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Article history: Physical features, bioactive compounds and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of coloured quinoa varieties
Received 16 October 2014 (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) from Peruvian Altiplano were studied. Quinoa seeds did not show a pure red
Received in revised form 6 March 2015 colour, but a mixture which corresponded to different fractal colour values (51.071.8), and they varied
Accepted 10 March 2015
from small to large size. Regarding bioactive compounds, total phenolic (1.233.24 mg gallic acid equiva-
Available online 17 March 2015
lents/g) and avonol contents (0.472.55 mg quercetin equivalents/g) were highly correlated (r = 0.910).
Betalains content (0.156.10 mg/100 g) was correlated with L colour parameter (r = 0.569), total pheno-
Keywords:
lics (r = 0.703) and avonols content (r = 0.718). Ratio of betaxanthins to betacyanins (0.01.41) was
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)
Phenolic compounds
negatively correlated with L value (r = 0.744). Whereas, high TAC values (119.8335.9 mmol Trolox
Betalains equivalents/kg) were negatively correlated with L value (r = 0.779), but positively with betalains
Total antioxidant capacity (r = 0.730), as well as with free (r = 0.639), bound (r = 0.558) and total phenolic compounds (r = 0.676).
QUENCHER procedure Unexploited coloured quinoa seeds are proposed as a valuable natural source of phenolics and betalains
Peruvian Altiplano with high antioxidant capacity.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.029
0308-8146/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
84 F. Abderrahim et al. / Food Chemistry 183 (2015) 8390
2. Materials and methods calibrated by set scale option and thereafter, basic morphological
features area, perimeter, major and minor diameters- and shape
2.1. Chemicals descriptors circularity, round and solidity- were estimated by
particle analyses procedure from Image J.
2-aminoethyl diphenyl borate, 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethyl-
chroman-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox), bathocuproine disulfonic acid 2.4. Free, bound and total phenolics and avonols
disodium salt (BCS), copper sulphate, ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid disodium salt dihydrate (EDTA-Na2), gallic acid, and quercetin 2.4.1. Extraction procedure
were obtained from SigmaAldrich (Spain). Acetone, Folin Free and bound phenolics and avonols from the coloured qui-
Ciocalteau phenol reagent, methanol and sodium carbonate were noa samples were extracted by the previously reported procedure
purchased from Merck (Spain). Sulphuric acid was purchased from for pseudo-cereals (Abderrahim et al., 2012). Briey, samples were
Probus S.A. (Spain). successively extracted with acidic (HCl)-methanol/water (50:50,
v/v, pH 2) and acetone/water solutions (70:30, v/v) (40 g/L) on a
2.2. Coloured quinoa samples movil rod shaker (J.P. Selecta S.A, Barcelona, Spain) at maximum
speed for 1 h (room temperature). Supernatants, containing free
Thirteen Peruvian Altiplano coloured quinoa seeds (Chenopodium phenolics and avonols, were collected by centrifugation at
quinoa Willd.) were harvested in March 2014 from cultivated plants 2100g for 10 min (4 C). Thereafter, the pellets from previous
located at different provinces from Puno, Peru (Supplementary step, were extracted with methanol/H2SO4 (90:10, v/v) at 85 C
Table 1). Common Peruvian Altiplano names of the plants are: for 10 h and then centrifuged at 2100g for 10 min (4 C) to obtain
M1 = Cuchiwilla morado, M2 = Quinua rosada, M3 = Quinua chica, the bound phenolics fraction. A solvent/solid ratio equal to 100 was
M4 = Pasankalla dorado, M5 = Quinua real rosado, M6 = Pasankalla used for all extraction steps, and the extracts were protected from
rojo, M7 = Quinua rosado, M8 = Cuchiwilla roja, M9 = Ayrampo, light by covering them with aluminium foil. Aliquots of all extracts
M10 = Panela, M11 = Witulla roja, M12 = Cuchiwilla puaquinua and were stored at 20 C until analysis.
M13 = Vilacuyo. Whole quinoa seeds were used for colour measure-
ment, and morphological characterization, meanwhile chemical 2.4.2. Quantication of total phenolics
evaluation was performed on ground (commercial coffee blender, Total phenolics were assessed by the Folin Ciocalteu (FC) micro-
Endecotts Ltd., London, 102 England) and sieved (100 mm mesh) method adapted to a microplate reader (Abderrahim et al., 2011).
samples. Whole and nely powdered quinoa samples were packed Briey, 10 lL of the sample or gallic acid standard solution (0
in a sealed container and were stored at 20 C until analysis. 0.2 mg/mL) was pipetted in triplicate into separate wells from a
96-well microplate, and 10 lL of the FC reagent was added to
each, thoroughly mixed, and equilibrated at room temperature
2.3. Physical features of Peruvian Altiplano coloured quinoa
for 2 min. Thereafter, 80 lL of 5% (w/v) sodium carbonate was
added and the reaction was carried out in a water bath at 40 C
2.3.1. Image acquisition
for 10 min. The 96-well microplate was cooled to room tempera-
Twenty-ve top images of coloured quinoa seeds were
ture and the absorbance read at 740 nm in a Synergy HT Multi-
simultaneously acquired with an HP PSC 1510 scanner at their
Mode Microplate Reader (Biotek, Rochester, VT, USA). Free, bound
maximum resolution (HP, NY, USA) into an adapted black box to
and total phenolics content was expressed as mg Gallic Acid
avoid entering the external light in order to get the best image qual-
Equivalents (GAE) per gram of wet sample (r2 = 0.9972).
ity. A calibrated ruler was included in the image acquisition to help
calculate the colour and morphological features of the samples.
2.4.3. Quantication of total avonols
Total avonols were assessed by a colorimetric assay adapted
2.3.2. Colour features from Oomah and Mazza (Oomah & Mazza, 1996). Briey, 10 lL
Red (R), green (G) and blue (B) signals were obtained by image of extracts were mixed with 100 lL 2-aminoethyl diphenyl borate
analyses using the colour histogram tool of Image J programme (0.125% w/v in methanol) at room temperature for 10 min on a 96-
(http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/). RGB values were converted into hue well microplate and the absorbance was measured at 405 nm in a
H-saturation S-lightness L-values using the following equation: microplate reader (Abderrahim et al., 2012). Flavonols content
H = Arctan [(1.73/2) (GB)]/[R 0.5(G + B)], L = (R + G + B)/3, S = 1 was estimated from a quercetin standard calibration curve
lowest value of any ratio: R/L, G/L, or B/L (Condezo-Hoyos, (00.25 mM) and expressed as mg of Quercetin Equivalent (QE)
Mohanty, & Noratto, 2014; Medina, Skurtys, & Aguilera, 2010) per gram of wet sample.
and colour of the quinoa samples were represented in HSL space
colour (polar graph). In addition, fractal colour parameter was 2.5. Betalains
determined using harmonic and fractal image analyser software
HarFA 5.5.30 (http://www.fch.vutbr.cz/lectures/imagesci/). 2.5.1. Extraction procedure
Briey, red colour channel was split from each image and thresh- Betalains from the coloured quinoa samples were extracted
olded for colour values between 0 and 255. Then, the fractal with water/methanol solution (80:20 v/v) (20 g/L) under constant
dimension (FD) was determined by the box counting method and shaking at maximum speed on a movil rod shaker as above for
presented as a function of thresholding condition, which is called 30 min (room temperature). The samples were centrifuged at
fractal spectrum. After drawing the baseline (when FD = 1), area 2100g for 10 min at 4 C to collect supernatant containing beta-
under the curve from fractal spectra-fractal colour parameter lains (Swarna, Lokeswari, Smita, & Ravindhran, 2013). Aliquots
was calculated as previously reported (Lu, Zheng, Hu, Lou, & were stored at 20 C until analysis.
Kong, 2011).
2.5.2. Quantication
2.3.3. Morphological features Betalains content was determined as the sum of betacyanin and
Morphological features of coloured quinoa seeds were analyzed betaxanthin pigments by the spectrophotometric multiple-compo-
using Image J software (http://imagej.nih.gov/ij/). Firstly, RGB nent method of Nilsson (1970), adapted to a microplate reader. The
images were transformed to binary format and dimensionally measurements of absorption spectrum from the extracts were
F. Abderrahim et al. / Food Chemistry 183 (2015) 8390 85
performed in triplicate at 400700 nm every 1 nm. A residuals 1:1 v/v PPE-), 50 lL PPE, and 250 lL 0.5 mM CuSO4 (dissolved
procedure was used for peak separation and analysis (betacyanins in PPE) under shaking on a movil rod shaker at maximum speed
and betaxanthins) using a linear baseline, FFT lter for smooth- for 30 min (room temperature). Thereafter, 250 lL of 10 mM
ing and Gauss peak type model from PeakFit v.4.12 software EDTA-Na2 (dissolved in water) was added to stop the reaction
(Systat Software, Inc., USA). Betacyanin and betaxanthin contents and the samples were centrifuged at 2100g for 10 min at room
were quantied from estimated absorbance, after peak sep- temperature. Two hundred microlitre of supernatant was trans-
aration, by using molar extinction coefcients of 60,000 and ferred to a 96-well microplate and absorbance was read at
48,000 L mol 1 cm 1, respectively. Regarding chemical nature of 490 nm in a microplate reader. Total antioxidant capacity was
pigments from quinoa samples presence of betacyanins was calculated from a standard curve of Trolox (0320 lM) and
conrmed by reaction of extracts (200 lL) with 2 M NaOH expressed as mmol of Trolox Equivalent (TE) per kg of wet sample.
(12.5 lL). A change from pink to yellow colour indicated that
pigment was betacyanin (Harborne, 1998).
2.7. Statistical analysis
2.6. Total antioxidant capacity
Pearson correlation analysis and principal component analysis
A modied direct QUENCHER-CUPRAC procedure was used to (PCA), for automatically standardized physical or chemical data
perform total antioxidant capacity of coloured quinoa samples (on mean-centred), were performed using IBM SPSS statistics 19
(Campos, Guzmn, Lpez-Fernndez, & Casado, 2009; Tufan, (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). Polar graph (HSL model colour) was
elik, zyrek, Gl, & Apak, 2013). Briey, 2 mg of the sample performed using SigmaPlot 11.0 software (Systat Software, Inc.,
was put on each tube and reacted with 950 lL of 0.25 mM CA, USA). Area under the curve from fractal spectra was calculated
BCS (dissolved in 10 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.4/ethanol by GraphPad (GraphPad Prism 6.1, San Diego, CA, USA).
Fig. 1. Colour parameters of coloured quinoa seeds from Peruvian Altiplano on HSL space colour. (A) Lightness (%) and (B) Saturation (%) and Hue (sexagesimal grade) were
calculated from RGB values obtained from 25 images by histogram color analysis. Common names of the samples are: M1 = Cuchiwilla morado, M2 = Quinua rosada,
M3 = Quinua chica, M4 = Pasankalla dorado, M5 = Quinua real rosado, M6 = Pasankalla rojo, M7 = Quinua rosado, M8 = Cuchiwilla roja, M9 = Ayrampo, M10 = Panela,
M11 = Witulla roja, M12 = Cuchiwilla puaquinua and M13 = Vilacuyo. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
86 F. Abderrahim et al. / Food Chemistry 183 (2015) 8390
Table 1
Morphological and fractal colour features of coloured quinoa seeds (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) from Peruvian Altiplano.
III, IV) with decreasing levels of both, L value and fractal colour, seeds from Peruvian Altiplano (Table 2). The above avonols con-
respectively (Fig. 2). To the best of our knowledge, this is the rst tent was comparable to that of total avonoids for quinoa seeds
time that the above physical parameters have been successfully (white, red and black) commercialized in the Canadian market
applied to group coloured quinoa samples. (1.55.0 mg catechin equivalent/g quinoa sample) (Tang et al.,
2015). However, avonols content found in coloured quinoa seeds
3.2. Free, bound and total phenolics and avonols in coloured quinoa from Peruvian Altiplano was markedly higher than total avonoids
seeds (36.2 to 144.3 mg/100 g quinoa sample) of some other coloured
quinoa seeds (Pasankalla, Roja de Coporaque and Witulla) (Repo-
Coloured quinoa seeds from Peruvian Altiplano showed free Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010). Differences in extraction, hydroly-
phenolic values comprised between 1.23 and 3.41 mg GAE/g sam- sis procedures and analytical techniques are likely to explain the
ple (Table 2), which are comparable to those found for red quinoa content of total avonols found in the present study, and total
samples (4.2 mg GAE/g sample) grown in Ontario (Canada) (Tang avonoids reported by Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al. (2010).
et al., 2015), canihua (2.5 mg GAE/g sample dry weight) another Similarly, total avonols of coloured quinoa seeds from Peruvian
Altiplano pseudo-cereal that belongs to the same genus as the Altiplano (1937% of total phenolics, as calculated from Table 2)
quinoa seed (Abderrahim et al., 2012) and different types of were similar to the free avonoids in white, red and black geno-
millet (1.46.3 mg ferulic acid equivalent/g defatted sample) types of quinoa seeds commercialized in the Canadian markets,
(Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2010). Regarding bound phenolics con- which reached only approximately 30% of total phenolics (Tang
tent, coloured quinoa seeds from Peruvian Altiplano showed values et al., 2015). In contrast, a very high avonoids percentage regard-
ranging from 1.28 to 4.52 mg GAE/g (Table 2) and a ratio of free to ing total phenolics was reported for some red quinoa seeds from
bound phenolics between 0.5 and 2.0 (calculated from data in Peruvian Altiplano: roja de coporaque (69.3%), witulla (69.5%) and
Table 2). The former values were similar to those found (0.61.6) 03-21-0093 (54.6%) (Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010). These
for other previously studied Altiplanos coloured quinoa seeds differences could be explained by the short time (30 min) and
(Pasankalla, Roja de Coporaque and Witulla) (Repo-Carrasco- low acid concentration (approximately 1 M HCl) employed by
Valencia et al., 2010). On the contrary, bound phenolics in coloured Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al. (2010), which did not allow the full
quinoa were lower than those found for canihua seed (8.8 mg/g extraction of bound phenolics from quinoa samples, predomi-
sample dry weight) (Abderrahim et al., 2012) and whole millet nantly composed by phenolic acids in cereals (Acosta-Estrada
types (0.415.9 mg ferulic acid/g defatted sample) (Chandrasekara et al., 2014).
& Shahidi, 2010). However, the hydrolysis conditions (2 M HCl at A very high positive association was found between total pheno-
85 C for 1 h) employed to release bound phenolics, could also lics and total avonols (r = 0.91, p < 0.0001). Another interesting
increase furan derivatives that at very high concentration negative correlation was found between phenolic compounds and
(>3000 mg/kg) could react with FolinCiocalteau reagent leading L values (value r = 0.619, p = 0.024), which reected well that
to the overestimation of bound phenolic content. In the present both phenolics and pigments from coloured quinoa samples
study an efcient hydrolysis with methanol and sulphuric acid are simultaneously extracted in methanol, and that an improvement
(instead of hydrochloric acid), avoided furan derivatives formation in phenolic compounds was accompanied by an increase in pig-
and released bound phenolics by more than vefold, compared to a ments content. Finally, a signicant and positive association between
previous report using alkaline hydrolysis for nonextractable free avonols and free phenolics (r = 0.677, p = 0.011), bound avo-
polyphenols in cereal samples (Arranz & Saura Calixto, 2010). In nols and bound phenolics (r = 0.838, p < 0.0001), and total avonols
fact, a positive correlation (r = 0.838; p < 0.0001) between bound and total phenolics (r = 0.910, p < 0.0001) was found.
phenolics and bound avonols, conrmed the lack of interferences
for furan derivatives, as detected with 2-aminoethyldiphenyl 3.3. Betalains content of coloured quinoa seeds
borate colorimetric assay.
Previous studies have described that quinoa seeds are an excep- The presence of betalains in red quinoa seeds remains contro-
tionally rich source of avonols, such as quercetin and kaempferol versial, despite quinoa belong to the same family as amaranth,
(Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010; Tang et al., 2015). In the which seed contains low levels of amaranthine type of betacyanins
present study, we have also demonstrated a very high content of (1.4 mg/100 g). Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al. (2010) do not detect
total avonols (0.472.55 mg QE/mg sample) in quinoa coloured the presence of betacyanins in some Peruvian Altiplanos red
Table 2
Free and bound phenolics, avonols and total antioxidant capacity of coloured quinoa seeds (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) from Peruvian Altiplano.
Sample Phenolics (mg GAE/g) Flavonols (mg QE/g) Betalains (mg/100 g) TAC (mmol TE/kg)
Free Bound Total Free Bound Total Bcy Bx Total
M1 2.87 0.17 4.01 0.11 6.89 0.06 0.75 0.02 1.32 0.04 2.06 0.02 4.18 0.21 0.44 0.01 4.63 0.03 321.4 3.2
M2 1.90 0.16 3.81 0.33 5.71 0.17 0.90 0.16 0.33 0.11 1.23 0.05 1.20 0.08 0.18 0.01 1.38 0.05 219.5 10.5
M3 3.24 0.03 2.45 0.05 5.69 0.02 0.93 0.06 0.75 0.02 1.68 0.04 3.59 0.18 0.59 0.02 4.17 0.06 264.4 11.0
M4 2.72 0.03 1.45 0.08 4.17 0.10 0.92 0.04 0.38 0.03 1.30 0.01 1.99 0.07 0.52 0.03 2.51 0.05 201.4 10.6
M5 1.23 0.18 1.28 0.04 2.50 0.22 0.30 0.02 0.16 0.03 0.47 0.01 0.15 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.01 119.8 2.8
M6 2.77 0.01 4.29 0.17 7.07 0.18 0.81 0.16 1.34 0.03 2.15 0.13 2.94 0.10 1.63 0.01 4.57 0.07 335.9 12.2
M7 2.67 0.13 1.79 0.02 4.46 0.15 1.13 0.23 0.28 0.03 1.40 0.19 0.43 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.02 182.3 8.2
M8 2.59 0.13 2.53 0.03 5.12 0.02 1.12 0.00 0.75 0.17 1.87 0.17 1.78 0.05 0.30 0.01 2.08 0.04 311.7 2.3
M9 3.41 0.06 4.52 0.06 7.92 0.12 1.08 0.12 1.47 0.10 2.55 0.02 5.23 0.23 0.87 0.04 6.10 0.12 259.2 9.8
M10 1.38 0.02 1.89 0.03 3.27 0.05 0.62 0.06 0.52 0.08 1.14 0.02 0.38 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.43 0.03 167.2 9.9
M11 2.54 0.02 3.04 0.17 5.58 0.19 0.84 0.05 0.89 0.01 1.72 0.04 0.68 0.03 0.46 0.01 1.14 0.04 262.2 12.5
M12 2.98 0.03 3.23 0.06 6.20 0.09 1.09 0.10 1.10 0.06 2.19 0.04 1.87 0.05 0.42 0.02 2.29 0.04 267.6 3.7
M13 2.57 0.15 4.09 0.18 6.66 0.33 0.52 0.03 1.29 0.03 1.81 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.00 162.6 4.9
Fig. 3. Correlation between the total antioxidant capacity measured by QUENCHER-CUPRAC procedure and L value as colour parameter, total betalains and free, bound and
total phenolics and avonols in coloured quinoa seed from Peruvian Altiplano. A parametric Pearson procedure was used and p < 0.05 denote a statistical signicance. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
quinoa seeds (pasankalla, roja de coporaque and witulla). Contrarily, presence of bioactive components based on a good correlation
UV/Vis spectra, retention time and MS data show that commercial (Fischer et al., 2013). For the rst time, this study described the
red and black quinoa cultivated in Canada contain betanin and iso- existence of negative associations between total betalains content
betanin in similar doses to those found in beet root a rich source of and L values (r = 0.569, p = 0.043), as well as between betax-
betalains, but no quantitative data are reported (Tang et al., 2015). anthins to betacyanins ratio and L values (r = 0.744, p = 0.004)
In the present study, variable betalain contents (0.156.10 mg/ in Peruvian Altiplanos coloured quinoa seeds. A similar correlation
100 g, expressed as the sum of betacyanins and betaxanthins) has been observed between betalains content and CIELAB parame-
(Table 2) have been found, for the rst time, in coloured quinoa ters (r = 0.72) in fruits from different genotypes of Hylocereus sp.;
seeds from Peruvian Altiplano. Moreover, betaxanthin to betacya- i.e., the increase in betalains content was accompanied by an
nin ratios (01.4) (Table 2) were lower than those of beet root increase in the red colour of the samples. Moreover, a positive
(0.23). The presence of betalains in all extracts from coloured and signicant correlation was found between betaxanthins to
quinoa samples was qualitatively conrmed by the change in the betacyanins ratio and S values (r = 0.911, p < 0.001), which showed
initial colour from red to yellow, after treatment with 2 M sodium that an increase in the betaxanthins or a decrease in betacyanins
hydroxide (data not shown). It was also indicated by peaks at contributed to saturate the colour of coloured quinoa samples. It
479 5 nm and 537 4 nm in the absorption spectra, obtained was demonstrated that coloured quinoa samples consisted of a
by peak separation analysis (Supplementary Fig. 2). Absorption colour mixture related to the wide range of betaxanthins to beta-
spectra also allowed coloured quinoa samples to be classied into cyanins ratio values (S < 40) (Fig. 1B). Ultimately, a signicant
two groups by comparison with beet root extract: the rst one correlation between total betalains and total phenolics (r = 0.703,
with a similar spectra (M1, M2, M3, M4, M6, M8, M9, M10, M11, p = 0.007), and total avonols (r = 0.718, p = 0.006) was also found
M12) and the second one in which the peak related to betaxanthins in coloured quinoa seeds. An increase in total phenolic index (sum
was lacking (M5, M7, M13) (Supplementary Fig. 3). of all individual concentrations) with colour intensity has also
On the other hand, colour analysis has been suggested as an been found in white, red and black quinoa (Tang et al., 2015).
efcient and practical technique to indirectly estimate the We hypothesize that an up-regulation of the shikimate pathway,
F. Abderrahim et al. / Food Chemistry 183 (2015) 8390 89
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