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Chapter 15 Direct current circuits

15.1 Internal resistance

15.2 Kirchhoff s laws
15.3 Potential divider
15.4 Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge

Introduction
Voltage (PD and EMF)
1. In the circuit below, several cells have been linked in a line to form a battery. The potential
difference (PD) across the battery terminals is 12 volts (V). This means that each coulomb (C) of
charge will 'spend' 12 Joules of energy in moving round the circuit from one terminal to the other.

Figure 15- 1. EMF, current flow and PD

The PD across the bulb is also 12 V. This means that, for each coulomb pushed through it,
12 J of electrical energy is changed into other forms (heat and light energy).
PD may be measured using a voltmeter as shown above.
PD, energy, and charge are linked by this equation:
Energy transformed = charge x PD
For example, if a charge of 2 C moves through a PD of 3 V, the energy transformed is 6 J.
Vbulb IRbulb

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2. The voltage produced by the chemical reactions inside a battery is called the electromotive
force (EMF,E). When a battery is supplying current, some energy is wasted inside it, which reduces
the PD across its terminals. For example, when a torch battery of EMF 3.0 V is supplying current,
the PD across its terminals be might be only 2.5 V.
E Vbulb IRbulb
3. Do remember that the current that is flow from positive terminal to negative terminal is the same
at each point on the circuit (The current that flow through the external circuit). This happen because
charge is conserved.

15.1 Internal resistance

(a) explain the effects of internal resistance on the terminal potential difference of a battery in a
circuit;

Internal resistance
1. In reality, when a battery is supplying current, its output PD is less than its EMF. The greater the
current, the lower the output PD. This reduced voltage is due to energy dissipation in the battery. In
effect, the battery has internal resistance. Mathematically, this can be treated as an additional
resistor in the circuit.

Figure 15- 2
2. The battery above is supplying a current I to an external circuit. The battery has a constant
internal resistance r. If the internal resistance, r behaves according to the Ohms law and
independent of the current. The PD of the resistance is given by:
From Kirchhoffs second law :
VR E Ir

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E IR Ir
Where V IR , so E V Ir

Figure 15- 3
The graph above shows how V varies with I. Unlike earlier graphs, V is on the vertical axis.
Note:
When I is zero, V E . In other words, when a battery is in open circuit (no external
circuit), the PD across its terminals is equal to its EMF
When R is zero, V is zero. In other words, when the battery is in short circuit (its terminals
directly connected), its output PD is zero. In this situation, the battery is delivering the
maximum possible current, Imax , which is equal to E r . Also, the battery's entire energy

output is being wasted internally as heat.

E E
As Imax , it follows that r . So the gradient of the graph is numerically equal
r Imax
to the internal resistance of the battery.
E
3. From E IR Ir we can have I these mean that the battery (source of EMF) is
RExt rint
not the source of current, whereas the external resistance is the source of current. Meaning that if
the external resistance is big then the current will be lower.
4. Potential changes around the circuit can be shown as figure below when we assume the
resistances is following Ohmic Law.

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Figure 15- 4: Potential Change can be Potential Rise or Potential Drop.

5. If both sides of equation E IR Ir are multiplied by I, the result is VI EI I 2r .

Rearranged, this gives the following:

Figure 15- 5
6. Ohms Law give us the idea of constant resistances in the circuit and we can find the current or
PD. The resistors its self can be arrange in two combinations whether parallel or series.

Example 15.1
A dry cell with EMF 1.5 V is connected in series to a resistor and battery. If a current 3.0 flow, PD
across dry cell is 0.42 V. what is the internal resistance of dry cell?
Solution:
Internal Resistance of a dry cell:

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E V Ir
1.5V 0.42 3.0r
1.08
r 0.36
3. 0

15.2 Kirchhoff's law

(b) state and apply Kirchhoff s laws;

Introduction

Figure 15- 6
1. Figure 15-5 shows three typical circuit diagrams that might need to be solved (e.g. given the
resistances of all the resistors and the voltages of all the batteries, find all of the currents). Figure
15-5 (a) can be solve easily using Ohms Law, but (b) and (c) cannot be solved using the same
law. Instead, we must write down Kirchhoff's laws and solve the equations.

Kirchhoff's first law (KFL)

Figure 15- 7
Junction is a point where two or more conductor meet together.
The currents at junctions X and Y above illustrate a law which applies to all circuits:
Kirchhoff's first law
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero

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It arises because, in a complete circuit, charge is never gained or lost. The junction rule is based on
the conservation of the electric charge . So the total rate of flow of charge is constant. This means
that :

I 0 (Junctionrule,valid at any junction)

Lets consider:
Current Junction:

Figure 15- 8
Positive Direction: I1 ,I 5

Negative Direction: I 3 ,I 4 ,I 2

Used Kirchoffs First Law:

I I 1 I 5 (I 3 ) (I 4 ) (I 2 ) 0
Kirchhoff's second law (KSL)
Energy, work and EMF
1. When we discuss about the KSL we have to represent the EMF in term of magnitude and
direction inside the circuit. The EMF device always keeps one of their terminal labeled + at
higher electric potential than labeled -. This will present in arrow diagram as:

Figure 15- 9. Potential rise direction in EMF

2. When connected to the circuit, EMF will cause a net flow of positive charge from positive terminal
to negative terminal in the same direction as EMF, this flow is part of current. The flows of current
through the load (resistor) within the circuit will made the EMF drop this concept name as
potential fall. The direction of the potential fall as same as the current flow.

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Figure 15- 10. Potential rise in resistor (PD rise Direction)

3 . In order to help us recognise potential rise and potential fall easily in a circuit, we can draw
Voltage arrows1. The arrow showing the rise of the potential rise inside EMF and PD(resistor).
Draw an arrow beside each component found in a loop which is of interest to us.
(i) For a battery(EMF), draw an arrow that points at the positive terminal.
We will experience a potential rise if we move through the battery, following the
direction of the arrow (from terminal to V terminal). Conversely, if we move in the
opposite direction (from '+' terminal to - terminal), we will experience a potential fall,
(ii) For a resistor(PD), draw an arrow that points at the direction of current entering the
resistor.
We will experience a potential rise if we move through the resistor following the
direction of the arrow.

Figure 15- 11. Drawing voltage arrow,the voltage rise.

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The direction of arrow refer to the potential rise whether in EMF or PD

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Figure 15- 12 Electric Circuit

4. The arrangement above is called 'a circuit'. But, really, there are two complete circuits through
the battery and one complete circuit without going through battery. These will be called closed
loops. Loop direction can be draw clockwise or anti clockwise without referring to any condition.
Lets consider:
Complete Circuit (closed Loop)
Parallel Series

Figure 15- 14
Closed Loop 1

Figure 15- 13
Closed Loop 1 and closed Loop 2 can be form

4. In the circuit above, charge leaves the battery with electrical potential energy. As the charge
flows round a loop, its energy is 'spent' - in stages - as heat. The principle that the total energy
supplied is equal to the total energy spent (conservation of energy) is expressed by Kirchhoff's
second law.
Kirchhoff's second law
Round any closed loop of a circuit, the algebraic sum of the EMFs is equal to the algebraic sum of
the PDs (i.e. the algebraic sum of all the IRs).
This would means that :

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V 0 (loop rule,valid for any closedloop)

Note:
- From the law, it follows that if sections of a circuit are in parallel, they have the same
PD across them.
- 'Algebraic' implies that the direction of the potential (EMF and PD) must be
considered. There are two rule have to be followed to determine the direction of the
voltage.
- Do remember that this equation can be interpret as

EMF PD 0
or

EMF PD

5. The sign rule. To determine the sign of EMF and PD in the circuit to apply the algebraic condition
of the KSL.
EMF and PD
+ Voltage Arrow Direction as same as Loop Direction
- Voltage Arrow Direction oppose Loop Direction
Table 15- 1. This sign convention can be use if we consired EMF PD 0
EMF and PD
+ Voltage Arrow Direction as same as Loop Direction
+ Voltage Arrow Direction oppose Loop Direction
Table 15- 2. This sign convention can be use if we consired EMF PD
6. For example, in the circuit below, its assume that the current is flow in counter clock wise2, the
EMF of the right-hand battery is taken as negative (-4 V) because it is opposing the loop direction
and the voltage drop is positive because its oppose to the loop direction, therefore:

2 Assumption have to be done

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Figure 15- 15. Current,Voltage arrow and Loop.

(a) Algebraic sum of EMFs = 18 + (-4)= +14V

(b) Algebraic sum of IRs (Voltage drop) = -(2 x 3) +- (2 x 4) = -14 V
Applying the second Kirchhoffs law the equation will be:

EMF V 0
OR
(a) Algebraic sum of EMFs = 18 + (-4)= +14V
(b) Algebraic sum of IRs (Voltage drop) = (2 x 3) +(2 x 4) = 14 V
Applying the second Kirchhoffs law the equation will be:

EMF V
6. KSL can be simplified by :

Draw Draw
state the
current voltage Draw Loop
sign of EMF use KSL
direction in arrow for Direction
and PD
circuit EMF and PD

Figure 15- 16

7. Potential different,V between two point in a circuit. Using the real current direction in KSL, we
can compare the potential between two point.

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Figure 15- 17.

11. Electric potential at a point in a direct current (d.c.) circuit can be found if the zero potential point
(earth-point) is given in the circuit. The zero potential point is the reference point, the potential at all
points in the circuit are compared to this point.
12. Differences between electromotive force and potential difference
i. Potential difference is a measure of the amount of energy dissipated per coulomb charge in a
conductor whereas electromotive force is the amount of energy supplied to one coulomb of
charge by a battery.
ii. Potential difference is the amount of electrical energy that is converted into other forms of
energy per coulomb of charge whereas electromotive force is the amount of chemical energy in
a battery that is converted into electrical energy per coulomb of charge.

Using Kirchhoffs Law to derive formula for resistance of resistor

Resistors in parallel

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Figure 15- 18
- From Kirchhoffs second law (applied to the various loops):
E = IR (Loop with total Resistor) and E = I1 R1 (Loop with Resistor R1)
And E = I2 R2 (Loop with Resistor R2)
-From Kirchhoffs first law I = I1 + I2.
So
E E E

R R1 R2
1 1 1

R R1 R2
Resistors in series
If R1 and R2 below have a total resistance of R then R is the single resistance which could replace
them.

Figure 15- 19
From Kirchhoffs first law, all parts of the circuit have the same current /through them because there
is only one input and one output.

-From Kirchhoffs second law

E= IR and E= IR1 + IR2.
So IR = IR1 + IR2
R=R1+R2

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For example, if R1 = 3 and R2 = 6 , then R = 9 .

Example 15.2
Figure below shows that EMF E1 is 21V and its internal resistance is assume as zero.
EMF E2 is 84V and its internal resistance, r2 = 4. Calculate the total current.

Figure 15- 20

Solution : Using both KFL and KSL

1. Draw Current Direction : Used Kirchoffs first Law

Pick a junction and assume the direction of the

current. This current direction not necessary the
correct direction. When we applied KFL then the
equation will be:
I 3 I 2 I1

Figure 15- 21

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2. Draw voltage direction : Voltage drop and EMF

Voltage3 rise (Voltage across resistance) directions

depend on assumption of current direction being
made in figure 15-17.

EMF directions depend on how the source connected

in the circuit.

Figure 15- 22

3. Number of complete circuit : closed Loop

Determine number of closed loop can be form from
the circuit diagram. From the closed loop we can
determine the appropriate combination of equation.
Not all loop can be used to solve the problem. Here
we can see that loop 1 and loop 2 combine will result
the loop 3. as a result, only any two combination of
loop will solved the problem.
Loop direction can be choose any direction whether
Figure 15- 23
clockwise or anti clockwise.

4. applied Kirchoffs second law : write the appropriate Here, for every loop (1,2 and 3) we need to apply
equation EMF rule and resistance rule. From this rule we can
rearrange the term using KSL to form three equation
:
loop EMF sign Voltage sign
(EMF rule) (Resistance rule)
1 E1 I 2R1 ,I 3R3
2 E2 I1R2 ,I1r2 ,I 3R3
3 E1 ,E 2 I2R1,I1R2 ,I1r2
Figure 15- 24

3
Potential or Voltage refer to the same quantity, UK usually use potential, US usually use voltage. Example
Potential rise/Voltage rise and Potential drop/Voltage drop.

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Applying Kirchhoffs second law4

EMF V 0
To every loop to form the equation:
Loop Equation
1 E1 (I 2R1 I 3R3 ) 0
2 E2 I1R2 (I1r2 ) (I3R3 ) 0
3 E1 E2 (I2R1 ) (I1R2 ) (I1r2 ) 0

After having the equation from KFL and KSL then we have to solve the problem.
From KFL we have:
I3 I2 I1 (1)
From KSL we have:
E1 (I2R1 I3R3 ) 0 (2)

E2 I1R2 I1r2 ) I3R3 0 (3)

Note: we cannot only used all three equation from KSL because loop no 3 is the combination of loop no 1 and
2. The combination of loop 3 and loop 2 and loop 3 and loop 1 also can be used. The above equation (1),(2)
and (3) can be solved using simultaneous equation.
Substitute : E1 21V , E 2 84V , R1 3, R 2 12 and R 3 6

21V I 2 (3) ( I 3 (6) 0 (2)

84V I1 (12) ( I1 ( 4)) (I3 (6) 0 (3)

21V I2 (3) (I1 I2 )(6) 0 (4)

84V I1(16) ((I1 I2 )(6)) 0 (5)
Solving simultaneous equation then :
35V 0.78
I1 3.889 A , I 2 0.26 A and I 3 3.889 A 0.26 A 3.63 A
9 3

4
Do remember that is the KSL is EMF PD 0 , not to be confuse with
EMF PD

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I 2 is negative, this means that the current flow is in the opposite direction with what have been assume.
Others are as same as what have been imagined.

15.3 Potential divider

(c) explain a potential divider as a source of variable voltage;
(d) explain the uses of shunts and multipliers;

Potential divider
a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a linear circuit that produces an output
voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input voltage (Vin)

A potential divider or potentiometer like the one below passes on a fraction of the PD supplied to it.

Figure 15- 25
In the input loop above, the total resistance = R1 + R2.
Vin
So I
(R1 R2 )
But Vout = IR2,
R2
so Vout ( )Vin
R1 R2

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Note:
The above analysis assumes that no external circuit is connected across R2. If such a circuit is
connected, then the output PD is reduced.

In electronics, a potential divider can change the signals from a sensor (such as a heat or
Iight.detector) into voltage changes which can be processed electrically. For example, if R2 is a
thermistor, then a rise in temperature will cause a fall in R2 and therefore a fall in Vout. Similarly, if R2
is a lightdependent resistor (LDR), then a rise in light level will cause a fall in R2, and therefore a fall
in Vout.
Potential dividers are not really suitable for high-power applications because of energy dissipation

Shunt and multiplier

(a) Conversion of Galvanometer to ammeter

Figure 15- 26
Real ammeters always have some finite resistance, but it is always desirable for an ammeter to
have as little resistance as possible.

We can adapt any meter to measure currents that are larger than its full-scale reading by
connecting a resistor in parallel with it so that some of the current bypasses the meter coil.

The parallel resistor is called a shunt resistor or simply a shunt. denoted as R sh

Suppose we want to make a meter with full-scale current If, and coil resistance , R c into an

ammeter with full-scale reading I fs .

To determine the shunt resistance R sh needed, note that at full-scale deflection the total current

through the parallel combination is I a , the current through the coil of the meter is I fs , and the
current

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through the shunt is the difference I a I fs ,. The potential difference Vab is the same for both paths,
so
I fs R c (I a I fs )R sh

(b) Conversion of Galvanometer to voltmeter

Figure 15- 27
This same basic meter may also be used to measure potential difference or voltage. A voltage-
measuring device is called a voltmeter.
A voltmeter always measures the potential difference between two points, and its terminals must
be connected to these points.
an ideal voltmeter would have infinite resistance, so connecting it between two points in a circuit
would
not alter any of the currents. Real voltmeters always have finite resistance, but a voltmeter should
have large enough resistance that connecting it in a circuit does not change the other currents
appreciably.

To convert the moving coil into a voltmeter we must connect a resistor R s in series with the coil,
this resistor is called Multiplier.

Then only a fraction of the total potential difference appears across the coil itself, and the remainder

appears across R s .

For a voltmeter with fulI scale reading V fs , we need a series resistor R s , such that
Vfs I fs (R c R s )

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15.4 Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge

(e) Explain the working principles of a potentiometer, and its uses;
(f) Explain the working principles of a Wheatstone bridge, and its uses;
(g) Solve problems involving potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge.

Potentiometer
Potentiometer is an instrument that can be used to measure the emf of a source without drawing
(considering) any current from the source.

Function : To measure emf a cell

Key Idea : make sure the galvanometer as a null detector

Figure 15- 28. Potentiometer can be function only when VAB>E.

1. When galvanometer shows reading is 0, its means that the AO have no net current flow. This do
meant that, AO voltage is as same as E voltage.
E = VAo
where
VAB = potential difference per unit length of AB.
L = The length of wire
L0 = length of wire that galvanometer show zero reading
2. A potentiometer is a variable potential divider. Then VAo can be determine by :
RAO
VAO VAB
RAB

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The current through AB is I, and the Resistance, R is directly proportional to the length of
the wire.

VAO RAO L0

VAC RAC L

L
so PD across L0 , VAO E 0 VAB
L

Potentiometer Applications

(a) Measuring a cell's internal resistance.

Figure 15- 29

E l0

V l
I (R r) R r r l
1
IR R R l0

r l0 1 l 1 1
1 or 0 ( )
R l R l r r

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Figure 15- 30
If a graph is plotted,
l0
Gradient, m
r
l0
Internal resistance, r
m
1
Intercept, c
r
1
r
c
(b) Comparing resistance

Figure 15- 31

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V1 IR1 kl1
V2 IR2 kl2
R1 l1

R2 l 2

Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by
balancing two legs of a bridge circuit.

1. A bridge circuit is a type of electrical circuit in which two circuit branches (usually in parallel with
each other) are "bridged" by a third branch connected between the first two branches at some
intermediate point along them:

Figure 15- 32. (a) a parallel circuit , (b) a Bridge circuit

R1 R3
2. a ratio between resistance given by
R2 R4

Example 15.3

Figure 15- 33

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Figure 15-29 shows a bridge circuit. Find the current for each resistor and equivalent resistance of
the network of five resistors.

Solution:

1. The circuit was divided into 5 loops. Then label the direction of current by using arrow
symbol, current, I and loops as shown in below.

2. Apply Kirchhoffs first to to get the 4 equations as below

I in I1 I 2
I1 I 3 I 4
I2 I5 I3
Iout I 4 I 5
I in Iout

3. Next, apply Kirchhoffs second law to each loop to get the equition as shown below:
Loop 1
13 I 2 (1) I 5 (2) 0
13 I 2 (1) (I 2 I 3 )( 2) 0
13 3I 2 2I 3 0

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Loop 2
13 I1 (1) I 4 (1) 0
13 I1 (1) (I1 I 3 )(1) 0
13 2I1 I 3 0

Loop 3
0 I1 (1) I 4 (1) I5 (2) I 2 (1) 0
2I1 3I3 3I2 0

Loop 4
0 I1 (1) I 2 (1) I 3 (1) 0
I1 I 2 I 3 0

Loop 5
0 I 4 (1) I3 (1) I 5 (2) 0
I1 2I 2 2I 3 0

4. Then use the simultaneous equation and subtituition methode to solve the equation obtain
from Kirchhoffs second law.
I1 6 A
I 2 5A
I 3 1A

5. Its shown that the total current is IT I1 I 2 6A 5A 11A and the EMF is 13V. The
effective resistance of the circuit is :
13V
RT 1.2
11A

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