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Nucleic acids have roles in the storage and retrieval of genetic information and in
the use of this information to synthesise polypeptides. DNA is an extremely stable
molecule that cells replicate with extreme accuracy. The genetic code is used by
cells for assembling amino acids in correct sequences to make polypeptides. In
eukaryotes this involves the processes of transcription in the nucleus to produce
short-lived molecules of messenger RNA followed by translation in the
cytoplasm.
Structure of Nucleotide:
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are two types of
nucleic acids. These are polynucleotides, i.e. polymers built up from basic
units of monomers called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three parts; a
pentose sugar, a phosphate and an organic nitrogenous base. Note that
both DNA and RNA contain phosphate and nitrogen.
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Nitrogenous base: Each nucleic acid contains four different bases, two
derived from purine and two from pyrimidine. The nitrogen in the rings gives
the molecules their basic nature. The two purines are Adenine (A) and Guanine
(G). The two pyrimidines are Thymine (T) and Cytosine(C) in DNA with Uracil
(U) in place of thymine in RNA. Thymine is chemically very similar to uracil.
Purines have two rings and pyrimidines have one ring in their structure.
Phosphate: Phosphoric acid gives nucleic acids their acid character, and it
joins the adjacent nucleic acids by means of phosphodiester bond.
The nitrogen containing bases are commonly represented by their initial letters A,
G, T, U and C.
The nucleotide as monomers can be joined together to form a polymer
(polymerisation). The phosphate group of one nucleotide is joined with a
phosphodiester bond to a pentose sugar of another by a condensation
reaction.
ATP, adenosine triphosphate, is often called the energy currency of the cell.
Reactions that take place within a cell require small amounts of energy, certainly
not all the energy that is contained in a single glucose molecule. Therefore, cells
convert energy to little energy packets of ATP that can be used to power small
reactions. ATP is very similar to one of the bases in DNA, adenine. It is thought
that ATP was probably one of the earliest molecules formed on primitive earth
when life first began. ATP is an adenine with three phosphate groups attached to
it. The phosphate groups give ATP its energy. In your cells there is always a pool of
two molecules. There is a pool of ATP, the triphosphate. The "T" stands for those
three phosphate groups. There is also a pool of ADP, the "D" stands for "di," or two
phosphate groups. ATP can be broken down to ADP if a water molecule is inserted
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between the last two phosphates. This is hydrolysis. A water molecule is used to
break a chemical bond, releasing energy. When ATP is converted to ADP, it is an
exothermic reaction, and a phosphate is released at the same time. This ADP can
be converted back to ATP, by adding a phosphate and storing energy in that
chemical bond, through dehydration synthesis, where water is released. As ATP is
used to power cellular work, ADP is produced, and then it is "recharged" with more
energy, regenerating ATP.
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b) describe the structure of RNA and DNA and explain the importance
of base pairing and the different hydrogen bonding between bases
(include reference to adenine and guanine as purines and to cytosine,
thymine and uracil as pyrimidines. Structural formulae for bases are
not required but the recognition that purines have a double ring
structure and pyrimidines have a single ring structure should be
included)
RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a nucleic acid built up from four types of RNA nucleotides
each with a different base. The larger purine bases are adenine and guanine. The
smaller pyrimidine bases are uracil and cytosine. This is similar to DNA except
that the base uracil replaces thymine and the pentose sugar ribose replaces
deoxyribose.
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The two strands are twisted to form a double helix. The helical arrangement and
the hydrogen bonds between the bases help to make the DNA molecule very stable.
This is very important for DNAs function as a store of genetic information. The
DNA will tend to stay unchanged for the lifetime of the cell.
By being double stranded with the base attached to each other, the bases and their
specific sequence are protected from most damage. Damage (mutation) is fairly
rare.
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Functions of DNA
DNA is a genetic material as it is inherited and contains the coded information for
protein synthesis.
DNA contains coded information in form of genes. The precise order and
sequence of the different bases along a strand of DNA varies. It is this sequence
which forms the genetic information or genetic code stored by the DNA. By
controlling which proteins (particularly enzymes) are made, genes determine the
characteristics and development of organisms.
DNA Replication
DNA has the only set of genetic instructions in a cell. These instructions are
different for each species. When new cells are made in cell division each new cell
must receive an exact copy of the instructions to function properly. Replication is
also essential for inheritance. The DNA has to copy itself accurately to allow
offspring to inherit genes from parents.
DNA replication is semi conservative. The two strands unzip and each strand
acts as a template for the formation of a new strand. Each new DNA molecule
contains one of the old strands and one new strand. The old molecule is semi
conserved (half conserved).
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DNA Replication
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Genetic Code
A triplet Code
The genetic code is a triplet code. Twenty different amino acids are used to make
proteins. The genetic code must be able to code for all 20. A triplet code of three
bases per amino acid produces sixty four possible combinations, more than
enough.
A degenerate Code:
There are 64 different triplets of DNA bases and only 20 different amino acids
which mean there is excess capacity in the genetic code. The code is referred to as
degenerate code because some amino acids are coded for by more than one
triplet of DNA bases. Also, some triplets act as a full stop to end the series of triplet
words, e.g. TAA.
One important implication of degeneracy is that a mutation which substitutes one
DNA base for another may not alter the amino acid coded for. The mutation may
have no effect on the protein produced.
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Gene:
Gene is a sequence of nucleotides that forms part of a DNA molecule and a
polypeptide is coded for by a gene
GENE MUTATION:
It is a change in the sequence of nucleotides that may result in an altered
polypeptide
c) Describe the way in which the nucleotide sequence codes for the
amino acid sequence in a polypeptide with reference to the nucleotide
sequence for HbA (normal) and HbS (sickle cell) alleles of the gene
for the -globin polypeptide
Sickle cell anemia is the most common form of sickle cell disease (SCD). SCD is a
serious disorder in which the body makes sickle-shaped red blood cells. Sickle-
shaped means that the red blood cells are shaped like a crescent.
Normal red blood cells are disc-shaped and look like doughnuts without holes in
the center. They move easily through the blood vessels. Red blood cells contain an
iron-rich protein called hemoglobin. This protein carries oxygen from the lungs to
the rest of the body.
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Cause
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Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis occurs in all cells at the ribosomes and involves the assembly
of amino acids in the correct order into polypeptide chains as directed by the
genetic code on the DNA. Polypeptides are then later modified into proteins.
In eukaryotic cells the DNA is found in the nucleus but protein synthesis occurs
at ribosomes, which are in the cytoplasm. Transporting the DNA instructions
to the cytoplasm would risk damage to the vital DNA. Instead the instructions
are copied from the DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA), which takes the message
to the ribosomes where the mRNA directs the synthesis of the particular
polypeptide.
Stage 1. Transcription
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Stage 4: Translation
After attachment, the ribosome
moves along the mRNA strand
reading the information of the
codons. At the ribosome the mRNA
strand and the tRNAs are brought
close together. Each codon of mRNA
bases attracts a tRNA with the
complementary anticodon due to
specific base pairing. As each tRNA
carries a particular amino acid, this
results in the building up of amino
acids in a specific sequence.
Peptide bonds form between the
amino acids, joining them up into a
polypeptide chain. The sequence of
amino acids in the polypeptide
represents the primary structure of
the protein. The tRNAs now become
detached from the amino acids and
leave the ribosome to collect another
amino acid. Messenger RNA is
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relatively short lived but it may be used a number of times before it is broken down.
This avoids synthesizing excess protein.
The sequence of bases on the mRNA has been translated into a specific sequence
of amino acids. The sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence of
mRNA, which in turn was determined originally, by the DNA base sequence of the
gene.
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