. Emmanuel Glenck (currently Austrian Space Agency, Vienna),
Prof. Jayanta Bandyopadhyay (Indian Institute of Management, Calcutta) and the
authors. All the data presented in this case study are based on the CSME report,
hereafter referred to as CSME Final Study Report, 1998.
When the advisory team made a preliminary visit to the project area, it was amazed
at the magnitude of the job. Although it was apparent that a study of the region
could be very significant, it was difficult to know where to begin and how to select
the issues that needed to be addressed. It would have been too vast a task to
attempt to track the flow of all materials and resources in the region.
After many debates, the possible aspects that could be the focus of the study were
determined (presented on the next page). It was believed that an investigation
into these aspects could help get a clearer overview of the problems in the area, as
the major resource flows in the region were water and coal. A study of the flow of
these two major resources could have implications in outlining the development
and environment policy for the Damodar Valley.
The findings of the study are presented in the following pages in an abridged
form.
120 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

1. The river itselfThe attempt would be to understand the flow of river water in the basin.
To do this may require finding an answer to the following questions:
How much water flows in to the river?
Who are the user groups of the water?
How much water do these users put back into the river after use?
And, what is the quality of the water that is put back into the river?
2. Coal in the region. In this case, the task would be to understand:
How much coal is produced?
How is this produced?
How much is used by different user groups?
How is the coal transported?
How is the coal processed and used?
What are the materials transferred to the environment in these processes?

9.3 The Waters of the River Damodar

The scope of the investigation of the water flow is depicted in Figure 9.2.
The task was to attempt to quantify and analyze the flows shown in the figure.

9.3.1 Water Flow in the River

In addition to rainwater, which is the main source of water to the river, the
other inflow comes from the drainage of mines, or the water pumped out of the
coal mines in the process of the mining operations. The mine drainage is significant
not because of its total volume, which is small in comparison with the total volume
of flow, but because of the quality of the water drained out of the mines. Although
it is generally agreed that the volume of water pumped out of the mines is
substantial (in absolute terms), no reliable estimates are available. Hence, only
the figures pertaining to rainwater are given here. The data on the available water
in the river are presented in Table 9.3.
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 121

F I G U R E 9.2

Waters of the River Damodar

Industry

Rainfall

Domestic Use
The River
Damodar

Agriculture
Mine Drainage

Table 9.3: Total Water Flow in the River Damodar

Annual Volume Vol. of Water Vol. of Water Available Water

Basin of Rain Water Lost by Lost by Seepage after Evaporation
Evaporation Annually & Seepage

Barakar 9,295.5 5,830.3 1,357.1 2,108.1

Upper Damodar 15,484.1 1,0021.8 2,291.7 3,170.6

Lower Damodar 7,058.0 4,105.5 1,009.3 1,943.2

Total 31,837.6 19,957.6 4,658.1 7,221.9

Source: Office of the Damodar Valley Corporation. From the CSME Final Study Report, 1998.
Units: million cubic meters/year
122 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

It is estimated that about 75% of the basin is covered with hard rock. Hence the
seepage of water into the ground is relatively low.
The estimates of the volume of water are available from the three catchment
areas of the river, the sum of which gives the total volume in the river.

9.3.2 The Utilization of the River Waters

As per the estimates available, the utilization of the waters of the river is as
shown in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4: The Utilization of the Waters of the River Damodar

Sector Quantity Used

Agriculture 2,416.00

Power Generation 32.00

Steel Plants 242.19

Other Industries 54.83

Domestic Use 140.00

Total 2,885
Units: million cubic meters/year or MCM

Assumptions: The data for the utilization of river waters in agriculture, power
plants and steel plants are taken from the CSME report. Other industries has been
assumed, as 20% (based on discussions with the officials of the Damodar Valley
Corporation) of the sum of power and steel plants, as no better data were available.
Domestic use has been assumed to be 10 cubic meters per capita per year (based
on the estimates presented in the CSME report). Domestic use also includes
consumption by the small establishments such as the ubiquitous tea-stalls.
As can be seen from Table 9.4, by far the largest use of the water is for agriculture.
Hence, if any assessment has to be made of the industrial metabolism of the
region, the impact of agriculture on the river waters and conversely, the impact of
the river waters (often polluted) on the agricultural operations needs to be examined
thoroughly.
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 123

To study the impact of each of the human activities listed earlier, it is necessary to
understand how water is used in each of these operations.

Use of Water in Agriculture

Mostly small and marginal farmers, who use the irrigation facilities available
through the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), carry out the agriculture in the
region. The fields further have the benefit of the substantial rainfall in the basin.
Farming practices are traditional, although the use of fertilizers and pesticides has
grown rapidly in the recent past.
The fertilizer consumption in the area is shown in Table 9.5.
Figures for the use of pesticides in the region are not available. However, it is
reported that the use has been growing rapidly.
An attempt was made to understand the sources and uses of water by the
agriculturists. The estimate is represented in Figure 9.3.
A study of the pattern of usage of water in the agriculture sector is significant
from many points of view.

1. The bulk of the industrial activity is upstream of the river and the agricultural operations
are carried out almost uniformly in the entire basin. Much of the agriculture consists of
food crops such as paddy. The river is also a major source of fish, which forms a
predominant part of the diet of the local population.
2. While industrial wastes are discharged into the river, the river water is used in agriculture.
The danger of toxic pollutants, particularly heavy metals, moving up the food chain needs
to be studied in detail.
3. Conversely, the runoffs from agriculture (which are normally ignored in any discussion on
pollution in India), which may include contamination from chemical fertilizers and pesticides,
by themselves, could be a serious threat to the health of the flora and fauna.
4. As can be seen from Figure 9.3, there is a substantial loss of water through seepage. This
seepage could carry pollutants into the aquifers, which are used untreated by the population.

No data is available on any change in the soil composition or on the presence of

trace chemicals, in the agricultural produce of the region.
124 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

Table 9.5: Fertilizer Consumption in Damodar Valley

Name of Total Consumption Average Consumption (kg/ha)

Nutrient 199192 199293 199495 199596 199192 199293 199495 199596

N 26,224 25,506 25,183 28,126 64 61 62 66

P 13,135 13,765 13,580 15,152 32 33 34 35

K 10,110 11,388 11,235 12,664 25 27 28 30

Total 49,490 50,659 49,998 56,032 121 121 124 131

Source: Command Area Development Authority (1993) and Command Area Development
Scheme (1994). From the CSME Final Study Report, 1998.

F I G U R E 9.3
Utilization of Water in Damodar Valley
Agricultural Operations
River water
2,136
Rainfall Groundwater
4,230 280

Evaporation Losses
2,460
DAMODAR VALLEY
AGRICULTURE
Seepage &
Transportation Losses
755

Plant Uptake &

Retention in Soil, 3,431
Unit: million cu.m/year
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 125

Use of Water by Industry

The industrial activity in the basin draws about 329 MCM of water per year. At
least 92.81 MCM of the water is returned to the river as an untreated effluent. This
figure is the sum of the discharges from the power generation and steel sectors.
Data of the discharges by other industries is not available.
The estimated quantities (in absolute terms) of selected pollutants that are
reportedly a result of industrial activity in the region is shown in Table 9.6.

Table 9.6: Summarized Data of Annual Pollution Loads

in the Damodar River Water
Concentration Total Load in
Parameters
Mean mg/l Tonnes per Year

Iron 2.4 16,800

Copper 0.57 3,990

Manganese 0.05 350

Zinc 0.04 280

Lead 0.098 69

Cadmium 0.067 470

Chromium 0.28 1960

Nickel 0.103 721

Mercury 0.0015 10
Phenolic Compounds 0.173 1211
Source: CSME Final Study Report, 1998.

The path of these thousands of tonnes of pollutants through the ecosystem deserves
a thorough investigation.
The figures of the total load of the suspended particulate matter and dissolved
solids other that the pollutants shown in Table 9.6 are likely to be enormous.
However, a reasonable estimate is not immediately possible, since part of the data
is not available.
126 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

Use of Water in Human Habitations

No immediate estimates are available about the use of the river water by the
population for their daily needs. However, for the sake of trying to understand the
order of magnitude, it may be assumed that the use is 10,000 liters (10 cubic meters)
per person per year. The significance of this usage pattern is in the way the water
is used.
Except in a few towns, there is often no piped water supply and the bulk of the
population uses the water either drawn from wells or the river. A majority of the
citizens bathe and wash their clothes in the river. Hence, any resultant pollutants
enter the river system untreated. Assuming that the usage of detergents is half-
kilogram per capita per year, the total use of detergents by the estimated population
of 14 million is likely to be 7,000 tonnes. Some years ago, much of the washing
products that were used, were vegetable oil-based and almost totally biodegradable.
However, the detergents used today are mostly synthetic and contain benzene
and phosphates. Any impact on the river system may need to be looked at.
In addition, an underground sewerage system hardly covers a small fraction of
the population and hence there is no possibility of any system of treatment of
the sewage at present.

9.4 CoalThe Black Diamond

Coal has been one of the primary fuels used in India as the country has substantial
reserves of coal. A very large part of the coal mining activity in India is concentrated
in and around the Damodar Basin.
Till recently, since imports of coal were banned, the coal from this region was
central to the entire countrys economy. Thus, the mining and the transportation
of coal took center stage in any discussion on the Indian economy. This was more
so because much of the power generation in India is coal based. Till a few decades
ago, the coal mining was in the hands of the private sector. In view of the importance
of coal to the national economy, the entire mining activity was nationalized in the
early 1970s. Indian coal is known to be relatively high in ash content and much of
the coal has an ash content of over 40%. The heat value of the coal is usually
reported to be less than 3,000 kcal/kg.
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 127

The transportation of coal has traditionally been through the railway network, as
the coal has to be delivered over thousands of kilometers to different parts of the
vast country. The railway system has been always under pressure and unable to
service the requirements of a rapidly growing demand. As the railways are unable
to fully meet the requirements of industry, trucks are increasingly carrying the
coal. This is a very expensive form of transportation in India. Nevertheless, the
helpless customers are willing to pay the extra price to keep their plants running.
Coal, in the Damodar Valley, was always referred to as the Black Diamond and its
importance in this area can never be underestimated. Coal is a part of every facet
of life in the region. In addition to being the primary fuel, it is the main source of
livelihood for a large part of the population.
The presence of coal can hardly be ignored. Thousands of trucks and railway
wagons are always scurrying around transporting coal. There are high levels of
dust in the areas where coal is mined or handled. As mentioned earlier, the air,
especially in winter, is filled with smoke from the chimneys of factories and the
millions of chulas (crude local stoves), which are lit to cook and to stay warm.
The environmental laws in India have laid down stringent norms for emissions
from the power plants, steel plants and from mining activity. However, it is obvious
that the laws have not been totally successful in keeping the region clean.
To adequately understand the flow of coal in the Damodar Valley, the handling
and use of coal was segregated into the aspects relating to:

1. Mining and Preparation

2. Transportation and Handling
3. Use by different user groups:
a. Power Plants
b. Steel Plants
c. Other Industries
d. Domestic Use

The objective was to make a rough quantitative as well as a qualitative assessment

of these aspects.
128 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

9.4.1 Mining and Preparation

The mining operations in the region have been growing at a rapid pace. In
addition to the underground mining, open cast mining has been gaining popularity.
Table 9.7 gives the quantities of coal mined in the Damodar Valley.

Table 9.7: Total Production of Coal in the Damodar Valley

Year Underground Open Cast Total

1992-93 30.87 53.67 84.54

1993-94 30.23 54.92 85.15

1994-95 29.11 55.69 84.80

1995-96 27.69 58.67 86.36

1996-97 27.44 61.53 88.97

Source: Coal India Ltd, Annual Performance Report, 1997. From the CSME Final Study
Report, 1998. Units: million tonnes

Open cast mining is carried out by removing the

Open cast mine
overburden on the earths surface and removing
the coal from under the surface. Hence, it appears
as if a pit is dug and the coal is removed from the
bottom of the pit. A pit is probably an
understatement and does not adequately describe
the process; a typical pit could be over 30 meters
deep and a half-kilometer or more in diameter.
Trucks often drive in to the bottom of the pit to
carry away the overburden as well as to transport the coal. The volume of the
overburden is at least as much as the amount of coal mined. Such large volumes
of material being handled have a substantial impact on the environment in the
area. In spite of the measures being taken to minimize the dust in the atmosphere,
the level of dust thrown up is substantial.
As can be seen from Table 9.7, open cast mining is increasing every year.
Underground mining appears to have less impact on the environment, although
there could be many other hazards. The mined coal is transported mostly in open
trucks or open railway wagons.
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 129

Part of the coal produced in the region (about 17% of the 88.97 million tons
produced) is sent to coal washeries nearby. In a typical washery, large quantities
of water are swished through the coal to remove the ash contained in the coal and
improve its properties. The end products of the washing are dispatched to the
consumers, who may typically be steel or power plants. The remainder solid waste
is dumped nearby. No reliable estimate is available of the quantity so dumped,
although it may be stated that the quantity would be very significant. The
wastewater is also likely to carry with it large quantities of coal dust. No data of
the composition of the waste water is available.

9.4.2 Transportation and Handling

When some 90 million tonnes of coal, in addition to an equivalent quantity of
overburden are mined annually (often handled many times), extraction, processing
and transportation of coal requires a serious review. The actual volume of coal
handled may be much larger than this, as a few of the industries (power and steel
plants) either partly use imported coal or coal brought in from neighboring regions.
As mentioned earlier, the coal is often transported in open trucks or railways
wagons, which results in considerable spillage, particularly of the dusty/powdery
part of the coal, called fines.
It has been assumed that 3.95% of the coal is lost in transit from the mines to the
power plants nearby. Of this, 1.5% is lost in the air and the balance 2.45% is lost
on the land (as per the data supplied by the power plants and made available in
the CSME report).
If these estimates were extrapolated to the entire 88.97 million tonnes produced
in the region, it would indicate that, each year, a quantity of 1.33 million tonnes of
coal is lost in the air (dust) and there is a spillage of 2.17 million tonnes annually,
shown as lost on land, in the process of transportation.
Of course, there are reports that some of this loss which is shown is actually coal
that is stolen during transit and used by the population for their domestic needs.
The coal dust lost on the land, is also reported to be caked and used as domestic fuel.
In addition to the losses during transport, in the power plants, the losses due to
rain and wind during storage are shown as 6.022%, of which 1.58% is in the air,
3.02% is in the water and 1.42% is on land. Again, if these percentages were
130 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

extrapolated to the entire production of the region, the quantities of loss to the air,
water and land amount to 1.40 million tonnes, 2.68 million tonnes and 1.26 million
tonnes respectively. In fact, these losses are probably much higher since there are
many storage points.
Hence, it is possible that there could be a total of 2.73 (1.33 + 1.40) million tonnes
of coal dust in the air annually in the process of transportation, storage and
handling. This does not include the nearly similar quantity lost on the land.
If these norms were assumed, the total loss would be 9.97% (6.022 + 3.95) or
8.87 million tonnes, which is more than the total consumption of the power plants
in the area, including the losses in the power plants.
These are enormous quantities, and if any real attempt is to be made to clean the
region, the handling and transportation of coal deserves serious attention.
It is believed that, while the commercial implications of these losses has been
recognized and internalized in the operations, the implications on the environment
have not been given adequate emphasis.

9.5 Use of Coal by Different Sectors

9.5.1 Power Plants
Thermal power generation is the single largest user of coal in the region. The
total use of coal by this sector is reported to be 6.57 million tonnes annually,
which is over 7% of the total coal produced in the region. Locating the power
plants close to the source of coal mining is a great convenience and ensures smooth
running. However, there is also a growing concern that the pollution generated in
the process has become concentrated in one region. The major issues are the
gaseous emissions and the ash, both results of coal combustion.
A material balance of coal in the six thermal power plants is presented in the
Figure 9.4. This is the sum of the materials used in the total power sector in the
region. The figure gives a comprehensive picture of the total emissions from the
plants as well as the consumption data.
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 131

F I G U R E 9.4
Material Balance of Coal (199495)
in Thermal Power Plants of the Damodar Valley
0.26 Air
0.10
6.57 Coal Supply Losses during
Transit Water
0.16
6.31
Air
0.38 0.10
Consumption Losses
Land
due to Rain/Wind 0.19
0.31 during Storage
Water
Land 0.09
Refuse Stone, Shale 5.62
0.31 Coal Mill/Rejects
Waste

Air 61.79 Combustion of Coal CO

14.05
2.25 65.01
Ash NO
39.34
0.13
Unburnt Carbon SO
Off Gases 0.05

2.38 N
9.26
Ash with
Unburnt Carbon O
0.53 1.85 2.31

Bottom Ash with Fly Ash

Unburnt Carbon
1.83 0.02
0.53

Land Solid Waste Collected through

Air Fugitive Dust
Dumped Control Equipments

0.18 1.65
Land Solid Waste
Units
Re-use in Brick
Dumped All figures in
Industries
million tonnes/year

Source: Estimates presented in CSME Final Study Report, 1998.

132 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

The environment authorities have been very closely monitoring the emissions
from these plants as they are considered major polluters. The plants have installed
high-efficiency systems to minimize the particulate emissions, which include the
latest Electro-Static Precipitators (ESPs). It is reported that the ESPs trap more
than 99% of the fly-ash and other particulate emissions. There are no reports of
any systems to recover sulfur from gaseous emissions, although 65,000 tonnes
could be available for recovery (1% of coal consumed). The process is also being
continuously streamlined to ensure that the combustion is complete and wastes
minimum. All efforts are also being made to minimize the load of carbon monoxide.
There is no quantified data available on the potential for possible recovery of
waste heat from the plants. Such data, which could be obtained through a specific
RFA, would be of great value. The profitable use of waste heat, generated by an
increasing number of power plants, is of particular relevance in hot countries
like India. The demand for process heat and for refrigeration (which can be
generated from waste heat), is growing rapidly in these countries. Selling the
waste heat from thermal power plants could prove a very interesting business
opportunity for power plants (like in the case of the Kalundborg Symbiosis in
Denmark), and for their customers as well, as they would buy heat or cold at a
low price (since it is originally a waste). Bringing this waste heat into profitable
use would result in a more efficient use of coal, allowing also to save a precious
resource like electricity.
The concern is the generation of ash. Currently, the ash generated (along with
unburnt carbon), accounts for nearly 36% of the total consumption of coal. Since
the coal in the Damodar basin has been reported to be of much lower ash content,
this gives an indication that the power plants are probably using lower quality
coal brought in from neighboring regions.
In most cases, a slurry of ash with water is carried to the ash ponds. Effectively,
water is used as a medium of transport to carry away the ash to the ponds. The
ponds themselves have become a source of concern as the leachates could carry a
number of heavy metals to the aquifers. The dust and the land utilization are also
a source of concern2.38 million tonnes of ash are added to the ponds every
year!
It is also interesting to note that of the 6.57 million tonnes supplied to the power
plants, 0.95 million tonnes of coal appear to be wasted (lost in transit and storage).
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 133

9.5.2 Steel Plants

The three steel plants in the region, Bokaro, Durgapur and TISCO, are also
major users of coal. The coal that is needed by these plants is metallurgical grade
as well as steam coal. The material balance of the flow of coal in the three integrated
steel plants is shown in Figure 9.5. It is interesting to note that 2.36 million tonnes
of the 6.67 million tonnes of coking coal are imported.
Some of the problems with the use of coal in a power plant also exist in a steel
plant. However it is important to note that the metallurgical coal is relatively
lower in ash content and a lot of the ash is collected in the form of slag. Since this
is in a vitreous form, storage and handling could be easier. Secondly, the gases
from the coke oven are often re-used to the extent possible and are reportedly
often supplied to other users in the neighborhood.
Like the power plants, since the steel plants are also considered highly polluting,
there are under the constant scrutiny of the pollution control authorities. Elaborate
systems are often in place to minimize the release of emissions into the atmosphere.
But here again, there are reportedly no systems either to recover the sulfur or to
utilize the waste heat in the process.

9.5.2 Other Industries

No reliable data is available on the coal used by the other industries in the
region. As per the view of experts, the total consumption is not expected to be
more than 1 million tonnes per year at most. No data on the pattern of use has
been made available.

9.5.4 Domestic Sector

Again, no data on the use of coal by the households in the region is available.
However, since there is a population of nearly 14 million people, it was thought
necessary to prepare a rough estimate to understand the order of magnitude.
If the per capita consumption is about half kilogram per day (approx. 1,400 kcal),
the total consumption would be about 7,000 tonnes per day by a population of
14 million, or 2.55 million tonnes per year. The use of coal in the domestic sector
would include the informal sector of the economy, such as the thousands of eating
establishments and other similar tradesmen in the region.
 Material Balance of Coal (199596)
in Integrated Steel Plants of Damodar Valley 134
0.416 Clean CO Gas for
Vapor & Off gases By-Product Plant Heating and Other
Total By-products Consumers
Coke oven Battery Production: 0.39 0.63
6.67 Dry Coking Coal Raw Coke: By Products
Total Production: 5.10
Charged into the Batteries Oven Gas Tar: 0.21
BF Coke 4.43
Indigenous 4.32 1.03 Losses BTX: 011
Other Coke: 0.67
Imported 2.36 Nut Coke, Peart Coke Fugitive Chemicals: 0.06
Breeze and Mixed Breeze Emission Naphtha: 0.005 Losses Bleeding,
6.67 Market Product Line Leakage, etc.
Market Product 0.055
0.003
Average Characteristics of
Off Gases Clean BF Gas
Dry Clean Coking Coal
& Vapor 0.23 for Distribution
Fixed Carbon: 5859%
Moisture: 58% 1.76
Volatile Matter: 2123% Effluent Dust
Ash: 1720% 15-200 cu.m/hr Handling Top Gas 2.3
Catcher
Average Characteristics 20-25 gm SS Losses & ESP
of BF Coke 0.03
Fixed Carbon: 7476% Saleable Product
Moisture: 58% Hotmetal (4% Carbon) Solid Waste
Volatile Matter: 0.61% 5.77 for Dumping
Ash: 2325% BF Coke Blast
4.40 Carbon Output
POND Furnace
CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

Market 0.23
Iron Ore 9.67 (BF)
Product Carbon Losses etc.
(Pond Breeze) 0.06
Settleable Fluxes 3.74
Solid (SS) 0.6 Slag1.40

Effluent
100150 cu.m/hr Contents 1.10
1015 mg SS Ash of BF Coke
Sludge
Biological Effluent Cooling Pond Carbon Output
Units Treatment Plant Biological Effluent 0.20
million tonnes/year unless Treatment Plant (BETP)
mentioned otherwise Sludge Dumping Land Filling

Source: Estimates presented in the CSME Final Study Report, 1998.

 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 135

Hence the total consumption of coal by this sector could be as much as half the
consumption of all the power plants in the region. Since the quantities are likely
to be significant, an urgent effort is needed to get a better picture of the use by the
domestic sector.
Since the coal is burnt in crude stoves, the combustion efficiency is likely to be
poor, which would result in higher levels of pollution. The significance of this use
on the air quality of the region needs to be investigated.
In summary, the total usage of coal could be presented as in Figure 9.6.

F I G U R E 9.6
Usage of Coal by Different Sectors in
the Damodar Valley
Domestic Sectors
(2.55)
Other Industries Power Plants
(1.00) (6.57)

Steel Plants
(6.67) Units
million tonnes/annum

Since the annual production of coal in the Damodar Valley is 88.97 million tonnes,
it may be assumed that 69.83 million tonnes (2.36 million tonnes in the steel
sector is imported) are transported out of the Damodar region to other parts of the
country.
In relation to this, the storage, transportation and handling losses could be as high
as 8.87 million tonnes annually, which is almost 30% more than the amount of
coal consumed by the power utilities or by the steel plants!
136 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION

9.6 Implications for Policy Planning

Traditionally, in India, the entire focus of the environment policy has been to
concentrate on the pollution from industries (the end-of-pipe strategy), particularly
large scale industries. The Pollution Control Boards, the state level authorities
entrusted with the implementation of all environmental legislation tend to ignore
the other aspects of pollution. Understandably, the myriad academic and scientific
institutions working in the field also concentrate on these issues.
Furthermore, the focus of pollution control has traditionally been to minimize the
concentration of pollutants. The standards were usually set as parts per million.
This has partly changed with the introduction of the hazardous waste rules in 1989.
While designing this study, one of the objectives was to understand if this approach
is enough. Are the large industries the major source of pollution in the region?
Will the region look any cleaner if the large steel and power plants minimize their
emissions? The findings have served to highlight the problems of the region that
need urgent attention. The possible implications of the study could be summarized
as under:

1. It may be an urgent task to study the movement of specific pollutants through the
ecosystem. It is particularly necessary to study the uptake of various heavy metals by the
plants and the movement of these toxins up the various food chains in the region.
2. The groundwater used by the population in the area needs to be monitored regularly. If
high levels of any specific toxin are found, the origins of such toxins should be traced
back to the source. It may be mentioned that recently, high levels of arsenic were found
in the groundwater in metropolitan Kolkata. Regular monitoring of the groundwater will
prevent such incidents.
3. A fresh look needs to be taken at the handling and transportation systems of coal. The
options could include new methods of storage or handling such as filling coal in closed
containers for transportation at the mine, palletizing the coal dust at the mine and moving
coal through slurry pipelines. Although these may require large investments, it could be
the only way to clean the environment. Besides, the savings on the wastage could partly
or fully pay back the investments made.
 CASE STUDY OF THE DAMODAR VALLEY REGION 137

4. A serious review of the issue of transportation of coal by truck should be undertaken to

make a quantitative assessment of the total pollution load in the region caused by the
movement of these trucks.
5. A detailed assessment of the fuel needs of the population for domestic use must be taken
up, as use of coal in the domestic sector is a major contributor to the air pollution in the
region. There is an urgent need to generate fresh data in this area to assist decision-
making. The strategy options to minimize the pollution could include supply of cheap
cleaner alternative fuel (such as waste gases from industry) or promoting better quality
of stoves, which minimizes the pollution.
6. Efforts must be undertaken to recover sulfur from the waste gases, which would not only
result in clean air but also yield a valuable by-product.
7. Serious efforts must be made to find ways to utilize the waste heat generated in the
various industrial processes, particularly, the power plants.

These possible implications (and there could be many others) make a strong case
for the need to look beyond pollution issues, and promote a broad resource based
approach in areas like the Damodar Valley Basin. A regional RFA could provide
the basis for a comprehensive policy framework, laying the ground for sound
economic development, efficient use of resources, minimal environmental
impacts, and a better quality of life for the local population.