PRACTICAL

INJECTION MOLDING
 PLASTICS ENGINEERING

Founding Editor
Donald E. Hudgin
Professor
Clernson University
Clernson, South Carolina

1. Plastics Waste: Recovery of Economic Value, Jacob Leidner

2. Polyester Molding Compounds, RobertBums
3. Carbon Black-Polymer Composites: The Physics of Electrically Conducting
Composites, edited byEnid Keil Sichel
4. The Strength and Stiffness of Polymers, editedby Anagnostis E. Zachariades
and RogerS. Porter
5. Selecting Thermoplastics for Engineering Applications, Charles P. Mac-
Demott
6. Engineering with Rigid PVC: Processability and Applications, edited byl. Luis
Gomez
7. Computer-Aided Designof Polymers and Composites, D. H. Kaelble
8. EngineeringThermoplastics: Properties and Applications, edited by James
M. Margolis
9. Structural Foam: A Purchasing and Design Guide, BruceC. Wendle
IO. Plastics in Architecture: AGuide to Acrylic andPolycarbonate,Ralph
Montella
11. Metal-Filled Polymers: Properties and Applications, editedby Swapan K.
Bhattachatya
12. Plastics Technology Handbook, ManasChanda and Salil K. Roy
13. Reaction Injection Molding Machinery and Processes,F. Melvin Sweeney
14. Practical Thermoforming: Principles and Applications, John Florian
15. Injection andCompressionMoldingFundamentals,edited by Avraam l.
lsayev
16. Polymer Mixing andExtrusion Technology, NicholasP. Chefernisinoff
17. High Modulus Polymers: Approaches to Design and Development, edited by
Anagnostis E. Zachariades and RogerS. Porter
18. Corrosion-Resistant Plastic Composites in Chemical Plant Design, John H.
Mallinson
19. Handbook of Elastomers: New Developments and Technology, edited by Ani/
K. Bhowrnick and HowardL. Stephens
20. RubberCompounding: Principles, Materials, andTechniques, Fred W.
Barlow
21. Thermoplastic Polymer Additives: Theory and Practice, edited by John T.
Lutz, Jr.
22. Emulsion Polymer Technology, RobertD. Athey, Jr.
23. Mixing in Polymer Processing, editedby Chris Rauwendaal
24.HandbookofPolymerSynthesis,Parts A and B, edited byHans R.
Kricheldorf
25. Computational Modelingof Polymers, edited by Jozef Bicerano
26.PlasticsTechnologyHandbook:SecondEdition,RevisedandExpanded,
Manas Chanda and SalilK. Roy
27. Prediction of Polymer Properties, Jozef Bicerano
28. Ferroelectric Polymers: Chemistry, Physics, and Applications, edited by Hari
Singh Nalwa
29. DegradablePolymers,Recycling,andPlasticsWasteManagement, edited
by Ann-Christine Albertsson and Samuel J. Huang
30. Polymer Toughening, edited by Charles B. Arends
31. Handbook of Applied Polymer Processing Technology,edited by Nicholas P.
Cheiemisinoff and PaulN. Cheremisinoff
32. Diffusion in Polymers, edited by P. Neogi
33. Polymer Devolatilization,edited by Ramon J. Albalak
34. Anionic Polymerization: Principles and Practical Applications,Henry L. Hsieh
and Roderic P. Quirk
35. Cationic Polymerizations: Mechanisms, Synthesis, and Applications, edited
by Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
36. Polyimides: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Malay K. Ghosh and
K. L. Mittal
37. Thermoplastic Melt Rheology and Processing,A. V. Shenoy and D. R. Saini
38.PredictionofPolymerProperties:SecondEdition,RevisedandExpanded,
Jozef Bicerano
39.
PracticalThermoforming:Principles
and
Applications,
Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded,John Florian
40. MacromolecularDesign of PolymericMaterials, edited by Koichi Hatada,
Tatsuki Kitayama, and Otto Vogl
41. Handbook of Thermoplastics, edited by Olagoke Olabisi
42.SelectingThermoplasticsforEngineeringApplications:SecondEdition,
Revised and Expanded, Charles P. MacDermott and Aroon V. Shenoy
43. Metallized Plastics: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by K. L. Mittal
44. Oligomer Technology and Applications,Constantin V. Uglea
45.Electricaland
Optical
Polymer Systems: Fundamentals, Methods,and
Applications, edited by Donald L. Wse, Gary E. Wnek, Debra J. Trantolo,
Thomas M. Cooper, and Joseph D. Gresser
46. Structure and Properties of Multiphase Polymeric Materials, edited by Takeo
Araki, Qui Tran-Cong, and Mitsuhiro Shibayama
47.
Plastics TechnologyHandbook:ThirdEdition,
RevisedandExpanded,
Manas Chanda and Salil K. Roy
48. Handbook of Radical Vinyl Polymerization, Munmaya K. Mishra andYusuf
Yagci
49.
Photonic Polymer Systems: Fundamentals, Methods,and Applications,
edited by Donald L. Wse, Gary E. Wnek, Debra J. Trantolo, Thomas M.
Cooper, and Joseph D. Gresser
50. Handbook of Polymer Testing: Physical Methods, edited by Roger Brown
51. Handbook of Polypropylene and Polypropylene Composites, edited by Har-
utun G. Karian
52. Polymer Blends and Alloys, edited by Gabriel 0. Shonaike and George P.
Simon
53. Star and Hyperbranched Polymers,edited by Munmaya K. Mishra and Shi-
ro Kobayashi
54. Practical Extrusion Blow Molding, edited by Samuel L. Belcher
55. PolymerViscoelasticity:StressandStraininPractice, Evaristo Riande,
Ricardo Diaz-Calleja, Margarita G. Prolongo, Rosa M. Masegosa, and Cat-
alina Salom
56. Handbook of Polycarbonate Science and Technology,edited by Donald G.
LeGrand and John T. Bendler
57. Handbook of Polyethylene: Structures, Properties, and Applications, Andrew
J. Peacock
58. Polymer and Composite Rheology: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Rakesh K. Gupta
59. Handbook of Polyolefins: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited
by Cornelia Vasile
60. Polymer Modification: Principles, Techniques, and Applications, edited by
John J. Meister
61. Handbook of Elastomers: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited
by Ani1 K. Bhowmick and Howard L. Stephens
62. Polymer Modifiers and Additives, edited by John T. Lufz, Jr., and Richard F.
Gmssman
63. Practical Injection Molding,Bernie A. Olmsfed and Martin E. Davis

Additional Volumes in Preparation

 PRACTICAL
INJECTION MOLDING

Bernie A. Olmsted
Consultant
Springfield, Massachusetts

Martin E. Dauis
Consultant
Prescott, Arizona

m
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Foreword

The Society of Plastics Engineers is pleased to sponsor Practical

Injection Molding by BernieA. Olmsted and MartinE. Davis.

Practical Injection Molding provides fundamental,

a yet
comprehensive, coverage of injection molding concepts. A practical, yet
state-of-the-art, approach is used throughout. Theory is presented in such
a fashion that the reader will gain a sound understanding of the basic
principles. Case studies, drawings and charts are used very well to further
illustrate the point.

The authors have kept true to their audience and have touched on
each important aspect without getting into too much detail.

SPE, through its Technical Volumes Committee, has long

sponsored books on various aspectsof plastics. Its involvement has ranged
from identification of needed volumes and recruitmentof authors to peer
review and approval and publicationof new books.

Technical competence pervades allSPE activities, not only in the

publication of books but also in other areas such as sponsorship
of technical
conferences and educational programs.

Michael R. Cappelletti
Executive Director
Society of Plastics Engineers

Technical Volumes Committee:

Robert C. Portnoy, Chairperson

...
111
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Why read this book?

The purpose of this book is to provide operating personnel, those

with hands on responsibilities, with a better understanding
of the basics
of injection molding. The resulting benefit is a more informed group of
people doing a betterjob of molding plastic parts and, equally important,
enjoying the successof their improved accomplishments.

The mechanics,operatorsandset-uppersonnelinmolding
operations are in key positions to control product quality and improve
operating performance. Unfortunately, many of these people have not had
the benefit of formal training nor the opportunity to attend seminars or
workshops that would enhance their ability to perform job. theirMost have
learned fiom their predecessors who probably had even fewer educational
opportunities.Productqualityandoutputmayimprovedramatically
through the educationof this group of personnel and . . . . . there may even
be increased enlightenmenton the part of their supervisors and managers.

Inadditiontothosepeopleinvolvedactivelyin the injection

molding process, there are others who could also benefit fiom the book.
Sales personnel responsible for providingthe plastics materials, molding
machineryandauxiliaryequipmentmayfindthisbookbeneficialin
rounding out their knowledgeof the entire molding environment. Vo-tech
instructors, and perhaps even college professors, may view this book as a
good overall reference for understanding the molding process.

There are many factors that influence the successful molding of a

finished product in additionto an understanding of the injection molding
machine itself. They include a basic knowledge of the raw materials, the
plastic pellets, which are converted from a solid to a melt and back to a
solid product with various shapes and features. Additives are combined
with the plastic pellets
to produce a certain cosmetic appearance or provide
increased mechanical properties in the finished product. It is also vital to
understand how the plasticis melted and the role playedby the screw, the
barrel and the machines temperature controls. The mold, with cavities and
cores that form the shape of the finished product, is a critical element in the

V
 v1

molding of apartthat is freefromdefectsandachievesdimensional

integrity. Most injection molding machines manufactured today utilize
sophisticated electronic controls that enable the successful molding of a
productwithminimum
a of manualintervention. The operators
understanding of these controls and how they automate the production
process can make the difference between a profit or loss in this highly
competitive industry.

This book will deal with each of these factors, and others, in a
manner that is straightforward and easily understood. Case studies from
actual molding experiences will help to enhance the understanding of the
material in someof the chapters. We want this book beto a practical guide
for those involved in injection molding and not a highly technical reference
for those with advanced plastics technology backgrounds or education.

Bernie A. Olmsted / Martin E. Davis

Acknowledgments
I wish to express my thanks to those people who have made this book
a reality. First, thanks to my wife, Barbara, for her patience, encouragement
and help with the typing. Thanks also to my daughter Cynthia and her
husband, Philip J. Mayher, for the editing and much of the computer work.
And thanks, too, to my daughter, Nola, whose initial help on the computer
kept me going while she offered constant encouragement. Her husband,
Robert Reis, was a help with a review of much of the material. And sincere
thanks toMartinDavis of WestlandCorporationfor his interest,
encouragement and for his willingness to co-authorthe book with me.

Bernie A. Olmsted

I have known Bernie for a number of years during which he has

educatedmeinthepracticalapplication of technicalknowledgetothe
fundamentals of injectionmolding.Hisdepth of experienceandbroad
knowledge of the subject have been helpful to me personally and to the
company I founded, Westland Corporation. I am pleased to contributeto the
completion of the book in the hopes that it will offer newcomers to our
industry, and those of us in the industry who are still learning, a practical
guide to the basicsof injection molding. Many thanks to several friends who
critically edited the book, including Dave Larson, President of Westland
Corporation, Robert L. Reis, CQE, of GE Plastics, and Virgil Rhodes, a
Senior Mold Builder for a well regarded tooling firm. The CAD engineers
atWestlandCorporation,especiallyWayneHook,helpedwiththe
illustrations, for which we are most grateful. A special thanks to John W.
Bozzelli of Injection Molding Solutions forhis detailed review. His efforts
have contributed significantly to the technical validity of the book. Most
important, I must thankmywife,Vicki,who has patientlyhelped me
participate in this effort.

Martin E. Davis

vii
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Contents

1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 1
1.1 Elements of the Injection Molding Process............................ 1
1.2 Summarizing the Elements ..................................................... 6
2 Plastics.................................................................................................. 8
2.1 Thermoplastics........................................................................ 8
2.2 Thermosets.............................................................................. 9
2.3 Crystalline vs. Amorphous Materials.................................... 10
2.4 How Plastics Affect the Molding Process ............................. 11
2.4.1 Melting Characteristics .......................................... 11
2.4.2 Thermal Conductivity............................................ 12
2.4.3 Shear Sensitivity.................................................... 13
2.4.4 Viscosity (Melt Index)........................................... 14
3 Additives............................................................................................. 16
3.1 Fillers and Reinforcements................................................... 16
3.2 Plasticizers............................................................................ 17
3.3 Stabilizers.............................................................................. 17
3.4 Flame Retardants .................................................................. 18
3.5 Colorants............................................................................... 18
3.6 Adding the Additives ............................................................ 18
4 Loaders and Dryers............................................................................. 21
4.1 Hopper Loaders and Conveying Systems............................. 21
4.2 Dryers.................................................................................... 22
4.2.1 Hot Air Dryers....................................................... 22
4.2.2 Dessicant Dryers .................................................... 23
5 hjection Unit ...................................................................................... 26
5.1 The Barrel ............................................................................. 29
5.2 End Cap and Nozzle .............................................................. 30
5.3 Heater Bands......................................................................... 33
5.4 Non-Return Valve................................................................. 34
5.5 Screw..................................................................................... 38
5.5. I Length-to-Diameter Ratio...................................... 39

1x
X

5.5.2 Screw Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5.5.3CompressionRatio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5 S.4 Helix Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.5.5 Drive Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.6 Injection Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6ClampUnit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.1 Hydraulic Clamp System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2 Hydro-Mechanical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.3 Clamp Unit Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4 Ejector System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7Mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.1MoldComponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2 Types of Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.2.1 Cold Runner Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.2.2 Hot Runner Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.2.3 Other Mold Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.3 Ejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.4 Projected Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.5 Mold Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.6 Mold Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.1 Processing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.2 Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.3 ProcessControl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9 Robotics and Granulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.1Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.2 Granulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
10 Getting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.1 Mold Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.2 ProcessMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
10.3 Process Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
10.4 Mold Start-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.5 ProcessDocumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11AnOverview - The Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11. l The Cycle - Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11.2 The Importance of Cycle Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
 xi

l 1.3 The Greater Importance of Good Production . . . . . . . 100

12 The Ten Keys to Successful Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

12.1 Adequate Mold Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
12.2 Proper Mold Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
12.3 Using the Right Screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.4 Selecting the Appropriate Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
12.5 Controlling the Heat Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
12.6 Using Back Pressure Wisely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12.7 Controlling the Injection Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.8 Managing Screw RPM and Residence Time . . . . . . . . . 124
12.9PerformanceMeasurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12.10 Preventive Maintenance Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
13 Thermoset Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
13.1ThermosetMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
13.2MachineModifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
13.3 Processing Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
14Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
14.1 Safety Requirementsof ANSI B 15 1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
14.2 Safety Rules to Follow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15 Recognizing Molding Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
15.1 Process Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
15.1.l Brittleness of Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
15.1.2 Bubbles and Voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
15.1.3BurnedMaterial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
15.1.4 Cloudy or Hazy Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.1.5 Drool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
15.1.6Flash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
15.1.7 Flow Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
15.1.8 Gate Blush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
15.1.9 Inadequate Color Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
15.1.10Jetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.1.11 Knit Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.1.12 Part Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.1.13 Poor Screw Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.1.14 Short Shots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
xii

15.1.15SinkMarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
15.1.16Splay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

15.1.17 Warped Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

15.2 Component Wear Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
16Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17 OtherMoldingNotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.1SpecialMoldingProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.1.1 TwoColorMolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.1.2TurretMolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
17.1.3GasAssistMolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
17.1.4PowderInjectionMolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
17.1.5IntrusionMolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
17.1.6 Other Molding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
17.2 Molding Operation Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
A InjectionMoldingMaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
B Properties of Common Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
C Recommended Plastic Drying Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
DUsefulData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Abbreviations and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
E Velocity Control on Injection Molding Machines . . . . . . . 203
F Procedure for Application of Bolt Torque on
NozzleAdaptors(EndCaps) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1 Introduction
This book is intended to provide the hands on injection molding
personnel,themachineoperators,techniciansandmechanics,withan
improved understanding of the basics of injectionmolding.Although
injection molding has been in use in the United States since the1930s, the
operatingpersonnelhavegenerallylearnedtheprocessfromtheir
supervisors,whoeitherlearnedfromtheirpredecessors or gained the
knowledge by trial and error. There have been few seminars, workshops
or books that have offered educational opportunities to the operator withno
college degree or formal training in plastics technology. This book will
explore the elements of the molding process at the most basic levelthe in
hope that it will contribute to the productivity job andsatisfaction of those
hands on personnel. The residual benefit to the managers and owners of
molding operations . . . . improved profitability.

1.1 Elements of the Injection Molding Process

The elements involvedin the injectionmoldingprocessare
illustrated in Figure 1.

- Injection Unit
-

Plastic
Clamp Unit Mold i I -
Controls Unlt

Temp Controller Grlnder

Figure l Injection molding elements.

2

When persons not previously acquainted with the injection molding

process first view an injection molding unit comprised of all of these
elements, they are impressed with all the wires, hoses, tubes and pipes that
connect the elements together. It is vital that the operator or technician
understand the basicsof how each elementof this seemingly complex unit
works and the role each plays in the successful molding of a part.

With the exceptionof robotics and additivefeeders, all of the other

Robotics equipment
elements are critical to the injection molding process.
is used in some of the more automated molding operations to provide
improved overall efficiency butis not essential tothe successful molding
of a part. Additive feeders are used to proportionthe addition of colorants
or other additives to the plastic pellets. While the feeder itself does not
affect the process (if functioningproperly),thequantityandtype of
additives may change some important processing parameters.

The injection molding machineitself consistsof the clamp unit,

the injection unit, the control unit and a hopper. As we will learn later,
the hopper becomes modified to include a loader, dryer and in some cases,
an additive feeder.

Figure 2 Schematic of an injection molding machine

The injection molding machine, also referred to as a press, is purchased

from a manufacturer, such as Cincinnati Milacron, Van Dorn Demag,
 3

HPM and various other U.S. and foreign manufacturers. The machine is
illustrated inFigure 2. The diagramshows the clamp unitclosed without
a mold.

The injection unit heats, melts, pumps and injects the plastic into
the mold when the moldis closed. The control unitmonitors and,as the
name implies,controls the functioning of the injection unit andthe clamp
unit. The mold is mounted within the clamp unit and this unit opens the
mold to allow plastic parts to be ejected and holds the mold closed when
melted plastic is being injected. Each of these units will be the subject of
an entire chapter later in the book.

The mold is purchased from a mold maker, whose capabilities may

include computer-aided-design (CAD) and computer-numerically-
controlled (CNC) milling machinesthat help automate the manufacture of
complex molds. Usually these companies are small, employing less than
100 persons andrequire highly competent machinists and engineers. The
mold consists of two halves, the core half (or male part shape) and the
cavity half (or female part shape). Because the core is made to be a little
smaller than the cavity into which it thefits,area between thecore and the
cavity represents the part. This area is filled with melted plastic, then
cooled and ejected from the mold to become the plastic part, as illustrated
in Figure 3.

Part

Thefigure is simplifed to illustrate only

the formationof the parts. In practice,
molds may contain a large number of
cavrties and cores and include other
mechanisms that permit the formation
of quite complex parts.

Figure 3 Illustrative drawing of an injection mold

4

In order to solidify the plastic part in the moldso that it can be removed
(ejected), it isusuallynecessarytocoolthemold. The cooling is
accomplished by circulating cool water through cooling channels that are
machined into the mold itself.The water is cooled by a chiller, which can
either be a free standing unit nearby the pressor by a partof a temperature
controller system that may serve several molds in several injection molding
machines.Temperaturecontrollersmaytaketheform of chillers,as
described, or in other cases, heating units (for thermosets), heat exchangers,
and various typesof water and oil temperature controlling devices.

The molders raw material, plastic, is usually purchased in pellet

form. Eachpellet is aboutthe size of a small kitchen match head or
approximately one-eighth of an inch or three millimeters in diameter. In
some cases, plastic is purchased in powder form which is a little more
coarse than flour but not as coarse as salt. Very few plastics, other than
thermoset materials, which willbe discussed later, are bought or used in
powder form today.Plastic is typically purchased from the manufacturer
or a distributor andis delivered in 55 lb. bags (25 kg), in drums (about200
lbs. or 100 kg), in 1,000 lb. or about450 kg gaylords (big boxes) or in rail
cars. Many typesof plustic are available to use in the production of plastic
products. Each type offers different mechanical properties in the molded
form. Perhaps more importantto the molder, allplastics do not melt in
the same way nor at the same temperature, further complicating the
molding process.

Moving the plastic from its storage to the pressis the function of the
loader. A loader may be as simple as a vacuum powered unitwith hoses
that pull pellets from a gaylord and deposit them in the hopper.This unit
is called a hopper loader and sits beside the press with hoses that can access
gaylords thatarenearby. A loaderunitmaybeascomplicated as a
pneumatic materialhandlingsystemthatconnectsalargenumber of
injection molding machines to storage silos (large, enclosed metal bins) and
 5

distributes a variety of plastics throughout the plant. Loaders or material

handling equipment are typically sold by the same type of manufacturers
representative that sells other auxiliary equipment.

Unfortunately, mostplastics are hygroscopic (meaning the plastics

are able to absorb and retain moisture). If the moistureis not removed to
a certain level, the plastic parts produced will contain cosmetic or structural
defects and the injection unit components may suffer corrosive wear. As
a result, many plastics are processed through a dryer. There are several
of either hot
types of dryers available today, but all involve the circulation
air or dehumidified hot air through the pellets before they are allowed to
enter the injection unit. Some dryers are quite small and fiton top of the
press as a part of the hopper assembly and others are large enough to dry
the plastic that might feed several machines. These units are typically sold
by the manufacturers representatives who handle a line of dryers for a
particular dryer manufacturer.

After the plastic parts are removed (ejected) from the mold, they
may be droppedontoa conveyor (orremoved by robot) forfurther
transporting to an inspection or packaging area. Conveyors come in all
sizes and shapes and help automate the parts movement throughout the
plant. In addition to conveying parts, they may also convey runner systems
and parts that have defects to a grinder. The grinder is used to grind up
the runners (see next paragraph) and defective parts into a form (typically
flake-like pieces slightly larger in size than pellets) that be
canmixed with
new pellets (referred to as virgin material) in quantities up to 50% (and
sometimes more) for remelting again into plastic parts. The ground-up
material is referred to as regrind.

Runners are solid plastic branch-like structures that represent the

small channels in the mold through which the plastic must travelto enter
the mold cavities. They are ejected along with the plastic parts and may be
ground up and recycled into the virgin material the same as defective parts.
6

1.2 Summarizing the Elements

Thisintroductorydiscussion of injectionmoldingelements is
designed to acquaint the operator with all of the pieces to the molding
puzzle. Each element will be discussed in further detail in a succeeding
chapter of the book. A knowledge of how the elements fit together should
help when the basicsof each element are pursued further.The table on the
next page summarizes these elements for the readers review.
 7
I I I
Element I Function I
I I
Plastic Raw material usedto mold parts

Loader Transports plastic from storageto machine hopper

Dryer Removes moisture from plastic before entering the injection

unit

I Additives
~~~~
l
~
Colorants, lubricants or other ingredients added
pellets
to the plastic
I
Additive Adds specified quantity of additive (colorant or other additive)
Feeder to the plastic being fedto injection unit

Injection Unit Part of the injection molding machlne that heats, melts and
injects the plastic into the mold

Part of the injection molding machine that contains the mold

and holds it closed during injection and opensit when the parts
are ejected

Control Unit Part of the injection molding machine that controls

all elements
of the molding process

Mold A combination of rectangular tool steel plates that form and

support the cavities and cores and allow the injection of melted
plastic into the cavities

Chiller A type of refrigeration unit that cools the water that circulates
through the moldto speed the solidificationof the plastic part

Conveyor Transports finished plastic partsto areas for other operations or

packaging and conveys the runners to a point where they may
enter a grinder for recycling

Grinder Grinds runners and defective parts into a regrind that may be
added to virgin material and recycled
~~

Robots Used to pick parts out of the mold or perform

movement functions

Injection Molding Elements

2 Plastics
Although a technical discussionof plastics is clearly not within the
intended scope of this book, anyone attempting to learn the basics of
injection molding must fist have an understanding of the raw materials
used.There are two types of plastic used in injectionmolding.Most
injection molding is performed using thermoplastic material. However,
some injection molding uses thermoset material. There is considerable
difference between thetwo types.

2.1 Thermoplastics
The majorityof thermoplastics are made fiom petroleum and have
the unique physical property of being able to be melted, solidified, and
remelted again without signiscantly changing the chemistry of the material
(provided they are kept clean and not contaminated). By grinding up the
solidified thermoplastic and remelting it, the material can usually be reused,
with or without mixingitwithvirgin (unprocessed)material [l].
Dependinguponhowmanytimesandunderwhat conditions the
thermoplastic material has been melted and solidified (its heat history),
some of its properties may be diminished. As a result, most thermoplastic
that is reused (and referred to as regrind) is mixed with virgin material
where the regrind represents less than 50% of the resulting mixture. There
are some cases, however, where plastic products are molded fiom 100%
regrind. These are instances where the mechanical andor the cosmetic
properties of the resultingparts are not critical.

Thermoplasticstypically have long propernames that relateto their

basic chemistry type. The chemistryofthermoplasticsis rather complex and
may be studied firther by reference to some excellent books[2]. Persons
who are not acquainted with the chemistryof plastics or how plastics are
manufactured can refer to them by their short name. All plastics have
been given an alphabeticsymbol that is a short name for each plastics
longertechnicalname.Someofthemorecommonplasticsandtheir
symbols include the following.
 Long Name
Sym bo1

Polyethylene PE
Polypropylene PP
Polystyrene PS
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ABS
Polyamide (nylon) PA
Polycarbonate PC
Polymethylmethacrylate (acrylic) PMMA
Polyoxymethylene (acetal) POM
Polyvinylchloride PVC
Styrene Acrylonitrile SAN

Many of the long names begin with poly, which simply means
many or multiple. The smallest repeating unitin the chemical structure of
plastics(which is amolecule) is called a monomer. Whenseveral
monomers are combined or joined, the resulting chemicalstructure is called
apolymer. So it becomes clear that polyethylene, polypropylene and the
others beginningwith the letters polyareplasticsconsisting of a
combination of monomers.A fiuther understanding of the molecular
structure ofplastics is not required, but is available
in several references[3].

A listingof the more common thermoplastics, showing theirproper

name and symbol (and other important data) is included at the conclusion
of this book as Appendix A.

2.2 Thermosets

Thermosets are plastics that undergo a chemical change when

heated to a certain temperature. These materials,once solidified, cannot
be remelted or reused. Any attempt to remelt thermosets simply results
in burning or decomposition of the material rather than returning it to a
moldable melt. Thermosets cannotbe reprocessed or welded.
10

The chemical change thatoccurs in thermosets is often referredto

as curing or cross-linking [4]. Curedthermosetpolymerscannot be
dissolved by organic solvents without decomposition. It is not surprising
that thermoset products are well suited for electrical, construction and
household applications where resistance to temperature and various types
ofwear is critical. The raw materials for thermosets are somewhat different
than thermoplastics. Base materials include phenol (acoal tar derivative),
formaldehyde and urea. It is not important to remember these materials, but
rather to understand that thermosets are entirelydifferent
than
thermoplastics, both in how theyare made and,as will be illustrated, in how
they are processed.

2.3 Crystalline vs. Amorphous Materials

We have learned that plastics are composed of small molecules
(called macromolecules) which have been joined together to form long-
chain moleculesthat are referredto as polymers. In the solidstate, some of
the polymer molecules are arranged in a very orderly, repetitive pattern
and are called crystaffine. Others are structured in a veryrandom
arrangement without anyorder or regularly repeating pattern, and they are
called amorphous. Without a detailed explanation, let us simply state that
the greater the degree of crystallinity of a polymer, the more orderly
its structure becomes [3].

Crystalline Amorphous

Figure 4 Illustrative drawing of polymer molecules

 11

As can be seen in Figure 4, the crystalline polymer molecular chains

are more ordered and repetitive, whereas the amorphous molecules are
random, looking something like a plate of spaghetti. Although it is nearly
impossible to achieve total crystallinity in polymers [4], for simplicity, we
shall refer to the group of plasticsthat are semicrystalline as being
crystalline (asopposed to amorphous) materials.

The important thing to remember is that thephysical properties of

these two types of plastics are quite different. This is very important to
the part designer who must select the best material for each unique produc
Although this book is not intended to include part design, we believethe
molder should have some of idea
the properties of the more common plastic
materials, whichare shown at the conclusionof the book as Appendix B.

2.4 How Plastics Affect the Molding Process

More importantto the molder, however,is the factthat crystalline

and amorphous materials react quite differently during the molding
process. There are at leastthree vital differences in the way the two types
of material respondto the melting and molding process.

2.4.1 MeltingCharacteristics
The first major processing difference between crystalline and
amorphous materials is the way they melt [ 5 ] . As heat is applied, both
types of materials soften somewhat at first, but the amorphous material
continues to soften gradually until it w li flow. The softening point is
referred to as the glass transition temperature (or T, ). Amorphous
materials have no defined melting point.

In contrast, the more highly crystalline materials remain in a

relativety solid state until the temperature reaches their melting point.
The melting point of plastics is labeled T, . As we w lisee, this difference
in the way the materials melt is an important factor in how the materialsare
molded.
12

The listing below has an added column to indicate whether each

material is crystalline(C) or amorphous (A). Note: A simple way to
determine whether theplastic is amorphous or crystalline is to check
the Suppliers Data Sheet. If a melt temperature (Ta is given, the
material is crystalline. If a softening or glass transition temperature
(Td is given, it is amorphous. (See Appendix A for expanded list.)

Long Name Sym bo1 IYJE

Polyethylene PE C
Polypropylene PP C
Polystyrene PS A
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene ABS A
Polyamide (nylon) PA C
Polycarbonate PC A
Polymethylmethacrylate (acrylic) PMMA A
Polyoxymethylene (acetal) POM C
Polyvinylchloride PVC A
Styrene Acrylonitrile SAN A

2.4.2 Thermal Conductivity

The ability of plastics to absorb heat(referred to as thermal
conductivity) is quite low, about two to three times lower than metals[ 6 ] .
The low rate ofheat absorption influencesthe speed with which plastics can
be heated, melted and molded. Thesecond important difference in how
plastics are molded is the difference in heat absorbing ability between
crystalline and amorphous materials. Amorphous materials have much
less ability to conduct heat than crystalline materials. In fact, as the
crystallinity increases,the ability to conduct heatalso increases.

Stated another way, you cannot add more heat to amorphous

materials and expect themto melt any faster! In fact, iftoo much heat
is applied to amorphous materials, they w liburn and degrade. Although
not intended to represent any scale of values, Figure 5 illustrates the
difference in the way thetwo types of material canabsorb heat.
 /
Crystalline 0
/

I 0
0
morphous

Figure 5 Heat absorption characteristics of cytalline vs. amorphous polymers

2.4.3 Shear Sensitivity

After considering the first
two differences between the two types of
materials, the third difference becomes easily understood. Amorphous
materials are moresensitive to shear. Shear occurs when plastic pellets
are compressed, rubbedtogether causing fiction or are signilicantly agitated
during the molding process. High shear results in rapidly increasing the
temperature ofthe material whilebeing molded which amorphous polymers
do not tolerate well [ 5 ] .

From these considerations, it can be concluded that amorphous

materials should be gradually (not abruptly) heated when changing
themfrom a solid to a melt. Excessivemelt temperatures insome
materials (especially amorphous materials) can cause residual molded-in
stresses (upon cooling) that detract fkom part appearance or reduce the
mechanical strength of the parts. Unfortunately, in many cases the lossof
mechanical properties (such as impact strength) cannot be determined until
the partis subjected to impact tests or fails when performingin its intended
use. In later chapters, you wil learn how these three factors (melting
characteristics,
thermal conductivity and shear sensitivity) are
controlled in the molding process. We must remember that all materials
14

have a maximum limiting shear rate, beyond which they will degrade
[7].

2.4.4 Viscosity (Melt Index)

Another propertyof both crystalline and amorphous materials that

affects the molding process isviscosity. Viscosity may be defined as the
resistance of afluidtoflow. In otherwords, if a meltedplasticis
considered viscous, it is thick (like molasses) and will not flow easily.
The viscosity of a melted plasticcan be measured and given a rating called
a Melt Index (MI). A high melt index means that the melted plasticis
thin and watery (andhas a low viscosity). The lower the melt index, the
more thick and viscous the melt is and the less easily
it will flow. The melt
is less than one
index of plastics range from a fractional MI, meaning itthat
(l), to more than a hundred(100). Most common materials have a MI in
the range of 2 to 12. There are various test methods and parameters for
measuring Melt Index. When comparing materials,it is important that the
method and parameters are the same.

The viscosity of a plastic is important to the molder. Materials

with a very high MIor very low viscosity are more difficult to pushor
inject and, in some cases, more difficult to mold. Incidentally, itis good
to remember that Melt Index is also a measure of molecular weight. A
higher MI indicates a lower molecular weight for a given polymer family.
This will also be discussed further in later chapters.

CASE STUDY NO. l : Check New Materials

In the study of plastic materials, it is important that the reader

become aware that thesame materialfrom two different manufacturers may
not process alike. In fact, two lots of the same material from the same
source mav not process alike.

An example follows: A very large user of a fairly common material,

high density polyethylene (HDPE), purchased a rail car of the identical
grade of HDPE they had been using from a second source and unloaded the
 15

material into their bulkstorage tank (silo). After processing with material
from that silo for a few days, the qualityof the melt changed andthe same
colors they had been achieving could notbe maintained. Despite changes
rate became so intolerable that the
in the processing profile, the reject entire
remainder of the material in the silo had to be dumped. This was a very
expensive lesson for an experienced molding operation.

The lesson is: Whenever material sources or different lots of

material are about to be used test the process with the new material
before proceeding and before commingling the old material with the
new.

CASE STUDY NO.2: Plastics Meltine Illustration

If you were ableto take a pellet of an amorphous material (such as

acrylic) anda pellet of a crystalline material (such
as nylon) and put them on
a skillet that couldbe heated sufficientlyto melt the materials, two totally
different results would occur. The pellet of acrylic would soften, soften
fbrther and gradually reach the point where it would flow.

In contrast, the nylon pellet would not visibly soften and, after a
period of heating, it would rather quickly change to a complete melt.
Moreover, if the heat of the skillet was significantly increased, the acrylic
would degrade andburn rather than changing more rapidlyto a fluid state.
It is likely that the nyloncouldsurvive the excessiveheat(unless
unreasonably high) and reach the molten state more quickly.

The lesson is: Amorphousmaterialsaremorelikelythan

crystalline materials to degrade and burn if overheated during the
"melting"process Avoid excessive heat when processing amorphous
materials, regardless ofthe heat source.
3 Additives
in the last chapter,
In addition to the raw plastic materials discussed
there are a number of other ingredients thatmay be added to the plasticto
mod% its properties. These other ingredientsare referred to as additives
andinclude plasticizem, fillers, reinforcements,stabilizem, flame
retardants, colorants, lubricantsand manyothers. Although it is not vital
to remember all of the various types of additives, it is essential that the
molder understand the need for some of the additives and their impact on
the molding process. The more important and commonly used additives are
discussed inthe following pages.

3.1 Fillers and Reinforcements

Fillers and reinforcements are added to the plastic primarily to

increase thestifkess ofthe resulting plastic part and/or increase the other
mechanical properties of the part. Additives that are used to increase the
mechanical strength ofthe part are usually referredto as reinforcements [4].
Some of the more commonfillers include calcium carbonate (which is
basically powdered limestone),talc (another powdered mineral that hasa
slippery or soapy feel), carbon black (which is used as a black colorant
and, more importantly, as a protector against UV radiation) and silica (a
very small, spherical-shaped mineral). Although classitied as fillers, calcium
carbonate andsilica, in someforms, might be considered as reinforcements
and can be quite abrasiveto the metal surfacesin the injection unit andthe
mold. As one might guess, the addition of such substances to the plastic
increases the melt viscosity of the material and, as we w li learn, can
sigmficantly affectthe molding process and shrinkage.

Most of the reinforcements added to plastics take the form of small

fibers, powdersor flakes. The most common reinforcementaisglass fiber
that is like a very h e mono-ent [.009 to .013mm (.00037 to .00052")
in diameter]. The strands are cut to short lengths (less than 6.35mm or
.250"in most cases) and addedto the plastic when it is formulated.Glass
fiber reinforced nylon and polyester materials are quite common and are
 17

quite strong, often replacing die cast metal parts. The glass reinforced
material requires special molding considerations and is very abrasive to the
metal surfaces with which they come into As ifthese are not severe
contact.
enough, fibersare also madefiom carbon, graphite, and metal, enhancing
the resulting part strength and even M h e r complicating the molding of the
parts. Some metal fiber reinforcements are added to provide electrical
conductivity. In addition to powder and fiberforms, some reinforcements
are in the form of a flake. These flake reinforcements include those made
fi-om mica (a lightweight mineral),glass and aluminum.

3.2 Plasticizers

In contrast to some of the fillers discussed previously,plasticizers

are usedto reduce the stifbess ofthe plastic part, makingit more flexible.
In achieving the increasedflexibility,plasticizersmayalsoreduce the
viscosity of the melt and h c t i o n as a lubricant. Plasticizersare frequently
used in producing parts made fi-om PVC, increasing part flexibility to a
rubbery feel [4].

3.3 Stabilizers
PVC is a common object ofbothheatstabilizers and UVstabilizers.
If PVC is processed at too high a temperature, degradation wil occur and
may be associated withthe release of hydrochloric acid. This may result in
a lossof properties in the molding process, potential severe damage to the
metal surfaces in the injection unit and the mold and, if excessive heat
occurs, can create a safety problem for the molder. Heat stabilizers are
combined withthe plastic to help prevent degradationfiom excessive heat
in processing. We wil later learnthe importance of the proper control of
heat duringthe molding of all plastics, including PVC.It is also important
that the stabilizersbe compatible withthe resins to which they are added to
avoid chemical or viscosity problems in molding. Uvstabifizers are also
important because they increasethe molecular stabilityof plastics that are
exposed to light. UV stabilizers help increase
the weatherability ofplastics
exposed to sunlight in outdoor environments.
3.4 Flame Retardants

Because so many of the products and equipmentthat people use in

their everyday livesare now made of plastic, the degree to which each is
flammable is very important. Major portions ofthe home, automobile, boats
and airplanesare now constructed with plastics and these plastics must be
as resistant to burning and smoke generation as possible. As a result,jlame
retardants and smoke suppressantsare added to many plastics to control
the undesirable effects that can resultfkom combustion. Flame retardants
are added directlyto the material when formulated allowing the molder to
purchase flameretardant grades of material. Unfortunately, most of these
additives are corrosive to the metal surfaces to which they are exposed,
requiring specialprotective coatings to be used inthe injection unit and the
mold. They also may accelerate resin degradation and restrict the heat
profile.

3.5 Colorants

One of the advantages of manufacturing parts fiom plastics is

avoiding the need to paint the resulting product. Colorants may be added
to the plastic allowing the entire part
to be colored, not just the surface. In
order to accomplish this,pigments and dyes are added to the plastic, either
as a part of the formulated plastic pellet,
an additive pelletof colorant or as
a liquid thatis added to theplasticafterit enters theinjectionunit.
Pigments are not soluble in the plastic melt but are mixed in by a dispersion
process described later, whereas dyes are soluble and provide maximum
color strength andbrilliance at minimum cost [8]. Thetechnology
supporting thecoloring of plasticissomewhatcomplexandmaybe
explored by the reader in greater depth by reference to any of several books
on the subject.

3.6 Adding the Additives

Most of the additives discussed in this chapter are added to the
plastic (virgin material)
by additivefeeders or blenders. There are different
 19

types of feeders and blenders used inthe molding process. Some can mix
and add onlytwo different typesof solid material whileothers may be able
to mix and add up to five types of materials, including pellets, powders,
granulated material and even liquids. Most of these units are mounted
directly on the injectionmoldingmachine,inaddition to the standard
hopper. The more complex units are floor-mounted and use pneumatics to
take the mixed materialto the machine. It is not important for
the reader to
understandhowtheseblendersandfeeders are constructed, it is only
important to understand how they operate and what they are designed to do.

It is recommended that, other than colorants and foaming agents,

none of the additives discussed here
be added to the material at the molding
machine. Preferably, it should be done by the people compounding the
material.

CASESTUDYNO. 3: The Effect of Additives on Processing

Each of the additives discussed above has a different and important

effect on the injection molding process. One molder found that the change
fiom processing a non-reinforced materialto one reinforced withfiberglass
fibers required that his screws needed to be manufactured fiom a more
wearresistantmaterial,havedeeperflightsandlesscompression. In
addition, he learned that the heat profile needed to be greatly altered to
achieve the proper quality melt.

Another molder discovered that the addition of carbon blackto the

HDPE he was processing required a screw that more aggressively mixed
and shearedthe material or the resulting melt had windowsor unmixed
areas that would adversely affect the weatherability of the resulting
product.

Yet another molder was adding titanium dioxide to his material to

alter the color of his parts. TiOZis a commonly used additiveto achieve a
very white coloration of the parts produced. However,in a very short time,
the molderdiscovered severe wear inhisbarrelandscrew.Research
revealed that TiOZ can be very abrasive and requiresthat the injection unit
components (screw, barrel, valve and end cap), and sometimes
the runners
and gates inthe mold, be made from more wear resistant materials.In this
case, the components were replaced with different, wear resistant materials
and the wear previously experiencedwas no longer a problem.

Another molder was using silicone as an additive in his process.

Silicone isknown for its chemical and physiological inertness and has good
physical and electrical properties that dont change significantly from very
low to very high temperatures. Silicone is also water-repellant and anti-
adhesive and is used as a lubricating agent,an anti-foaming agent and foam
stabilizer. After processing for a time, the molder began to observe tiny
metallic particles embeddedin the parts. After considerable research and
experimentation, it was learned that silicone erodes certain flight hard-
surfacing materials usedon the flights of screws. The screws were rebuilt
and chrome-plated completelyover the entire surface of the flights. The
problem was eliminated.

The last example involves a molder who found that the addition of
a colorant to his material required a screw with a mixing device
to achieve
the properly colored part andthe better the mixing device, the less of the
expensive colorant was required.

The lesson is: Any time an additive is added to a material, there

will be an important eflect on themoldingprocess that will likely require
changes in the processing profile anHor equipment. Be alert for these
effects and take corrective action beforecostly remedies are needed!
 21

4 Loaders and Dryers

The next step in the molding process is to dry the plastic (if
required) and move it fiom its storage location to the injection molding
machine hopper. Thisis accomplished by one or more piecesof equipment
categorized as dryers and loaders.

4.1 Hopper Loaders and Conveying Systems

As we learned inthe first chapter, the equipment may be as simple

as a vacuum powered hopper loader with hoses that pull pellets fiom a
gaylord or as complex as a pneumatic material handling system.

Pneumatic systems offer simple, reliable cost

andeffective solutions
to transporting the plasticto the machine, whether in pellet, flake, granular
or powder form. A vacuum conveying system consists of a power unit, a
system controller, material pick-up devices and receivers that are
connected by tubing for both vacuum supply and material transport. The
technical specifications of this type of equipment are not essential to an
understanding of its use.

In simple terms,the system controller senses when there is a need

to convey more plastic and calls uponthe power unit to accomplish the
task Thepick-up devices are designed to allow a simple adjustmentof the
aidmaterial ratioat the pick-uppoint. Material receivers are required at
each drop-off or destination point and are located near sensors that tells
the system controller to actuate the vacuum system[g].

In recent years, portable self-contained hopper loadersare in greater

use. These units have their own blower and motor and are no longer
located on top of the press, but rather are cart-mounted configurations
located at the floor level. A central systemhas a main controller, one large
motorhlower, a single stand-alone filter and dust collector and a filterless
receiver on each molding machine. Compressed-air blowback filter cleaning
and stainless-steel constructionare optional features available.
 Another option is a portable combinationdryedloader system that
allows the drying of the material off-line and is moved into position when
the dried materialis scheduled to be used [ 101.

4.2 Dryers
All plastics used in the molding process, including regrind, are
affected by moisture to some degree.Ifthe moisture is not removedfrom
the plastic, it can cause defects in the molded product, such as splay
marks (streaks) and brittleness. Plastic materials are considered to be
either
hygroscopic or non-hygroscopic. Those considered to be
hygroscopic absorb the moisture within the pellet (or flake) and cause a
molecularbondwith the material.Includedamong the hygroscopic
materials are: ABS, PMMA (acrylic), FEP, PA (nylon), PBT, PC, PET,
PPO,PVC, S A N , PSU and PE1 (see Appendix A for technical names). In
addition to causing part defects, moisture that is allowed
to remain in these
materials can unite with other elements to produce corrosivesat processing
temperatures. The result is a premature corrosive wearon the surfaces of
the injection unit components.This type of wear w ibe discussed in a later
l
chapter.

Non-hygroscopic plastic materialsdo not absorb moisture, butthe

moisture in the air adheres to the surface of the pellets or flakes and can
cause some of the same types of processingproblemsobservedwith
hygroscopic materials. Non-hygroscopic materials include polyethylenes,
polypropylenes and polystyrenes. Often it is advisableto dry these materials
as well.

4.2.1 Hot Air Dryers

There are two major typesof dryers usedin the molding process, hot
air dryers and dessicant dryers. Although it is not necessary
to understand
the details of how these dryers are made or how to size their operating
capacities, it is helpll to know, in simple terms, how each type is used and
how they performthe drymg hction.
 The hot air dryer basically consistsof heaters and an air blower and
are typicallymounted on top of the injection unit as a dryer hopper,
replacing the standard hopper. Ambient air (air inthe processing room)is
pulled into the dryer-hopper, heated and then blown up through the plastic
pellets in the hopper. The hot air evaporates the moisturein the plastic and
then movesit out of the hopper back intothe room air[ 1 l].

4.2.2 Dessicant Dryers

The dessicant dryer utilizes small beads (referredto as dessicant)
thatcanabsorb a lot of moisturewithout undergoing anysignificant
structural change. The dessicant dryers operate much like the hotair dryer,
pulling the moist air fiom the plastic pelletsin the drying hopper into the
dryer througha filter, thenthrough a layer of the dessicant beads (called
the
dessicant bed), which absorb the moisture, and finally to a heating unit
where the dryair is brought up to a specified temperature. This dry airis
in the drying hopper. Thedry air
then circulated through the plastic pellets
becomes more moistas it leaves the plastic andthe closed-loop processis
repeated untiltheproperlevel of moistureallowedfortheplasticis
achieved.

When the dessicant bed becomes nearly saturated with moisture,the

air flow is divertedto another dessicant bed and the process continues. The
original bed is regenerated (ridof moisture) and is ready for use again. A
table designatedas Appendix C describes the drying requirements for some
of the more common plastics.

The primary consideration in choosing a dryer is throughput or

pounds per hour. There are basically fouroptions f?om which to choose a
dryer configuration:(1) a totally machine mounted unit; (2) a portable unit;
(3) a larger less portable unit that sits near the press; and (4) a central
drying system[121. These units offer various controls, numbers of dessicant
beds and other options that we w li not address here. However, these
features are important and should be carefblly studied when making a dryer
selection.
24

CASE STUDY NO. 4: Conveying is not Free of Problems

When conveying material, most of the force used to convey is a

vacuum. If the material being conveyed is notofall similar size and weight,
the vacuum will pull more of the lighter weight material ahead of the
heavier.Whether the lighterweightmaterialis an additive,regrind or
simply fines,there w i be an undesirable effecton the parts being molded.
l
The same problem can happen in a hopper where the force is gravity.
Clearly the heavier material that is closerto the center of the hopper w li
drop first, leaving dissimilar material aroundthe periphery.

The lesson is: Be mindfd of the problems that can arise in the
conveying and feeding of material and use additive feeders or other
similar devices that insure a constant
feeding of homogenous material.

CRTE STUDY NO. 5: The Proper Removal of Moisture

Later in the book, we wil discuss the use of vented barrels as a

means of removing moisture fiom hygroscopic materials without drying
them Simply stated, the materials are not dried and enter the heated barrel
through the hopper. A special screw performs a prelirmnary compression
and shearingof the material which generates steamas the heated plastic is
rid of its moisture. A hole in the barrel, called the vent port, allows the
steam to escape, thereby circumventing (no pun intended) the presumed
need to dry the material.

Despite many successhl vented applications, thereare an equalor

greater number that have tried venting and have revertedtoback drying the
material before itis processed. The problems that can result with venting,
if not carehlly monitored, include a partiallyor totally clogged vent port
which allows undried melted plastic to proceed into the mold producing
faulty parts. The question is, how much can theport vent
be blocked before
parts problems occur? Even if the vent port is cleaned religiously, it will
partially block,fiom time to time, andthe resulting parts are not madefiom
the same degreeof moisture-fiee plastic.
 25

When drying material,be sure to observe the suppliers rangeof the

recommended percentageofmoisturethat should be allowed inthe material.
It is often forgotten,butmaterial can be over-driedwhichcancause
subsequent degradation and the inability of the material to flow properlyin
the melted condition.

The lesson is: If moisture contamination in the Pam must be

avoided, drying ofthe plastic before moldingis essential. Always dry to
the suppliers recommendation and dont forget that any regrind must
be added before the drying process is applied
26

5 Injection Unit
(I")
The injection unitof an injection molding machine consists
of the elements shownin the schematic drawing below:

Barrel (
alsoknown as a cylinder) Screw
Non-returnValve Nozzle
EndCap HeaterBands
Hydraulic or Electric Screw Drive Hopper

Non-retum Heater
Vahre

I \
I \
Il I
I
/
Screw Drive &
Nonle End Cap Barrel Screw
Injection Cylinder

Figure 6 Elements of an injection unit of an IMM

The injection unit is perhaps the most important part

of the injection
molding machine because if it fails in its functions, the moldingof quality
plastic parts will not occur. Not only does the injection unit have primary
responsibilityfor the molding of good plasticparts, it contributes
significantly to the efficiency of the molding process. The injection unit
receives plastic pellets, conveys, heats and melts them and then injects the
melt through the nozzle into the mold where the plastic part is formed.
Each of the elements of the injection unit contributeto this process.

The hopper holds the plastic pellets whichare gravity-fed through

the feed hole in the barrel. The screw has helical (spiral) flights which,
when thescrew is rotated, cause the plastic pelletsto move forward inthe
 27
barrel. The barrel, which housesthe screw, has heater bands surrounding
it which heatthe barrel andthe plastic inside basedon temperature controls
which take readings fiom the thermocouples positioned in the barrel wall.
The temperature controls are set for a specified temperature and the
thermocouples tell the controls whether the requested temperature has been
reached, If the temperature is not sufficiently high,the thermocouples w li
call uponthe controls to supply more heat. The temperaturescalled for and
the actual temperatures, as measured by the thermocouples, may beseen on
the machine control panel.

The screw also provides some of the heat to melt the plastic pellets,
by squeezing and shearing the pellets againstthe screw flights and the barrel
wall as the pellets move forward. This vital h c t i o n of the screw and how
it is designed to perform this h c t i o n is covered in Section 5.5 of this
chapter.

The screwdrive is typicallyahydraulicmotordrive,although

electric drive units are becoming quite common. The construction of the
screw drive unitis beyond the scope of this book, however,it is simply a
h c t i o n of converting hydraulic
(or electric) powerto mechanical powerto
turn the screw.

As the screw turns, the plastic moves forward and becomes a melt
which ultimately reaches the end of the barrel. The melt then proceeds
through the non-return valveand the end cap. For reasons wewill explain
later, the melted plastic cannot move forward through the nozzle. As a
result, the pressure of the melted plastic builds up in front of the screw
and forces the screw backward. The screw drive only indirectly causes
the screw to move backward. Because of the back and forward motion,
some referto the screw as the "reciprocating screw."

The control on the injection molding machine can beto set

allow the
screw to move backward only a specified distance. The distance is referred
to as stroke and is measured in inchesor millimeters. (I
vo t
e All injection
:
molding machines have a muximum stroke that is approximately equal
tofour (4) times the diameterof the boreof the barreL)
28
When the specified distance is achieved, a signalis given and the
screw drive, injection cylinder and non-return valve perform their additiona
hctions. The screw drivestops the screw from rotating and the injection
cylinder causes the screw to move forward like a ram. The non-return
valve closes to prevent any movementof the melt back intothe screw.

The injection unit then completes its primary function. With the
pressurizing of the hydraulic injection cylinder,the screw moves forward,
causing the injection of the plastic forward through the nozzle into the
mold. Although the melted plastic could not moveforward into the mold
during the screw rotation, injection is now possible because the previous
plastic that was in the mold has now been removed (ejected). The mold
ejects the parts &om the prior shot and closes just prior to the injection of
the new shot. Shot is the term applied to the amount of melted plastic that
is injected intothe mold. Theshot sizeis the quantity of melt injected into
the mold, measured in ounces or grams.

The screw hydraulic system holdsthe screw in its forward position

to permit the packing of the melt into the mold cavities. After a specified
time interval (controlled by the machine), the screw drive again beginsto
repeated. Thisprocess, beginning with the
rotate and the entire process is
screw intheforward position, then reciprocating backward, pausingfor
the opening ofthe mold and ejection, and moving forward to inject the
moltenplastic of the next shot, is referred to as a cycle. The time required
to complete one cycle is appropriately calledcycle time. Cycle times can
vary fiom a few seconds to several minutes, depending upon a varietyof
factors which are discussed more hlly in a later chapter.

The screw drive performs some additional fimctions that have a

bearing on the efficiency of the process and the quality of the melt. The
screw drive can exert a forward pressure (or resistance to its backward
movement)while the screw is rotating,causinga greater mixingand
shearing motion insidethe barrel. This forward pressure is curiously called
backpressure and is fi-equently used to help meltthe plastic andto increase
the mixing action of the screw. Some back pressure is good; a lotof back
pressure canbe bad.
5.1 The Barrel
The barrel,also referred to as the cylinder, is the cylindrical housing
in which the screw rotates. It consists of a shell orbacking which isthe
thick outer wall to provide strength. The shell may be lined with a variety
of different materialsto provide wear resistance. Some of the linings are
cast inside the shell and forma metallurgical bondof the lining to the shell.
In other cases, the shellmay be lined with wear resistant tool steel that can
be removed for relining.

The back end of the barrel fits into the casting of the injection
molding machine. It is typically securedin place by one of three methods.
The barrelmay haveaflange with bolt holes which allows the barrel to be
inserted into the casting and then secured by large bolts going through the
flange and into the casting.A second method that is similar to the flange,
is the use of a split ring groove and removable flanges. The barrel is fit into
the casting, the two flanges are placed in the groove and then bolted to the
casting. The third method involves a threaded end on the barrel which is
inserted into andthrough the casting andis secured by a large nut on the
interior of the casting.

Figure 7 Three commontypes of mounting e n d of a barrel

30

Another method used more recently involves sliding the barrel downward
into the casting and securing it with a flange-like piece that fits downon
top ofthe barrel. Most machine manuhcturers use a versionof one of these
methods and it is only important to the reader to be able to recognize the
basic designof each.

All injection machine barrels havefeedahole that is located near the

back end of the barrel (see Figure 6). The feed hole is located directly
under the hopper and is the opening through which the unmelted plastic
pellets are gravity-fed into the feed channels
of the screw. You should also
note that the barrel is equipped with thermocouple holes along its length
into which threaded thermocouplesare placed to sense the temperatureof
the barrel.

Although most barrel shells are made &oman alloy steel in the 4000
series(typically 4140 or 4150) AIS1 designation,there are several
alternative linings available which resist wear. The alternatives maybe
grouped into three types that relate to how the linings are manufactured.
They include:nitrided barrels, cast bimetallic barrels andtool steel-lined
barrels [ 5 ] . An understanding of the metallurgical considerations involved
in each lining type is not withinthe scope of this book. It is important to
remember that the linings of all barrels are not the same and they have a
bearing on the wear life of the barrel before it must berepaired.

Because the screw fits very snugly intothe bore of the barrel, it is
vitalthatboth the screwand the barrel be quitestraight. A lack of
straightness in either of the components can causethem to wear
prematurely.

5.2 End Cap and Nozzle

It is easier to understand the function of the end cap and nozzleby

referring to the illustration at the top of the next page (see Figure 8).
 31

figure 8 N o d e , valve and barrel assembly

Figure 8 shows the forward (nozzle end) of the injection unit,

including the barrel, screw, heater bands, end cap and nozzle. Although no
displayed in detail, the non-return valve is also shown. The construction
of the valve and how itfunctions will be discussed later in this chapter.

Although Figure 8 illustrates a bolt-on end cap, many of the barrels

and related end caps are threaded, allowingthe end cap tobe threaded onto
the end of the barrel. The non-return valve is screwed into the end of the
screw so that the rear seat of the valve is flush with the register of the
screw. The nozzle is threaded into the end cap and the nozzle tip is
likewise threaded into the nozzle.

The end cap, also referredto as a barreladaptor, is manufactured

from very strong steel to be able to withstand the injectionpressures of the
molten plastic as it leaves the barrel and goes throughthe nozzle and into
the mold. The end cap is a transition point where the shot of plastic
contained in the end of the barrel is directed into the narrow passageway
referred to as the nozzle. Because of the high pressure exerted during
injection, ranging from a normal level of 113 to 155 N/mm2 (16,000 to
32

22,000 psi), the bolt-on end caps typicallyuse 10 to 16 holes with bolts that
are threaded and are rated very strong. When bolting the end cap to the
barrel, it is very important to gradually tighten each bolt using a pattern
which alternates opposite sides of the bolt circle. In addition, a degree of
tightness isusuallyspecifiedby the machine manufacturer that is best
achieved using a torque wrench. Over-tightening is as damaging as not
tightening enough. Damageto the lining of the barrel can occur if the end
cap is tightened too tight.

The second transition point between the barrel and the mold is the
n o d e . The nozzle is a tube which provides a mechanical and thermal
connection fiom the hot barrel to the much colder injection mold with a
minimum pressure and thermal loss [7]. Some nozzles do not have an
interchangeable nozzle tip, as illustrated in Figure 9. But in either case,the
end ofthe nozzle tipor the nozzle(ifno tip is present) typically has a radius
of either % or X. The radiused (rounded) end of the nozzle tip (or
nozzle) fits into a part
of the injection mold referredto as a sprue bushing.
It is very important that the fit between the nozzle tip and the sprue
bushing is correct (See Figure 9).The incorrect fit could allow the nozzle
to back away duringthe high pressureof injection allowing plasticto leak.

Sprue N d e Tip (Nonle Tip

Bushing not sealed off)
I l

conedm Imrrect Fit

Figure 9 Illustration of the fit of a nozzle t@ to the sprue bushing

 33

Some nozzles have a straight bore and others a tapered bore, depending
upon the requirements of the plastic material being processed.The nozzle
is threaded into the end cap and usually has a thermocouple and a small
heater band to control the temperatureof the plastic at the nozzle.

The nozzle tip is used to enable thematching of the orifice in the

nozzle to the openingin the mold sprue bushing. Rather than maintaining
an inventory of a large number of nozzles, a stock of nozzle tips can
accomplish the same objective.

There are at leastthree typesof nozzles used in injection molding.

One type hasan open channel like the nozzle Figure
in 9. A second typeof
nozzle involves a valve that closes the nozzle (after the injection pressure
diminishes) using a spring.The third typeis a shut-off nozzle in which the
closing of the valve is accomplished by pneumatic or hydraulic pressure.
Shut-off nozzles prevent drool, a problem discussed in Chapter 15.

A majority of the nozzles in use are the first type. Basedon our
experience, there are many pneumatic shut-off nozzles being utilized and
only a few spring-loaded nozzles.

5.3 Heater Bands

Electrical heater bands are used for heating the injection molding
barrel and the nozzle. The heater bands vary from approximately 1 to 14
I

ormoreinwidth,andmanufacturersofferavarietyofconstruction
variations.Several of thebandsarepositionedaroundthebarreland
respond to pyrometer settings that are based on the readings from the
thermocouples in the barrel. You can usually read the set temperature
and the actual temperatureof the barrel on the control gauges.

The most common type of heater bands aremica-irzsulated and can

operate up to 371C (700F) (or higher under optimum conditions) with
recommended wattage of 20 to 35 watts per square inch. They are reliable,
efficient and offer multiple choices of construction characteristics and
34

electrical ratings. The wear life of mica-insulated bands is usually notas

long as ceramic or mineral-insulated bands.

Ceramic-insulated heater bands offer improved efficiency, longer

life and increased operating temperatures up to 1500F. Recommended
wattage ranges fkom 25 to 70 watts per square inch and, under some
conditions, as high as 100 watts per square inch.Mineral-insulated heater
bands are offered by most suppliers and they operate with much the same
temperatures and ratingsas the ceramic-insulated bands. Heater bandsare
also made fromother materials, including cast aluminum, bronze or brass.

Thedetermination of heaterbandsizingcalculations is very

important but not a subject of this book. It is important, however, that
efficientheaterbands, operating withintheirratedcapacities,supply
conductive heat to the barrel (and therefore, the plastic) to assist in the
melting of the plastic. As we w lilearn later, the heat suppliedby heater
bands should ideally supply50% ofthe total heat neededto melt the plastic.
The remaining 50% is supplied by the shear heat generatedby the screw.

In addition to the barrel heater bands, the nozzle requires

a heater
band to help maintain the proper temperatureof the melted plastic until it
is injected into the mold. Tube andcartridge heaters (in additionto band
heaters) are also used to maintain proper nozzle temperatures. The nozzle
heater is controlled independentlyof the barrel heater bands.

5.4 Non-Return Valve

S i m p l y stated, the non-return valve is placed at the end of an
injection screwso that melted plasticwil not flow backward into the screw
channels during injection. When the screw comes forward during injection,
the valve closes. When the screw rotates backward, the valve opens to
allow melted plasticto flow through the valve into the area in fkont of the
screw.
 35

There are several types of valves used in injection molding. The

most common type is referred to as a ring valve. The ring is forced
backward by the pressure of the melted plastic inh n t of the stud during
injection thereby closing the valve, and is forced forward (open) by the
forward movement of the meltedplasticwhen the screw is rotating
backward. It is easier to understand the operation of the ring valve by
looking at theillustration inFigure 10.

Screw Forwsrd in
lnjcd Position

Screw Back In
Rotate Position

(Valve Open]

Figure l 0 Three piecering typ of non-rehanvalve

The non-return valve illustrated inFigure 10 is a threepiece ring

valve. Pressure in fiont of the ring moves it back as the screw starts
forward during injection, closingthe valve by shutting off against the rear
seat. When the valve is open with the ring in its forward position andthe
screw is rotating backward, the melted plastic flows forward,across the rear
seat, under (inside)the ring and through the flutes. You w linote that the
ringdiameter is slightly largerthan the end ofthe screw and moves back and
forth in close proximity(.0015" or .038mm) to theinside diameterof the
barrel. With the clearance beingso small, no appreciable amountof melted
plastic can flow backward over the ring. It is also apparent that as the
outside diameter (OD) of the ringbecomes worn, the efficiencyof the valve
diminishes. Also, if the barrel becomes worn,there is room for the ring to
expand and break underthe inten& injection pressures.
36

Some manufacturers make afourpiece ring valve, which includes

a rear seat, a front seat, a stud and the ring.In the three piece ring valve,
the ring can rub against the stud as the screw rotates, causing some wear.
The fiont seat of the four piece valve is made of more wear resistant
material. It fits againstthe stud at the point wherethe ring would typically
come into contact with the stud, thereby absorbing the wearnormally
sustained by the stud. Because the stud is the most expensive pieceof the
ring valve,the less expensivefiont seat canbe replaced more economically
than the stud.

There is another style of ring valve thathas gained some popularity

in the United States. It is a locking style ring valve. It kctions exactly
the same as the ring valves illustrated, except that the ring is locked into
place inthe stud and willrotate with the stud and the screw. In the standard
ring valves, the stud, which is screwed into the end of the screw, rotates
with the screw. However, the ring "free-wheels" and can stay in place,
rubbing against the stud. The locking style avoids this fiiction against the
stud, but does cause more wear againstthe inside diameterof the barrel as
the ring rotates. Although the ring valve is the most commonly used valve
in injection molding, there are some other valve types with which the reader
should be familiar.

The ballcheck valve is manufactured intwo styles, a side-discharge

and a fiont discharge. Both styles utilize a steel ball rather than a ringto
move back and forth, opening or closing the valve to the flow of melted
plastic. These valves are illustrated in Figure II.

As you can see, both types of ball check valves requirethe melted
plastic to enter the valve through four ports in the side (at the rear end)of
the valve, making 90"a turn. The plastic must make another 90" turn toward
the front of the valve to proceed forward. In the side discharge valve, the
plastic must make another 90" turn, around the ball, to exit out the four
ports on the side of the valve (near the forward end). The front discharge
valve allows the plasticto move forward, aroundthe ball, and outthe front
end of the valve.
 Outlet Port8 Ball Seat Inlet pbrts Screw

Outlet Port Ball Stat Inlet Ports S m w

Front Discharge Ball

J Check Valve
I
[in open position]

Figure I I Front and side discharge ball check valves

In the closed positionfor both types of ball check valves, the ball
shuts off against the conical shaped opening at the rear center of thevalve,
allowing the valve to come forward during injection without allowing any
plastic to flow backward.

Although the ringand ball check valvesare the most commontypes

of non-return valves,some other valve designsare available that utilize a
different mechanism to achieve shut-off. One type uses a spring (which
compresses during injection and expands during screw rotation) and small
piston to accomplish the opening and closing of the valve. The piston
moves back and forward to open or close a port (much likethe ball in a ball
check valve) and is activated by the spring. Another type utilizes the
presence or absence of pressure in fiont of the valve to move a piston which
opens and closes the valve. However, this valve type is unique and the
reader will likely see this typeof design in a limited numberof situations.
 Each of the valve designs is well suited for certain types of plastic
processing and notto others. The ring valveis a more fiee-flowing type of
valve thanthe ball check valve and wouldbe used where the plastic being
processed is more sensitiveto shear. Theuse of valves in various processing
environments w li be discussed in more depth in a later chapter.

5.5 Screw
The screw is housed inside the barrel and consists a shank
of and a
flighted length. The shank is designed to fit into the quicl of the screw
drive, allowing the screw drive
to turn the screw during screwrotation and
causethescrew to goforwardduringinjection.Theflightedlength
approximates 80% of the overall lengthof the screw and isthe portion of

Figure 12 Elements of an injection molding machine screw

the screw which receivesthe plastic pellets whichare gravity fed through
the feed hole of the barrel. The flighted lengthalso conveys and melts the
plastic as the screwrotates backward.

Refer to Figure 6 at the start of this chapter which illustrates the

screw in itsmostforwardposition,thepocket of the screw (circular
beginning ofthe first flight) sits directly under
the feed hole. Plastic pellets
are gravity fed into the feed channel of the screw fiom the hopper and,as
the screw rotates, the pellets are conveyed forward toward the meter
section.
 The reader will note that theflight depth (or channel depth) inthe
feed section of the screw is considerably deeper than in meter
the section.
When the pellets are conveyed forwardthrough the transson section, they
begin to be compressed. In fact,someauthoritiesprefer to call the
transition section the compression section.

The pellets continue to be compressed until they reachthe meter

section, where once again (like the feed section), the root diameter is
constant. The compressionof the pellets causes heatto build in the plastic
as a resultof the shearing of the pellets againstthe flights, the inside lining
of the barrel and againstother pellets. The shear heat, combined withthe
conductive heat fiom the heater bands that surround the outside of the
barrel, causes the pellets to change fiom a solid to a melt. The melted
plastic goes through the valve (which is open) and builds up pressure in
fiont of the valve. This pressure causes the screw to move backward,
even as it continues torotate.

If the screw is designed correctly andthe heater bands are set to

achieve the proper temperatures, about 50% of the heat energy comes
from the screw shear and 50% from the conductive heat of the heater
bands. As we can see,the screw is a vital factor in the proper melting of
the plastic.

5.5.1 Length-to-Diameter Ratio

The length-to-diameter ratio (referred to as the LA9 ratio) is a
measure of the length fiom the fiont edge of the feed openingto the fiont
of the screw with the screw in the forward position. However, it is the
practice in the industry to calculate the L/D ratio using the following
formula. It should be recognized thatthe formula somewhatoverstates the
actual working lengthof the screw because the flights underthe feed hole
do not create any pressure or heat.

L/D Ratio = Flighted Length + Outside Diameter

4n

Using the formula, ifthe flighted lengthofthe screw is 40 inches and

the screw measures 2 inches in diameter, the L/D ratio is 20:1. Most screws
for injection molding machines have a1 L/D 20: ratio. Some manufacturers
offer more thanone L/D ratio screw for their machines. Typicalratios for
other length screwsare 24: 1,22: 1 and 18:1. The effectof lengthening the
flighted section (hence, increasing the L/D ratio) will be discussed in a later
section of this book.

5.5.2 Screw Profile

The standard injection screw has three sections: thefeed section,

where the plastic fist enters the screw and is conveyed along a constant
root diameter; the transition section, wheretheplasticisconveyed,
compressed and melted alongroot a diameter that increases with a constant
taper; and the meter sectwn, where the melting of the plastic is completed
and the melt is conveyed forward along a constantroot diameter. The meter
section is designed to allow the material to reachatemperatureand
viscosity necessaryto flow into the mold and formparts [ 5 ] .

The screw profile is the length, in diameters, of each of the three

sections of the screw. A 10-5-5 profile indicates a flighted surface with10
diameters lengthin the feed section,5 diameters in the transition section and
5 diameters in the meter section. Most new machines are supplied with a
General Purpose (GP) screw that has a 10-5-5 profile. The GP screw is
presumed to be capable of processing most typesof plastics.

5.5.3 Compression Ratio

Another measure of screw being utilizedis the compression ratio.

The channel depth in the feed section is deeper than in the meter section.
Although the ratio of this differenceis actually thechannel depth ratio, it
is commonly referred to as the compression ratio, which is calculated:

Compression Ratio = Feed Channel Depth + Meter Channel Depth

 41

Compression ratios for injection molding machine screws typically

range fiom 1 S : 1 to 4.5:1. Most general purpose screws for thermophstic
materials have a compression ratioof 2.5:l to 3.0:l. The screws usedto
process thermoset materials typically have a1 .O: 1 ratio which means that
the material is simply conveyed and not compressedor sheared.

It is interesting to note that the bulk r a w , the ratio of the space

occupied by plastic in pellet form to the space occupiedby the same plastic
in melted form, is about 2 to 1. As a result, a screw with a compression
ratio of 2:l causes a very gentle shearing of the pellets in the transition
section of the screw, but not much compression.

5.5.4 Helix Angle

Referring back to Figure 22, you will note that the helix angle of
a screw is the angle of the screw flight relativeto a plane perpendicularto
the screw axis. It is not important to understand the impact of the helix
angle on the design of the screw. However, the reader should know that
when the helix angleis 17.6568' (asis the case with most screws), it causes
the distance fiom the fiont edge of one flightto the front edgeof the next
flight to be equal to the diameter of the screw. This is referred to as a
square pitch.

A screw with a square pitch of 2 inches wlialso have a diameter

of
2 inches. Except for screws with unusual designs for specific purposes,
all
injectionmoldingmachinescrewswilltypicallyhaveahelixangle of
17.6568' and a square pitch.

5.5.5 Drive Design

The manufacturersof injection molding machines design the drive
configurationof the shank to fit the quill (screw drive"female" connection)
of their machine. Obviously, screw
a that w lifit into one machine
w li
fitanothermanufacturer'smachine of the same size. There are many
different drive designs for screws.
42
The designsusually fit intoone of thefollowingcategories:
standard splines, involute splines,and keyways. It is not important for the
reader to understand those categories, but it is important to know that a new
screw for one typeof machine will normally not replace a worn screw from
another typeof machine.

As a matterof interest, the drive design illustrated inFigure IO is

afour tooth involute spline, typical to one (and only one) injection molding
machine manufacturer.

5.6 Injection Pressure

One of the most important performance parameters of an injection

unit is the injection pressure that is exerted on the screw by the hydraulic
(or electric) system to move the screw forward. This pressure forces the
melted plastic that is in front of the screw throughthe nozzle and intothe
mold. As soon as the melted plastic comes into contact with the cooler
mold surfaces, it begins to cool and solidify. Accordingly, injection must
be completed rapidly and with sufficient pressure so that the mold cavities
are filled while the melt will still flow.

The injection pressure must overcome the resistance of the viscosity

of the material, the elements of the mold and its runner system.As a result,
injection pressures in front of the screw may exceed 138 Mpa (20,000
psi and much higher-50,000 psi and above-in the newer high pressure
systems), or a hydraulic pressureof 13.8 to 20.7 Mpa (2,000 to 3,000 psi),
based on the size of the hydraulic cylinders involved.In many machines, a
rule of thumb of 10 to 1 is applicable so that a hydraulic pressure of 13.8
MPa (2,000 psi) resultsin 138 MPa (20,000 psi)of injection pressure.

Easyflowingmaterialsinjectedintoamoldwiththickwalled
sections may require only 48.3 to 70.0 Mpa (7,000 to 10,000 psi) injection
pressure, while a very high viscosity material being injected into thin
walled sections of a mold with small gates might require more than 138
MPa (20,000 psi), even as high as 345 Mpa (50,000 psi).
 43
A fkther discussion of injection pressures in the molding process
wlifollow in later chapters. However, it is important for the reader to
understand that the pressure that is exerted on the melted plastic
in front of
the screw during injectionis considerable. Accordingly, the pressure that
is necessary to hold the mold closed during injection, as discussed in the
next chapter, is also significant.

CASE STUDY NO. 6: Minimizing the Cycle Time

It is obvious thatifthe cycle time can be reduced, more

parts can be
made in the same space of time. The result: greater profitability!
Efforts to
reduce the cycle time to the absolute minimum occupy the time of many
conscientious molders.

There are a number of ways to ensurethat the cycletime is

minimized.Most of them involveone or more of the Ten Keys to
Successful Molding, as set forth in Chapter 12. However,some
illustrationsofferedhere mayhelpinunderstandingthechapter just
completed.

A molderwithninety (90) injectionmoldingmachines,using

identical molds producing exactly the same parts, desired to reduce their
cycle time by ?4 second. Yes, one-half of a second. So many parts were
being produced that a reduction of that amount of time could result in
increased profitability of as much as five percent (5%). All the machines
were new and research concluded that the process was optimally tuned to
the fastest cycle possible. Further review disclosed that the screws being
used, although new, were not completely optimum for the plastic being
processed. A new screw design was developed with a resulting three-
fourths of a second (.75 second) reductionin cycle time. All screws were
replaced to achieve the improved profitability.

Another molder achieveda greatly improved reduction in cycle time

by usinga differently designed non-return valve. Still
others have improved
cycle times by simply changing the barrel heat profile.
44

Of course, all of the controlled parameters must

be properly set to
provide the most rapid cycle time possible. These adjustments
are discussed
in a later chapterof the book.

The lesson is: Minimizing the cycle time be

canafunction of one
or several things. Do E t count any optionsout, including new screw
designs,valvedesignsandheatprofiles, in additiontothemore
traditional approaches resultingfrom adjusting processing parameters.

CASE STUDY NO. 7: Selecting the Correct Screw

A molder was processing polycarbonate(an amorphous material)

with a general purpose screw that was very aggressive, that is, ita had
short
transition zone and a high compression ratio (you w i learn about these
l
terms in a later chapter). A screw of this type tends to shear the material
being processed, creating high fictional heat and excessive heat in the
transition zone of the screw. Because of the heat being developed, the
molder was experiencing a reject rate in the parts molded of 19%, nearly all
of which was the result of degradation, burning and resulting physical
properties that wereout of tolerance.

A screw that was designed for polycarbonate was supplied to the

molder. The new screw had a long transition zone and a much lower
compression ratio which resulted
in lessshear, a more gradual heatingof the
material and without excessive heat atstage
any in the melting process. The
molders rejectrate dropped below2%.

The lesson is: Amorphousmaterialsaremorelikelythan

crystalline materials to degrade and burn if overheated during the
melting process, regardless of the heat source. Treat amrphous
materials gentlyand usethe proper screw.
 45

6 Clamp Unit
The clamp unit of an injection molding machine performs the
following essential functions:(1) holds the mold;(2) closes the mold; (3)
keeps the mold closed under pressure during injection;(4) opens the mold
to allow the parts to be ejected; and(5) accommodates the ejector system
which ejectsthe parts out of the mold. The clamp unit is illustrated inthe
schematic drawing(Figure 13) showing the mold inthe open position with
the moving platenas far to the left as possible.

The clamping mechanism provides the force to keep the mold closed
during the injection and holding-pressure stages of the machine cycle.
Although many variations have existed through the years, there are two
basic types of clamping mechanism used on injection molding machines:
hydraulic and hydro-mechanical. Manyinjectionmoldingmachine
manufacturers offer both hydraulic and hydro-mechanical machines, and
some now providea M y electrical machineas an option. Eachof the two
more common clamping mechanisms will be illustrated and explained.
46

6.1 Hydraulic Clamp System

The hydraulic clamp mechanismusesdirect acting hydraulic
cylinders to achieve the closing and clampingof the mold. Figure 14 is a
typical design of this type of system with the mold inthe openposition. The
hydraulic oil reservoir is mounted in a position (some on top and some
below the main cylinder) that allows the oil to flow by gravity or by
pumping pressure into the main cylinder. Thehigh-speed cylinder is smaller
in diameter and permits the rapid movementof the moving platento a point
where the mold is nearly closed(m some cases, machines are designed with
two small high-speed cylinders,cutting down on the cost of manufacture).
During this movement, thepreflZ1 valve is open, allowingthe oil to flow into
the hydraulic main cylinderbehind the main ram.

When the mold is nearly closed, the prefill valve closes. The hydraulic
pressure, developedby hydraulic pumps, developsforce a on the main r m
of about 20.7 MPa (3,000 psi). This force is used to achieve the final
clamping of the mold, typically a relativelyshort stroke. Depending upon
the size ofthe mainram,the 20.7 MPa (3,000 psi) cantranslate into a clamp
tonnage of considerable magnitude.
 47

For example, if the main ram is 540 mm (21.25") in diameter, it

would have a surface areaof about 229,032 m m 2 (355 square inchesor .785
x 21.25* = 354.48). If the injection molding machine hydraulic system
permits a force of 19.43 MPa (2,817 psi), the clamp tonnage would be
approximately 453,590 kg or 1,000,000 pounds (or 500 tons, 354.48 sq.in
multiplied by2,817 psi).

6.2 Hydro-Mechanical System

The hydro-mechanical clamp system uses lever arms, toggles or
other mechanical devices to multiply the force exerted by the hydraulic
system to achieve the desired clamping force. The most typical hydro-
mechanical mechanismis referred to as a toggle clampsystem.
Toggle
Clamp Links Moving Stationary
Platen [Open ~ositionlPlaten Platen

Hydraulic
Clamp Cylinder
R a r e I5 Injection molding machine toggle clamp unit

Figure 15 illustrates the functioning of a double toggle clamping

unit. It is referred to as double toggle because of the two sets of toggle
links bringing force to the moving platen,one set at the topand another set
at the bottom.On smaller machines, typicallywith 45,359 kg (50 tons) of
clamp force and less, asingle toggle clamp unitis often used. Because of
the mechanical force enabled by the toggle links, the hydraulic cylinder tha
48

provides the force to the toggle links can be much smaller than on a
hydraulic clampunit of comparable size. The mechanical advantagein the
toggle system can range fiom 25:l to 50:l. This mechanical advantage
reduces the diameter of the hydraulic cylinder requiredto achieve clamp
force. It also permits the use of lower hydraulicpressures and hydraulicoil
requirements. An example for the latest model of a U.S. manufactured
machine:

Machine T v ~ e Clamr, Force

Hydraulic Oil CaDacity

Hydraulic 725 tons 498 gal.

Toggle 725 tons 235 gal.

The toggle clamp unitin the closed positionis shown in Figure 16.

Clamp Toggle Moving Stationay

Platen Links Piaten Platen

Hydraulic Clamp Cylinder

A
p' J 6 Toggle clamp unit in a closed position

The specifics of thedesign of hydraulic systems usedon injection

molding machinesis beyond the scope of this book. What is important for
the reader to remember is the incredible force that these systems generate
to clamp and hold the mold closed. Injection molding machines in use
today offer clamp tonnage from less than 27,000 kg (30 tons) to more
than 4,500,000 kg (5,000 tons)!
 49

Injection molding machinesare identified by their clamp tonnage

and ounce capacity, for example,200 ton - 20 oz (567 g) machine. As we
have learned, this means that the clamp unit can develop
200 tons of force
to hold the mold closed during the injection and holding stages, and the
injection unit is capable of generating a maximum shot size of 20 ounces
(567 g) ofpolystyrene. Polystyrene isthe plastic material used for standard
ratings of capacity.

Both hydraulicandtoggleclampsystemshaveadvantagesand
disadvantages and,as a result, some of the larger injection molding machine
manufacturers offer bothtypes of machines. The relative meritof one vs.
the other is not withinthe scope of this book so we w ileave that debate
l to
the molding machine manufacturers themselves.

The clamp force is needed to withstand the opposing force of

injection pressure as the screw comes forward. This pressure is typically
between 16,000 psi and 22,000 psi m(1a )52 . Does this mean that a clamp
force ofabout 20,000 psi(10 tons/ inch2)is required to offset the injection
force? No, fortunately! If such force was required, even greater tonnage
capacities wouldbe required to achieve successhl molding.

Because of the viscosity and temperatureof the molten plastic,the

runner system, gate size and temperatureof the mold, normal production
can be conducted with about2% to 3 tons/inch2 of projected area in the
mold. The term projected area is the area of the molded parts (including
the runner systems) in the mold that is parallel to the platens [7]. The
projected areawill be discussed firther in the next chapter on molds.

One more interesting factabout clamping unitsis the effect of the

clamping force on the tie bars. The clamping force is equally opposed by
a stress on the tie bars (see Figure 14). Because the clamp force is so
great, the tie bars actually stretch when the unit is fully clamped! For
example, if the tie bars on a 500 ton clamp unit are 6 inches (152 mm) in
diameter, whenM y clamped, those tie barsmay stretch as much as 1/16th
of an inch (1.6 mm).
6.3 Clamp Unit Specifications

In addition to understandins how the clamp unit functions, there are

several specifications relatingto the unit that are equally important to the
molder. The more important of these specifications are:

a. Mold Height MaximumMinimum - this specification defines

the maximum and minimumtotal thickness of a mold (referred to as mold
height) that canbe used in that particular clamp unit.

b. Maximum daylight - this is the maximum amount of space that

is available between the movable and stationary platens when the clamp
is completely open. It is approximately equalto the maximum mold height
plus the clamp stroke. This specification can dictate the opening between
the two halves of the mold that would allow a part to fall fiee fiom one
mold half without damagefiom hitting theother halfof the mold.

c. Clamp Stroke - the distance that the movable platen is ableto

move (open) is referred to as theclamp stroke. Thisspecification,
combined with the maximum mold height, can serveto limit the height of
a product that you can mold. When molding a container, the mold must
open far emugh toremove the partfiom the mold without any damage to
the part.

d. Pbten Sue - the horizontal and vertical measurement ofthe

platem cm a determinant in the maximum size of the mold that can be
mounted int b t p,articular clamp unit.

e. Disknw BFtwen Tie Bars - most clamp units havetwo upper

and two bwer tie bars (also referred to as tie rods). Because most molds
are mountedinto the unit fiom the top, thehorizontalmeasurement
is perhaps more important than the vertical dimension. This specification,
combined with the platen size and the maximummold height, serves to limit
the overall size of the moldthat can be placed in the clamp unit.
 51
Mwable Stationary
Platen Platen

o- ....I .-..
b - Clamp droks
- ..
c Mmmnnn closed
dayli&t

an the market
It should be noted thatthere are injection molding machines
the mounting of
that are considered tie bar-less machines which facilitate
and access to the mold. Most of these machines are of d e r clamp
tonnages (under 500 tons).

Two additional specifications,ejectorstroke (maximum) and ejector

force, are discussed in the following paragraphs. Figure I7 may help the
reader better understand the specificationsfor the clamp wit,

6.4 Ejector System

The method of ejecting parts out of the mold invobs bath the
clamp unit and the molditselHydraulic ejectioq is af0ature of
all machines. However, there are some older,kjmliw molding machines
still in service that use mechanical ejectioq.,Bwause mast machinesbuilt
during the last 20-25 years include hydravlic, ejection (except electric
machines), the following explanations w libe limited to that type of system.

The clampunit includes the hydraulic mechanismthat provides the

force to push the part out of the mold. This mechanism isalso referred to
as a hock-out (KO.) system. The knock-out system derives its force fiom
52
one (centrally located) ortwo (side mounted) hydraulic cylinders. In some
cases, the force may even be pneumatic or electric, but those instances are
the exception and usedonly in special circumstances.

Although the mounting of the mold will be discussed in the next

chapter, it is important to thediscussion of theejectionsystem to
understand the standardized hole patterns that are included in both the
moveable and stationary platens. The patterns include both mounting
holes (for use in mountingthe mold to the platens) and knock-out holes
(which arevital to the ejectorsystem). The pattern of holes was
standardized by the Society of the Plastics Industry(S.P.I.) many years ago
and includes severalsizes (of patterns and holes) depending upon the size
of the injection molding machine itself.Figure 18 illustrates the patternof
holes for a500 ton machine.

01:
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
:1
0 0

0 0
0 0
O

@ O 0
0

0 0
O
0

0
0
0

0
a
O

0
O

0
\ Tie Bar Holes
0 0 0 0 0 ~ ~ 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

@ 0 0 0 @ 4
Knock-out Holes
0 0 0 4
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 oOo 0
Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o+- Mold Mounting Holes
0 0 0 0 0 0000 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 Q 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0

0 0
0

0
0

0 0
figure 18 Platen hole patternfor 500 ton injectionmoldmgmachme

To achieve ejection, ejector bars (also referred to as ejector rods)

are inserted through the moveable platen and threaded into the ejector
housing (sometimes referred to as the ejectorbox) that is mounted on the
back side of the movable platen. The ejector housing is typically a steel
plate that rideson guide rods. The hydraulic cylinder(s) that sits behind the
ejector housing actuates the housing to move forward which, in turn, causes
 53
the ejector bars to move forward. The ejector bar enters the back side of
the mold and contacts the ejector prate in the mold, causing it to move
forward.

The mold ejectorplate is in contact with oneof several possible

devices, such as ejector pins, a stripper plate or anotherejection
mechanism that,whenpushedfoward, contacts the moldedpart and ejects
it out of the mold. Springs, mounted between the mold and the ejector
plate, return the ejector plate to its normal position.

All of the activity that occurs inside the mold w li be further

explained inthe next chapter on molds. The important pointto understand
about the ejector system involving the clamp unit is how the hydraulic
force causes a forward action against the mold ejector plate. That
action is illustrated inFigure I9 below.

II I

.
The ejector systemshownabove is typical for manymolding
machines. Othertypes of systems are used, involving:(1) a single hydraulic
cylinder, (2) a push-pull action with the ejector bars bolted to the ejector
plate, and(3) floating ejector bars. However, the principles involved in their
operation are similar to thoseillustrated.
54

CASE STUDY NO. 8: Be Square!

On many occasions, molders have experienced flashon the parts

being produced yet a careful reviewof the mold and processing parameters
fails to disclose a cause. Finally, a check of the squarenessof the platens,
one to the other, revealed the source of the problem. In similar instances,
the mold halves have been found to not be square, one to the other.
Although these maintenance checks seem so fundamental and obvious, such
problems do occur.

The lesson is:Be absolutelysure that the machineplatens and the

mold halves are square before processing. It may save considerable
time
and headache later!

CASE STUDY NO. 9: Be Careful!

On several occasions during the past few years, we have read of
cases where a machine operator has lost fingers and hands as a result of
not paying heedto the safety rules involving the clamp unit.In some more
violent accidentsthat have been describedin trade journals, men have been
crushed to death when the clamp unit accidentally closed on their bodies.
Although we cover this again in the chapter on safety, it bears repeating
here.

All injectionmoldingmachines are equippedwithsafetiesthat

prevent the accidental closingof the clamp unit. Yet there have been and
will no doubt be many operators or maintenance men in the hture that
on the clamp unit
disable the safeties to theoretically facilitate their work or
the mold while itis in the machine. The results canbe fatal!

The lesson is: Do NOT &able machine safeties that affect the
operation ofthe clamp unit, While working aroundthis unit anaYor the
mold, turn the power off andproceed according to the safety rules that
the machine manufacturersupplies.
 55

The injection mold is the element of the injection molding system

that receives the molten plastic fromthe injection unit, formsthe shape of
the desired plastic part, providesthe necessary cooling to solidlfL the part
andejects the part.Regardless of the type,moldsconsist of several
components, eachof which hlfills a vitalh c t i o n in the molding of parts.

7.1 Mold Components

Molds consistof twohalves. Onehalf is the statwnary halfwhich
usually containsthe cavities or female portionsof the mold which forms the
molded parts. This halfof the mold is clamped to the stationary platenof
the machine. Thecores or male portions ofthe mold are typically contained
in the movable half of the mold which is clamped to the moveable platen
of the machine. The separation betweenthe cores and the cavities, where
the mold comes apart, is calledthe parting line. If you pick up most plastic
parts and examine them closely, you can see a very small raised line in the
plastic wherethe two halves of the mold came together.

The flat steel sections that comprise a are referred to asplates,

mold
hence, molds may be referred to as a two-plate moldor a three-plate mold,
indicating that the core sections, cavitysections and the runner system is
contained within eithertwo plates or three plates in the mold. The runner
system includesthe sprue or main channel through which the molten plastic
enters the mold and the smaller channels, or runners, which carry the
plastic fiom the sprue to the cavities and cores. As the molten plastic
between the cores and cavitiescools and solidifies,so does the plastic in the
sprue and runners. A two plate mold, which is one of the most common
types of mold in use, is shown in Figure 20. It is referredto as a two plate
mold because the parts the runner system are all contained within two
plates, the A plate and the B plate. Because other types of molds involve
the same principles thatare present in the two plate mold, its components
will be reviewed to gain a basic understandingof how the mold works.
56

L*
Rere 20 Ttro plate moldin a dosed position

Figure 20 shows the side view of a two plate molld in a closed

position. Notice that in addition to the two plates referredto as the A and
B Plates, which contain the parts and the runner system, there are three
other plates that comprise the main elements of the mold. All of these
plates, collectively, are referred to as the mold base. There are companies
that manufacture standard-sized mold bases which can be used for molds of
more simple construction.

In this illustration,the parts are shallow bowls, whichare shown at

the ends of the runner system. The very small opening where the molten
plastic moves f h m the m e r system intothe part is referred to as the gate.
There are many types of gates, some ofwhich w ibe illustrated laterin this
l
l
chapter. Again, if you pick up a plastic part and look carefully, you w ill
likely be able to identifl the gate through which the plastic flowed.
 57

IR addition to the mold componentsdiscussed,several other

components are identified in the illustration which fulfill the following
hctions:

Mold Component Function Performed

rop c~arnpingPlate Allcmrsthecavrtysidedtheroldtobeclampedt0the
stationary platen of the injection molding machine.

'A" Plate I Holds the cavity inserts. the sprue bushingand runner
system.
~~ ~~~

2aVity Insert Formsthefemalesideofthepart. Canbereplacedor

repaired if worn or cracked without replacing the "A" Plate.

Part ThespacebetweentheCavrtylnsertandtheCorelnsertthat
is in- with d
e np k t k and then coded and s d i i e d
part.
to form the desired

Core Insert Forms the male side c4 the part. Like the Cavity
Insert, can
be repaired or replaced if requiredwithout replacing the"B'
Plate.

Locdesvlecavrtysidedthemddtothestatiafyplatenof
the machine.

Containsthesprueand,liketheinserts,canbereplaced
without replacing the
"A" Plate.

Runner System Accepts the molten plastic and directs it to the gate
(small
apeningt0thepartspace)whereitenterstoformthepart.

Coding Lines Channelscut

into circulation of water
the mold to permit the
to cod the part to a s d i state.

"B" Plate
Similar
the
to "A" Plate. Hokls the
core
inserts and space for
qectorpins.

Leader Pins Guidethecoreandcavltyhaksofthemddtocune

tcgether quicklyand accurately.

Ejector Bar 8 Ejector Plate Provides the force to theEjector Plate to push theejector
pins forward to eject the pari off of the core.

Ejector RetainerPlateRetainsthe *
o
r pins so that after ejed~on.they can be
retracted to their original
position.

Ejector Housing the Support Plate and Support Pillars, forms

Together with
the epxtor box which houses the ejectkm components.
 The previous illustration shows the mold in a closed positionat the
time the plastic is injected. When the mold opens, as required when the
movable platen retracts, the parts and runner systemstay on the core half
of the mold andthe spruepuUer pulls the sprue out ofthe sprue bushing.
This is illustrated in Figure 21. The parts areready to eject andthe runner
system andsprue must be separated fiom the parts.

Rgwe 21 Two plate mold m en open position

There are several methods of separating the parts fiom the sprue
and runner system, One is a sprue picker, which is a pneumatic device
similar to a robot, that goes into the mold opening and, before ejection,
clamps onto the sprue and pullsthe sprue and runner system away fiom the
parts, disconnecting at the gate. The other method is a conveyor that is
designed to separate the parts fiomthe runner systemwhile conveying. The
connection at the gate is usually very small and easily snappedOE
 59

Figure 22 shows the parts, runner system and sprue their

in ejected
position. This illustration assumes that a sprue picker was not used to
separate the runner system andsprue from the parts.

Ejecto
Pins

Rgure 22 Two plate mold shown at ejection

The design and manufactureof molds is a very specializedprocess

and requires talented designers and craftsmen (mold makers). You have no
doubt seen complicated plastic parts, such as cups with handles, plastic
parts with threads so that they can be screwed onto another object and
sophisticated medical parts(like syringes) that require a veryprecise fit to
perform their intended task. Allof these parts, whichare designed by the
Product Designer(who, in effect, dictates part of the mold design), must
then be reviewed by Moldthe Designer (who may work from a hand-made
model or apartdrawing)who designs the type of moldandmold
construction necessary to producethe part. Mold designis very complex
and requires a knowledge of plastic materials, tool steels, mold construction
and many other factors necessaryto make an efficient hnctioning mold.
The mold makers, who are craftsmen as well as excellent machinists,
worlung with sophisticated equipment, then manufacture and assemble
the
mold according to design. The tolerances in many molds arevery
from the design
demanding, often requiring components that do not deviate
as much as the thickness of the hair on your head.

In the design andmanufacture of the mold, there are many

additional factorsto be considered. Because of their complex nature,they
will only be mentioned here so that you may better appreciate the tasks
involved.

The runner systems needed to serve a mold that is making a

number of parts in one shot can be quite elaborate. The designer may use
a circular runner design or a symmetrical design, but all designs will
normally be balanced, that is, the distance fromthe sprue to each parthas
the same length and flow volume. Typical designs are shown below in
Figure 23.

Parts

I \m

Rgure 23 Illustration of two

bdancednuvler systems
 The cross-section of the runner system can take one of several
different
forms,
including full-round,
half-round,
quarter-round,
trapezoidal, and modified trapezoidal. The full-roundandtrapezoidal
forms are considered best because they provide the least contact withthe
cool mold and, therefore, provide the best flowto the cavity.

You also noted the gates in Figure 23. As with runner systems,
gates can take a varietyof forms. They may be a tab gate,fan gate, ring
gate, submarine gate, and others.It is not important thatyou know howor
why these gates are used, but only to know that there is a variety of
methods to gate a part.The gate is always smaller in cross-section than the
runner so that the part may detach cleanly and easily. Because of their
small size, gates also impart some shear to the melted plastic as it enters the
cavity.Excessiveshear is notdesirableand can causecosmeticand
physical imperfections inthe part.

A closer look at Figure 23 shows a feature called a slug well.

Because the initial surgeof material will cool as it goes through the sprue
and runner, a slug of this cooler material may develop. The failure to
sidetrack this slug could cause stresses when injected into the cavity[7].
An extension to portions of the runner system, where a comer exists, allows
the slug to be sidetracked and remain in this slug well.
In effect, the slug
actually forms a rounded, insulated turn for the melt to follow.
A large slug
well is also designedjust below the sprueto accomplish the same purpose.
There are severalslug wells in Figure 23.

The runnersystemsthathavebeendiscussedaboveare cold

runnersystems, meaningthattherunnersarenotheated. The outer
portion of the melted plastic in the runner system develops a skin of
semi-solidified melt that insulates the center portion
of the melt flow in the
runner.

hot runner systems

In addition to cold runner systems, there are

in which the runners are heated by an external means to keep the plastic in
the runner in molten form. These systems involve a different type
of mold
design which is discussed briefly in the next section
of this chapter.
7.2 Types of Molds

As suggested in the previous section, molds can be classified as

either
cold
runner
molds or hot
runner
molds.Within
each
classification, there are multiple types of molds that differ in the way in
which they are constructed.

7.2.1 Cold Runner Molds

Cold runner moldsare classified as such becausethe runner system

is not heated and solidifies in the same manner as the part. The runner
system is then ejectedalong with the part. Thetweplate mold, illustrated
in the previous section(Figure 20), is probably the most commonly used
cold runner mold design and draws its name because the parts and runner
system are contained withintwo mold plates, generally requiring an external
force to separate the parts fiom the runner system. Thistype ofcold runner
mold is ideal forparts requiring large gates. The two-plate mold illustration
(Figure 20) shows the parts being gated on the side or edge of the part. If
the part was deeper, it would be more desirableto gate the part at the top
center of the part.

An alternative cold runner mold designis a three-plate mold which

allows top center gating and differs fiom the two-plate mold bythe addition
of a third plate referred to as a runner plate (Figure 24). A fourth plate
(runner stripper plate) is fiequently added in lieu of using ejector pins.
Instead of the runner system being located in the B plate as shown in
Figure 20, it is contained in the added runner plate, allowing the desired
center top gating of the part. When the mold opens, the parts are degated,
leaving the runner system in the runner stripper plate. Continued movement
of the core and cavity halvesof the mold, combined with some bolts(tie
rods and stripper bolts) that restrict the movement of the runner stripper
plate, result in stripping the runner system and sprueoff of undercut pins
(sucker pins) located in the top clamp plate,allowing the runner system and
plastic sprue to fall down out of the mold.
 63

PL2 PL.1 PL.3

I I /

Rgunr 24 T h e plate mold in a closed position. PU is parting line where

m o l d ~ o p e n s . P I . 2andPL3 are secondandthirdpartinglinss

The three-plate mold is unique in that it opens in three places: (1)

-
Parting line # l between the runner plate and the stripper plate;(2) Parting
-
line #2 between the core and the cavity plates; and (3) Parting line #3 -
between the top clamping plate and the stripper plate.The mold opens first
at P.L.l, breakrng the gateand leavingthe runner attached to thestripper
plate because of the sucker pins. The moldthen opens at P.L.2, leaving the
part on the coreawaiting ejection. The final opening at P.L.3 occurs as the
mold opens further, strippingthe runner off of the sucker pins.

The three-plate mold in Figure 24 is shown withejector pins. As

discussed on the previous page,a mold of this typewould fiequentlyutilize
a stripper platerather than ejector pins.
64

7.2.2 Hot Runner Molds

In a hot runner m f d , the runners are maintainedin a heated
condition to keep the molten plastic in a fluid
state at all times. Sometimes
the hot runner molds are referred to as runnerless molds. Hot-runner
molds are similar to three plate molds, except that the runner system is
contained in a runner plate that is never opened during the cycle. This
heated runner plateis insulated fiom the rest of the cooled mold.

Hot runner molds have several advantages over cold runner molds.
First, there is no runner system and sprue molded as a by-product that must
be ground up and reused. Second, sprue pickers or special conveyorsthat
separate the runner system and sprue fi-om the part are not required. Third,
a d o r m melt temperature can be maintained all the way from the nozzle
to the cavity, insuring fewer deviationsin part quality dueto a melt that is
not isothermal. Fourth, the shot capacity and clamp tonnage required thein
injection molding machine are decreased by the size of the sprue and runner
system which, although not a part, must be considered as a molded by-
product [ 1l]. There are some disadvantagesto hot runner molds, including
to purge, making repair
ditficulty in controlling their temperature, inability
a time consuming process, and not being able to change color easily.

There are two types of construction for what is referred to as hot

runner molds, the insulated runner molds and true hot runner molds. The
insulated runner m f d has runners that are very thick and are contained
partly inthe top clamping (or backup plate) and partly in the A plate. The
size of the runners allows the development of a thick skin of plastic
around the outside perimeter of the runners which insulates the molten
plastic on the inside ofthe runner. These moldsare oftenassisted by heated
torpedoes that are inserted in each gate and are kept in a continually heated
condition [7]. When these moldsare started up, the cold runner system must
be removed completelyby separating the backup plate fiom the A plate
and reassembling them.This type of mold in notas common as the true hot
runner mold.
 65

The true hot runner ntotd (Figure 25) functions similarly to the
insulated runner mold, however, the runner system is kept byhotheating the
runner plate itselfor by using a heated manifold through which the runner
system moves(hot maniford mold).The distinctionofthe hot runner mold
is the ability to start up cold without intervention by an operator, as
descriid above for insulated runner molds.

The hot runner mold shownin Figure 25 illustrates the electrically

heated manifold and insulated nozzle are thatcommon to this type of mold.
The heated runner system within the manifold is insulated fiom the rest of
the cooled mold.It should alsobe noted that, unlike the cold runner molds,
the runner sectionof the mold does not open during the molding cycle. The
parting line of the mold is noted in the illustration andthe part is held onto
the core by undercuts as the mold opens. After opening,the part is ejected
off of the core by ejector pins, a stripper plate or other ejection mechanism.

+"-U M r

Rgwe 2.5 Hot runner mold in a closed position

66

7.2.3 Other Mold Types

There are other types of molds that are defined by some type of
special construction or function rather than by
the type of runner system.
These types can often use either hot or cold runner systems. They include:

(a) StripperPlateMolds - wherethenamerelates to the

construction of the ejection mechanism. Rather than use ejector pins, a
separate plate with openings that, when the plate is pushed forward during
ejection, actually strips the part offof the core, avoiding any ejector pin
marks. This type of mold is popular for molding cups or cylindrically
shaped parts.

(b) Slide Molds - in this case the mold contains partial plates that
are referred to as slides that move away from the part as the mold is
opening. These slides are used to form a portion of the part that is not
symmetrical. A typical example mightbe a coffee mug where the exterior
of the mug involves a handle that would be sheared off at mold opening.
Instead, a slideon each side of the mug forms the exterior of the mug and
they pull away sideways as the mold opens. This side pull action be can
accomplished withunglepin~~~ that mechanically cause the sliding action
as the mold halves are opened, orcore by pull^'^ that do the same thing but
are activatedbyhydraulicsasthemoldopens,withtheslideplates
remaining closed against the core until the core and cavity plates are open.
The part is ejected off of the core after
the core pulls have completed their
function. Core pulls are used to accomplish the forming of many part
configurations and are essential to most custom molding operations.The
core pulls are activated by the hydraulic system of the injection molding
machine or pneumatics, which are available machine accessory options.

(c) Unscrewing Molds - this type of mold is designed especially

to produce threaded parts, such as caps for bottles. Typically the internal
threads aremoldedbythecoreand,afterthemoldisopen,thecore
rotates while the part is held in place until the core rotates itself ofoutthe
part. This type of part, usually in larger sizes, can also be produced using
 67
a collapsible core which mechanically folds inward allowing the part to
be ejected. Both typesof construction are specialized and expensive. They
are also very fascinating to watch!

(d) Stack Molds - these molds essentially consist of two molds

stacked together. The basic construction canbe two-plate, three-plateor
a hot runner system. The center plate section
forms cavities and/or coreson
both sides and rides on a geared mechanism that opens two parting lines
simultaneously. Twice as many parts may be produced in this type
of mold.
These molds are quite complex and require explanation beyond the scope
of this book. There are other types
of molds in use today, however, they all
embody the principles used in those discussed above.

7.3 Ejection
Although the ejection of parts was briefly reviewed in the sections
on the clamp unit and mold components, this subjectis one that warrants
further discussion. The type of ejection discussed in the earlier sections
is
described as hydraulic ejection which uses ejector bars that pass through
holes in the moveable platen and, at a selected time in the cycle, are
activated by machine hydraulics to push against theejector plate. As the
ejector plate moves forward, it causes ejector pinsto contact the part and
push it offof the core, completing the ejectionof the part. Springs maybe
used to return the ejector plate toits begin position or the ejector bars,if
fastened to the ejector plate, can also return it to that position as the mold
closes forthe next shot.

In the older machines,mechanical ejectionwas more common, and

the ejector bars (also referred to as bumpers) used the mold opening
stroke, rather than hydraulics, to provide the action needed for ejection.
As
the machine opens the mold, the ejector bars would contact a stationary par
of the clamp mechanism positioned behindthe moveable platen. As the
mold continued to open, the ejector bars, now stationary, would contact the
ejector plate in the mold, causingit to move forward against ejector pins
which pushed the part offof the core. This method of ejection, virtually
obsolete inthe newer machines,is still used by older machines.
68
Hydraulic ejection offers several advantages: (1) it can be actuated
at any point in the mold opening stroke; (2) it offers the possibility of
multiple ejection when operating in the automatic mode to insure complete
ejection of the molded parts; (3) it allows forthe sequencing of core pulls
which may require ejection beforeor after thecore pull action; and(4) the
length, velocity and pressure of the ejection stroke can be regulated within
design limits to conserve timein the cycle and prevent mold damage.

Air cylinder ejection is sometimes usedto blow the part offof the
core. Stack molds which may require ejectionfiom the stationary half of
the mold(which has noejectionmechanism)canuseaircylinders to
accomplish ejection. Syringe bulbs made fiom thermoplastic elastomers(a
rubbery-like plastic that canstretch) can be molded over a knob-shapedcore
and be blown off of the core rather than having to use a more expensive
collapsible core. In some cases, air ejection is usedin addition to hydraulic
ejection to simply facilitatethe removal of the part fiom the mold.

Previous discussions have referred

to ejector pinsor stripper plates
to removetheparts.Althoughthese two mechanisms are the most
common, sometimessleeve ejectors are used to eject tubular parts. These
ejectors are very delicate and are typically used wherenothere alternative
is
[l]. There are other morerefinedconsiderationsinvolvingejection,
however, they should be reservedamorefor technical book describing mold
design.

7.4 Projected Area

The projected area of a mold isthe area in the mold that will be filled
with plastic at the molds parting line. The parting line of a mold is the
primary opening of the mold where the core and cavity halves separate,
allowing the parts to eject. Theprojectedarea has also been defined as the
area of the shadow castby the molded shot . . . on a plane surface parallel
to the parting line [ 1l]. This includes the runner system. The projected
area of the mold is used to establish the tonnage of an injection molding
machine that is requiredto run a particular mold.
 69

It is important to understand how to calculate the projected area of

a mold. Figure 26 is a sketch of a simple moldthat produces rectangular
flat piecesof trim tilethat could be used in a bathroomor kitchen.

Rpt.326 F'rojectedareaforafourca\rilymold

In this illustration, assumingthat therunner system occupies about

4 square inches (2,580 m m 2 ) and each part covers 24 square inches (15,484
m m 2 ) , the total projected area would equal approximately 100 square
inches. (24x4 = 96 + 4 = 100) or 64,516 mm.' We learned in Chapter 6
that a clamp force of about 2% to 3 tons for every square inch of
projected areais adequate for most molding conditions (based on a 20,000
psi rated machine). Accordingly, the projected area of the mold in this
illustration should requirein the range of 250 to 300 tons ofclamp force.
A 300 ton machine shouldcertahly be enough tonnage and very likely 250
tons would also be adequate.
711

It should be noted that thinnerpartstypicallyrequiregreater

clamping force than thick-walled parts. Also, when molding with a higher
temperature melt,a hotter mold, largergates or a fasterrate of injection will
require a higher clamping pressure. Remember, however, that steel molds
can be crushedby too much clamp pressure and some authorities estimate
that mold destruction requires only 10 tons per square inch[ 1l].

7.5 Mold Venting

Although relatively simpleto understand and basicto the molding
process, venting is a subject that receives too little attention. Venting is
simply the method of allowing the air that is trapped inside the cavity space
(and runner system, ifapplicable)to escape. As the plastic is injected into
the closed mold, ittraps any air that isin the cavity. If the air has no place
to go, it w i be compressed and, as a result, heated to a temperature
l
sufficient to burn the plastic that is forming the part. Black or brown spots
or streaks in the molded part offer evidence of inadequate venting. In
addition, if there is sufficient air trapped inthe cavity, the air may prevent
the part from being completely filled, also causing a rejected part.

Venting is accomplished by creating a verysmall gap or opening at

the edges of the cavity so that air may be released out of the cavity rather
than be trapped and burned. The openings are small enough, typically
.0005" to .0015" (.00013 to .00038 mm) deep and .040"to .120" (.010 to
.305 mm) long, to allow the air to escape but notthe molten plastic.

Obviously, some molten plastic is much more viscous (thicker) than

others.Forexample,nylonisveryrunnyand thin (non-viscous)and
requires a ventthat is very shallow (.0003"to .0005"), whereas, acrylic and
polycarbonate are very viscous and can have vent gapsare in the range
that
of .0015" to .0025" (.00038to .00064 mm). In addition to the vent gaps,
there are usually vent relief grooves into which the vents exhaust. These
grooves are deeper thanthe gaps, typically .030" (.762 mm) deep and.250"
(6.35 mm) to .500" (12.70mm) wide, and mustrun out to the atmosphere
to permit the complete releaseof the trapped air. The vents and vent relief
 71

grooves are usually precision ground into

the mold components. Usingpart
of the previous illustration, Figure 27 shows the vents and vent relief
grooves.

P
!
- 27 Ilhrehation of typicalwriting of a mold cavity

7.6 Mold Cooling

There are many control functions that are employed on injection
molding machines and theyare discussed in Chapter 8. In addition, there
is a h c t i o n that is not controlledby the machine, butrather by an external
source. That isthe control over mold cooling. This is accomplished by the
proper construction of cooling channels in the mold itself and a Mold
Temperature Controller.

The Mold Temperature Controller is an external source that is

connected to the mold water lines and also to either a chiller or water
source. It controls the temperature and velocity of the water that flows
through the mold.
72

Themolddesigner is responsiblefor the proper sizingand

positioning of the water channels in the mold and how those channels are
used to cool the parts. It is nearly impossibleto have too much cooling built
into the mold because the degree of cooling can be regulated by the
temperature and flowrate of the fluid.

One ofthe considerations inthe selection of the type of material to

use in the manufactureofmold cores and cavitiesis the thermal conductivity
of the material itself. It is interesting to note that the tool steels that are
typically used to make core and cavity inserts have twice the thermal
conductivity of stainless steels. More significant, berylLium copper (which
is often used where rapid cooling is essential) has more than twice the
thermal conductivityof mold tool steels.

Cooling channels are holes drilledthrough the cores and cavities

and they should be as close as possible to the surface of the plastic,
considering the strength of the material used. Typical channels are at least
1/4(6.35 mm) in diameter and3/8 (9.53 mm) is preferable. The channels
intersect to allow for the flow through of the cooling fluid andare plugged
at the end withsoft brass plugs. In some tallcores, such as a large drinking
cup,a bubbler isused to providean agitation of thefluid,thereby
improving the cooling capability. The best way to describe a bubbler that
is
it h c t i o n s like a vertically mounted drinking fountain.

Another methodof directing the cooling fluid more effectively is the

use of baffles. A baffle is a flatstrip of brass, stainlesssteel or nylon (to
prevent corrosion) inserted in the core or cavity to divide the cooling
channelanddirect the flow of thefluidinto two channelscausinga
circulating or up-and-down action.

A well designedmold should have several cooling channels that

surround the cavities and intrude into the cores to provide uniform and
effective cooling. The in and out ends of the channels are threaded to
allow for fittings to be inserted so that quick connect hose connections
can be made. Incidentally, when the hoses are hooked up, care should be
taken to minimize the number of loops in the system.
 73

Eipgure 28 Illustration ofthe incorrectlooping of mold cooltng h e s

An incorrect designofthe mold cooling lines is illustrated

in Figure
28. Multiple loops offof the same inlet source decreasethe cooling effect
of the water because of its repeated exposure to warm cavities without a
new cool water source. It is important that the temperature of the water
coming out of the mold be no more than 4" F (2" C) greater than the
temperature of the water coming in.

Although the Mold Temperature Controller is hooked to a chiller or

water source, itis a closed loop system withone or more circuits through
the mold. Water that is too warm or too cold may be dumped fiom the
system and replaced with water of the temperature desired. The cooling
oil or, in rare cases, air.
systems use water, water plus glycol, pure glycol,
Although the heat exchange fluidis usually pumped through the mold, in
is vacuum pumped allowingany leaks to leak intothe system
some cases, it
74

rather than out ofthe system and into the mold. It is importantto remember
that the flow rate of the cooling fluid is probably more importantthan its
temperature. Also it should be noted thatthe cooling liquidmay not be cool
nor water. The coolant circulating through the mold is controlled at a
temperaturerequired to insure the proper formationof the parts, whichmay
be more than 100F(38C). When the desired temperature is above 150F
(66"C), liquids other than water (such as oil) are considered for use. A
coolant that is too cold will potentially causeparts tostick inthe mold and
not eject properly. Alternatively, a coolant that runs too hot can cause
warpage in the parts and allow ejector pins to penetrate the'part causing
ejector marks that are not cosmetically desired.

prsUra 29 Ilhrctration of p h d configuration of mold coolinglinen

Figure 29 illustrates a preferred methodof providing mold cooling.

There are other considerations in the design of mold cooling, however, the
principles are the same as those discussed.
 75

CASE STUDY NO. 10: Maintaining the Mold

Too many times we have observed molds that had not been properly
maintained, both on and off the press. Rusty components, hobbed vents and
parting linesthat are nicked or otherwise damaged prevent the successful
continued useof a mold. The observance of simple maintenancetasks help
keep a mold in good condition (in addition to routine mold makerwork),
including cleaning the parting lines and spraying the mold with a rust
inhibitor before removing fiom the press. In addition, ifthe mold is stopped
during production,do not letthe coolant continueto runthrough the mold.
Doing so not only can cause rust forming condensation but, if flowing
through one halfonly, can affectthe fit when restarted, allowing potential
damage to the mold.

The lesson is: Take good careof the molds being used Many of
them may have cost more than $100,000 and should betreated like a
valuableprecision instrument, notjust a large blockof steel.
76

Control
Most of the functions of the injection molding machine have been
discussed in prior chapters, such as the clamp unit, the mold and the
injection unit. In order to cause those functions to perform properly with
any degree of automation, a control system on the machine is required.
Becausetherearemoretypes of controlsthantherearemachine
manufacturers (independent control manufacturers also make them),this
chapter will discuss the types of control elements that are present on most
machines. The information presented will also differentiate between older
types of machines where the controls are more mechanical and rudimentary
and the newer machines where microcomputers are used to automate many
of the control functions. Because controlling and monitoring are both
essential elementsof the control system, each will be discussed separately.

8.1 ProcessingFunctions

There are several processing functions that mustbe performed on

all injection molding machines regardless of the manufacturer or the of age
the machine. These functions include:

Clamp Unit Control - this function includes control over the

speed with which the moveable platen (and the mold) opens and closes
without jerking, how far the platen opens and the amount of clamp tonnage
pressure that is exerted on the mold to hold it closed during the cycle. It
also controls some vital safety settings that prevent the mold from closing
under abnormal conditions (i.e., a plastic part or other obstruction
is present
that would damage the mold or a worker).

Extruder (Screw) Control - the speedof the screw rotation (RPM

or % of maximum speed) and the amountof back pressure are determined
with this control. Also categorized under this function grouping is the
decompression of the melt at the nozzle, caused by the screw retractingor
sucking back a small distance from its full inject position.
 77

Temperature Control - the temperature settings of the heater

bands on the barrel and the nozzle are controlled in this function. Each
heater band zone and the nozzle may be independently set at the specific
temperature desired.In some machines,an automatic heatstart-up or pre-
soak of the barrel may be set to reach a certain temperature prior to
starting the molding operation.

m Injection Control- this fbnction includes the control of the shot

size (usually stated in inches that the screw injects forward),the fill speed
or velocity of the screw as it comes forward during injection, the transfer
point wherethe screw speed reduces to commence the holding of the screw
in place until the sprue fieezes off, and the hold pressure settings that are
required while the part(s) are cooled and solidifl.

m Core Pull - the selection of the core pull sequence and the
positions requiredare determined by this function. Refer back to Chapter
6 to review the use of core pulls in the forming of the part.

Ejector Control - the speed, position and forward limits of

ejection are determinedin this function. Multipleor pulsing ejection is also
controlled as is the retraction speed and limits of ejectors performing
multiple ejection.

m Purge Control - in addition to the control of various molding

functions, as described above, some machines have a control over the
purging of the barrel of unwanted plastic, whether to shut down, change
color or other purposes. The screw rotate speed, back pressure limitation,
purgetimeandnumber of purgecyclesthatarenormallycontrolled
manually, may be controlled automatically.

8.2 ControlFunctions
All of the injection molding machines manufactured today include
a controller that is essentially a microcomputer. The control settings are
usually accomplishedby pushing buttons on a computer screen rather than
78

turning a knob on a valve or flippinga switch. It is important to note that

there is a difference between sensors (such as a pressure transducer or
thermocouple) that measure or sense a condition, controls (buttons, knobs,
valves or switches) that set limits on operating parameters (like speeds,
distances, pressures) anductuutors that activatea machine function. In an
automatedprocess,the controller (microprocessor-basedcomputer) is
connected to the sensors and actuators and, based on program logic, cause
the actuators to perform their function.

Whether the machine is newenough to use a microcomputer, the

first control decision is the operational mode. The choices are:

Manual m d e - where the limitsmay be set to desired

parameters,but the machine will not perform any functions unless an
activate buttonis engaged. This mode is typically used in starting
a mold
up
or in shutting down and purging.

Semi-Automatic m oe - where all the machine limitsare preset

d
but the machinestops atthe endof the cycle andwill not commencea new
cycle until the machine safety gate is opened and closed. This mode is
commonly used where ejection must be done manuallyor with manual assist
(by theoperator) or when a mold is just starting up.

Automatic mode - where all machine limits are preset and the
machine cycles repeatedly unless stopped by a safety conditionor by the
operator.

The following table illustrates some

of the control functions and the
type of control setting usedin both newer and older machines. theIn older
machines,much of the control wasachievedwithelectro-mechanical
devices. Those devices were proneto wear and their dependability tended
to diminish with age. In addition, changes usingthose devices were more
difficult to achieve than the programmable logic controllers that are now
used.
 79

Table of Control Functions

Control
Function
Older
Machines
Newer
Machines
~~~ ~~

Wapen" Limit switch Control settingon Controller

screen (CS)
Clamp pressure Mdd heQm or pressure Control setting(tons) on CS
relief VahR

zoneheeterband Manual control Control setting(degrees F/C) on

ssttings CS

Fill speed I Manualflow control mI\R

I Control setting
oncs
(in or mmlsec)

Fill pressure (Stage 1 or

I Manualhydraulic relief VahR
I Controlsetting (%, psi/bar) on CS

Hold prassure( S t a g e 2) Manual hydraulic relid VahR control setting (%, psibar) on CS
Hold time (Stage 2) Manual timer(sec) Control setting(sec) on CS

Back pressure relief mlve Control setting (%, psilbar) on CS Manual

scrpMlspeed(ratide ManualW contrd valve Control setting(% or RPM) on CS

RPM)

Stroke length Limit switch Control setting (inlmm)on CS

Cushion Se! by stroke length Se! by stroke length

Ejectorstroke Limit switch contrd setting (idmm) on CS

core pull sequence Switch Control settingon CS

Tmferposition Manualtimer basedon c m settings on CS:

fill (sec) Screw position (idmm), or
Hydraulic pressure(psilbar). or
cavity pressure (psibar)
Back Pressure OdOff Switch Control settingon CS (offwhen
purging)
screwsuckback Manual timer (10th~
sec) Control setting (position- idrnm)
on CS
Mold p r M l o n system Limit Switch,Mold apen 8 Control setting(position - in or
dose slow (*) -
pressure %) on CS

Mold OpenlCltxespeed Flow control mhe Control setting (% speed) on CS

(Sanem be profiled on CS)
80

In addition to the control settings illustrated in the table, there are

certain actuators (buttons, knobs or switches) that are common to all
machines. They are bkly selfexplanatoryby their name andare used when
the machine is in the manual mode. They include:

> Controller OnlOff - thisactivatesthe control screen (and

microcomputer) allowing all of the other hctions on the machine to be
activated. In essence, this isthe o d o f fswitch forthe machine itself.

> Start (Hydraulic Pumps) - this actuator starts the hydraulic

pumps on the machine.All machines haveat least two pumps (eventhough
they may be in the same housing), one with large capacity and one with
small capacity. It is necessary to activate this button in order for the
hydraulics of the machine to hction.

> Stop (Hydraulic Pumps)- this simplyturns off the hydraulic

Pumps.

> Mold Open - when the machine is in the manual mode, this
actuator opens the mold. It is used when mounting a mold,at start up and
at other times whenthe mold needs to be opened for incidental work to the
Gees of the mold halves.

> Mold Close - this actuator closes the mold for use during setup,
shut down or other times whenthe machine is inthe manual mode.

> Heats OnlOff - this actuator turns the heater band heatcontrols
on at whatever settings are provided on the controller. To activate the
heaters for the oil in the hydraulic system, a separate setting must be
activated on the controller.

> Carriage Foward/Back - this switch movesthe carriage (the

sled which holdsthe injection unit) back and forward. Thisis used at start
up, shut down and during purge. The carriage may be retracted for other
reasons, suchas changing the valve, the screw and/or the barrel.
 81

> Screw Rotate - during manual mode, it may be necessary to

rotate the screw for alignmentto: (1) remove the screw collar nuts so the
screw may be removed and(2) facilitate purging.

> Screw Pull Back - the screw must be retracted in a manual

mode in order to ready the machine to commence a cycle. It is also used
during screw removal and sometimes during purging.

> Inject Forward - also used during purging and at shut down,
after purging is complete, the screw is left
in the forward position.

Eject Forward - allows the forward movement of the ejector

stroke to manually eject parts and in checking the machine in preparation for
processing.

> Eject Retract - used in the same hctions as Eject Forward and
to ready the machine to commence operation on cycle.

> Core Pull In/Out - this activates the core pull mechanism that
allows cores to be retracted or pulled in during setup.

8.3 Process Control

With a basic understandingof the machine control functions, it is
easy to understandwhy many of the process control functions are
automated, using the capabilities of a microcomputer. This automation
simplifies processcontrol in one sense, yet it also demands a great dealof
expertise fiom the molder. It is clearly not withinthe scope of this book to
provide any level of instruction relative to automated process control.
However,webelievethatanyoneinvolved inmolding should have a
conceptual understanding ofwhat process control is all about. Keep in mind
that you must understand howto mold before you cantake full advantage
of process control.
82

CASE STUDY NO. 11: If You Dont Know, Ask!

Most accidents and damage to machines, machine components and

operators occur because of a lack of understanding of how the machine and
its controls function. Some problems that have occurred in the field include:

Setting the ejection pressureso high that the backhalfof the

mold was pushedoff of the movable platen

Setting the mold close speed too high causing the mold to hit
hard upon closing, causing damageto the mold face

Setting the eject forward

stroke too long causing theejector pins
to hob intothe mold

These are but a fewoftheproblemsthat can occur when care and

understanding are not involved in using the controls on the machine.

The lesson is: Study carefully, go slowly and ifyou dont know
the result ofa change in oneor more of the controls, ask someone who
knows.
 83

9 Robotics and Granulators

Materialhandlingsystemsthatmovetheplastic fiom storage
facilities to the injection molding machine were discussed in an earlier
chapter. It is equally important to consider the handling of the molded
parts. Molders are now accustomed to automation andare seeking better
ways to: (1) speed cycle times;(2) eliminate moreof the labor cost fiom
the molding process; (3) avoid damage to parts that can be caused by
normal ejection methods; and(4) perform secondaryoperations that are
required in order for the molded partto be a completed product.

Robotics are providing some effective methodsto accomplish some

of these objectives. In addition, the trendtoward greater automationhas
generatedimprovementsin the operation of granulators. Robotand
conveyor-fed granulators are a more commonplace, cost saving option
used by many molders.

9.1 Robotics
In Chapter6, the use of sprue pickerswas described as a method
of retrieving the runner system and sprue fiom the mold to facilitate part
separation and movement. Quite often the sprue picker drops the runner
system and sprue intoa nearby granulator while theparts can proceedto
the next station on a conveying system. A form of robotics, the sprue
picker is typically mounted to the stationary platen of the machine and,
usingpneumatically operated cylinders to providethepower,utilizes
extension arms and a gripping device thatenters the open mold andgrabs
the runner system, removesthe runner out of the platen area, pivots and
drops the runner in a specified place.

Another form of robotics is the mechanical roboticarm. These

are usually driven by the opening and closing motion of the moveable
platen and, by linkage to the stationary platen, moves in and out of the
open mold area. A typical linkage systemis a spherical camshaft system.
The robotic arms are very fast, quite durable andoperate smoothly. This
84

device also removes the sprue and runner system and

has become a well-
accepted method of removing delicate parts (such as molded compact
discs) from the mold quickly, quietly and safely.

A more sophisticated device that is commonly used in injection

molding is referred to as the pickandplace robot. These robots, armed
with microprocessor controls,servo motors and more elaborate gripping
devices, can remove and place runner systems andor parts in precise
positions, cut the parts separate fkom the runners, and also place inserts
into the mold for the next shot. They are capable of total loads of 200
pounds (90.7 kg) and more and can perform a variety of secondary
operations, including weighing, hot stamping, stacking, palletizing, box
loading, tray filling and ultrasonic welding. Best
of all, todays robots can
be taught a sequence for a particular mold set-up, store it and retrieve it
the next timethat mold is used.

Because of the varied and complex nature

of robotics, theyare only
mentioned in this book. Theyare, however, becoming more and more used
by progressive molders and savethe price of their purchase in relatively
short payout periods.

9.2 Granulators

Consistent withthe growth of robotics is the increasing importance

of granulators (or grinders), pulverizers and other size-reduction
equipment that is compatible with automated production. With growth
the
ofrobotic-feed granulators, greater automation inthe removal ofwaste and
the recycling of materials now enables granulatorsthat offer throughputof
100 to 1,000 pounds (454 kg) per hour to be connected to automated
production lines,machinemountedvertical drops (such as the sprue
pickers discussed earlier) and conveyor systems. The newer granulators
are more efficient, offer higher throughput, operate more quietly and
produce a granulate quality that is more easily recycledas regrind.

Regrind can be mixed with virgin material in quantitiesto 50%

up
and more, depending upon
the material andpart requirements, allowingthe
 85

processor to recoversomevalue from otherwisediscardablerunner

systems or defective parts.

Granulators are now available with adjustable speed drivesto meet

specific requirements and provide energy savingoptions such as automatic
shut-down. The developmentof improved materials for granulator blades
improves the quality of the regrind, providing more consistently sized
granules and minimizing the quantity of fines (dust size particles) that
make reprocessingof the material moredBicult.

Granulators thatare operated manually are still a mainstayof most

moldingoperations.Unfortunately,they are also the source of most
injuries to molding personnel. The blades are very sharp and, despite
careful operation, can become jammed or overloaded.

CASESTUDYNO. 12: Follow the Granulator Operator Manual

There have been numerous cases, someknown to the authors, in

which personnel have lost fingers and hands in granulators.occurred
Most
while trying to fiee up a jammed condition. Accidental activationof the
start button by whatever means, can cause serious injury
to the operator.

The lesson is: When entering a granulatorto correct ajammed

conditwn or to clean the machine, turn the power OFF! Read and
reread the Operator Manual for the machine and
follow the instructions
to the letter.
86

10 Getting Started
Getting started in the injection molding process includes Mold
Setup, ProcessSetup, Mold Start-up and Process Documentation. Each
of these steps is important, including
the documentation of the process after
it has been optimized. Although these steps should be performed by an
experienced Process Engineer, the information presented below should give
you a good guideline toward understanding what is involved in Getting
Started in molding.

10.1 Mold Setup

The objectiveof injection molding isto fill a mold with hot molten
plastic and then
cool the plastic to solidrfjr to the desired shapeofthe part(s)
being produced. As we have learned, the mold contains a space between
the cavitiesand cores that forms the shape of the product,plus the
necessary runners and gates to direct the flow of the molten plastic into this
space during injection.

The size of the mold depends on the size and shapeof the parts to
be produced. However,the size of a mold that w lifit into a given machine
depends uponthe space betweenthe tie barsof the machine. For example,
a machine with a rated 200tons of clamp forcemay have a platen size of 28
inches by 28 inches (71 1 mm), but the space between the tiebars may be
only 20 inches by 20 inches (508 mm), allowing a maximum mold size of
19%by 28 inches (495 by 71 1 mm). In this instance, the number of mold
cavities will depend on the size of the mold, the projected area, and the
weight of the parts and runner system. Total weight cannot exceed the
maximum shot size of molten plastic capable of being produced by the
injection unitof the machine.

In many plants, especially custommolding operations,the molds are

changed frequently,as production requirementsofvarious products are met.
When a mold is removed and a different mold is put in its place, cooling
lines must be removed from the outgoing mold andthen be reconfigured for
 87
~~~ ~

the replacement mold. The ejector bars that connect theejector plate of the
mold to the machine ejector plate mustalso be changed. This process can
be time consuming. Although down time is costly, it is not as costly as
expensive mold repairsifthe changing processis not done properly. There
are many automated mold changing systems being offered today that can
pay for themselves in saved production time.

The key steps involved inMold Setup for a new mold (rather than
changing a mold that has been run previously) may be summarized as
follows:

1. Make sure that the mold size will jii the machine to be used.
Nothing is more embarrassing than to have the mold lifted above the
machine and find that it will not fit!

2. Examine the Set Up Sheet(a preliminary set up sheet provided

by the Process Engineer based on his guidelines for the initial setup) to
determine therepiredplastic material. Locate the material and, depending
upon the material handling system, arrange loading
for the material into the
hopper of the machine. Clean the hopper, the magnets and any loading
equipment and begin the loading of the material. Start thedryer, if drying
is required, in sufficient timeto have material ready for processing.

3. Procure the proper ejector bars and checkto determine that they
are of e q w f length. Ejector barsof unequal lengthwill cause uneven mold
ejection, hang-ups of molded parts, and unnecessary wear of the ejector
plate bushings and guide rods.

4. Clean the sur$aces of the clamp plates of the mold and

faces
of the platens of any foreign material, wiping them down with steel wool
pads and a degreaser. Insert an eye bolt in a hole on the mold that w li
allow the most level handling and attach safety strapsand hoist hook. Be
certain the straps or chains used with the eye
bolt are adequate and ingood
condition. A fiayed strap should never beused. In addition, insist that
people stand clearas these operations are being carried out.
88

5. Using the hoist, lower the mold into the open platen space
(avoiding hitting the tie bars). If the mold is horizontal and cannot be
loweredthrough the tiebarspacingfromthetop,itmustbemoved
horizontally. In this case, a fork truck or crane will support the mold as it
is moved to engage the locating ring. Molds suspended in the air tend to
swing as they are being moved. Always maintain control of the mold and
do not allow itto sway!

6. Check the locating ring on the stationary side of the mold to

insure that it matches the hole in the stationary platen. This ring helps to
hold the mold in place. It lines up the mold sprue to the nozzle of the
barrel.

7 . Position the moldon the stationaryplatenwith the locating ring

properly engaged and slowly close the mold so that it can be adjusted
rotationally but not tip between the platens. Level the mold and attach
clamps totheplatens. Because of the varietyof mold sizes, the numberof
clamps needed will vary. However, it is better to have too many mold
clamps rather than too few. They are needed not only to hold the mold
against the platens, but to support the weight
of the mold on the moveable
platen. The proper tightening of the clamp bolts is also very important.
The over-tightening of the bolts, which can strip the threads in the platens,
can be prevented by using a torque wrench. The bolts must also be long
enough to accomplish their purpose.

After the mold has been securely clamped to the platens, the safety
straps maybe removed and the hoist maybe unhooked.

8. Open the mold to the desired daylight and set the mold open
and closed controls,making sure that the settings will not permit a banging
of the mold. Continue to fine tune these controls until the proper settings
have been achieved.
 89

Important Note: The Low Pressure Mold Protectionis a

system built into the molding machine to protect the mold
faces, cbities and cores against damageif something is
caught between them on m l d closing. The system is
NOT for the protection ofthe operator or setup person.
Theforce applied atthe pointof sensingthe obstruction
would seriously damage a persons hands orfingers!

9. Secure the ejector bars to provide necessary ejection capability.

The ejector bars may be threaded into the mold and the machine ejector
plate (for tie down ejection), secured to the mold only or allowed to
float. Set the ejector stroke controls, repeating the adjustments until
proper and not excessive ejection action can be assured.

10. Connect all required hydraulic, electrical and pneumatic

power systems and make sure that all are hctional. Do not allow testing
of theheatfunctions to becomeexcessivebeforethewaterlines are
connected. Double check to see that all heaters, thermocouples, transducers
and other sensors are connected.

1 1. Connect the water lines and loops, using as few loops as

possible. Make surethe lines will not interfere withor be in the way of the
mold movement norbe allowed to rest (or ride) on the tie bars. Recheck
the fittings for tightness andproper flow direction and turn the water on.
All water lines mustbe checked and any leaks must be fixed.

10.2 Process Methods

Before proceeding with of the steps in Process

a detailed description
Setup, it is important to distinguish between two methods of processing that
are used inmolding operations today. One method, referred to as the
traditionalor conventional method, usesvelocity control (fill rate or
pressure) as a means of he-tuning themoldingprocess.Because a
90
significant number of molders use thisapproach and you w i be more apt
l
to be exposed to it, we will describe it in detail under the Process Setup
section of this chapter.

The other method, referred to as the velocity control method,

maintains a constant velocity (constant fill rate or pressure) and adjusts
other variables to fine tune the molding process. This method, a more
recently introduced and sophisticated approach, is based on a very valid
principle, that the viscosity of the plastic melt changes with flowrate. As
explaiied by J. W. Bozzelli, in Injection Molding Solutions, Plastics do not
flow like oilor water. Water and oil do not change viscosity as a b c t i o n
of flow rate, plastics do. Plastics change viscosityas injection rate changes
[17]. The setting of the fill rate (fill time or first stage pressure) is
discussed in more detail in Appendix E. Obviously the use of velocity
control in this manner affects modifications that may have to be made in
troubleshooting a molding problem. Inthe troubleshooting chapterof this
book, however, we haveassumedthat the conventionalmethod of
processing is being used.

10.3 Process Setup

The Process Setup includessetting the barrelheatprofile,
establishing the injection stroke, speed and pressure, and selecting the
transfer point. In addition, the controls over mold cooling must be set.

1. The heater band heat settings should be basedon the percentage

of the shot size of the machine thatis being used. Determine the shot size
(including sprue and runner system, unless the setup is for a hot runner
mold). The required shot size is easily determinedby weighingthe part with
its runner system and sprue attached. Then calculate the percent of the
machines shot capacity used forthe material being processed,as follows:

h = Shot Size (oz) + [Machine Shot Capacity (02) + 1.05 X Sg*]

*For spec@ gravity (at room temperature) of materials,

refer to Appendix A
 91

Machine capacitiesare rated for processing polystyrene (PS) which

has a specific gravity at room temperature of 1.05 grandcubic centimeter.
The percent of shot size must be calculated based on the material that is
beingprocessed.Bydividing the machine shot capacity by 1.05 and
multiplying the resultby the specific gravityofthe material being processed,
the maximum shot capacity for that material will result. For example:

Assume a machine shot capacity of 14 ounces in PS and the material

being processed is HDPE at a specific gravity of.95 gdcc. Also, assume
a shot size in HDPE of 4.7 oz.

14 + 1.05 = 13.333 x .95 = 12.67 oz (capacity of

the machine processing HDPE)

Then: 4.7 (Shot size in oz) + 12.67 oz = 37.1% of shot capacity

Incidentally, if you want to know how many inches of stroke is

required to fill the mold, simply multiplythe stroke of the machineby the
percentage calculated above. Example: If the machine stroke is 8", then:

8" x .371= 2.97" of stroke is required

2. Set heater bandsettings in accordance with the following table.

Set Heater Band Zone Settings

as indicated,
dependingupon the % of shotcapacitybeingused l
e 30 % 30 - 50% > 50%
Reer=AimMelt Temp Rea=Aim+2CPF Rear=Aim+WF
Middle=Aim+ l
0 T Middle=Aim+ 1OOF Mile = Aim +15OF
Front =Aim Front = Aim Front = Aim

Nozzle =Aim N o d e =Aim Nozzle =Aim

Aim Melt Temperature is the mo
digtemperature recommended by the resin
ln
supplier
92

Example: Using the calculations and table above,

assume an "Aim" melt temperature recommended
by the resin supplier for the HDPE of 425 "F (2 18 "C)
and the % of shot capacity of 37.1%, the beginning
heat profile setting would be:

Rear zone temperature= 445 "F (229 "C)

Center zone temperature= 435 "F (224 "C)
Front zone temperature= 425 "F (21 8 "C)
Nozzle temperature = 425 "F (2 18 "C)

The temperature settings suggested above represent

the beginning
point of the heat profile. It wli beoptimized by procedures that are
described later in the book.

Also, many molders have not availed themselvesof the advantages

of a reverne heat profile. Those advantages will be set forth in detail in
Chapter 12.

3. Using the inches of necessary stroke calculated above, set the

stroke so that a full shot canbe delivered to the mold.

4. Set thetramferpoint,fillpressure andJill rate controls so that

the mold will fill slowly and completely but not flash.Set holding pressure
the same as the fill pressure andset back pressureat zero.

5 . Setthecooling time based on data provided by the mold

designer. This time can be calculated, however, the calculation is rather
complex andis not presented here.If the calculation is not available,there
are some tables that can be consulted for approximate values. A sample
table is shownon the following page[ 1l].
 93

10.4 Mold Start-up

After allof the preliminary processsetup steps have been completed
and double-checked andthe mold heats are up to temperature, molding is
ready to begin. The majorsteps that should be included in gettingthe mold
to run on cycle at optimum settingsare set forth on the following pages.
You will note that there are some steps that are taken even beforeactual
moldingbegins.These steps helpinsurethat the meltis of a proper
viscosity and appearance and that the heater band controls are cycling
properly with the screw hctioning normally. Remember, however, that
for the machine to cycle, the screw must beretracted, the mold must be
open, ejection must be retracted and anypulls coremust be in the
out
positwn. In addition, the purgeguard (the metalshield around the nozzle)
must be closed. In summary, all safeties must be on and in order!

1. Before beginning to mold, a few air shots should be taken to

assure thatthe melt has a uniform appearance and viscosity. Useautomatic
purge control or manuallypurge (with the carriage retracted and no back
pressure) using screw rotate and inject forward, duplicating to the extent
possible the timing of an actual cycle.

As the screw comes forward with an air shot, examine the melt,
looking closely for any signs of unmelt. Observe how the screw moves
94
backward during rotation (steadily without pauses) and review the heater
band controls for proper cycling with no heat overrides.
If no problems are
apparent, you are ready to cycle.

2. Bring the carriage

forward with the n o d e seating againstthe
sprue bushing and, with the machine in semiautomatic m& and the
back pressure on, start the cyclingto begin makingparts. Examine the
parts for completeness and proper appearance with themold hctioning
properly.

3. After a few cycles with good parts and no apparent problems,

increase thefill rate andfill pressure gradually. Observe the cycles and
part quality. If flash or burning occur, back off the fill pressure and/or fill
speed until goodparts are again produced. (Note:This would obviously be
different if processing using the velocitycontrol approach.)

4. Adjust the cushion and decompression

to the desired levels and
set the screw RPM so that it recovers just prior to mold opening butdoes
not allow the recovery timeto increase the cycle time.

5 . Adjust shot size and transferpoint so that the fill stage (first
stage) achieves nearly allof the fill. You can tell thisby watching for any
forward movement ofthe screw during packing.If any movement occurs,
the first stage is not filling the mold. Continue to adjust until shot size,
transfer point, fill rate and fill pressure are at desired levels. Fill pressure
should be raised to 100 psi above the actual pressure required to fill the
mold. At that pressure,any resistance to flow that mightoccur wil not call
for pressures that could damage the mold.

6. Adjust the holding pressure until the part is of the quality

desired and cosmeticallysatishctory. Increasing the pressure
too much wli
cause themold to flash and maycause the partto stick in the mold.

7. After the mold is cycling as desired withminimal back pressure

(100 psi or less), check the screw rotatepressure (SW) of the hydraulic
system. It should be between 800 and 1,200 psi (on a 2,000 psi rated
 95

machine). Following step 8, it may be necessary to adjust the SW. This

requires some experience and shouldbe the function of a supervisor. Such
changes may be made by referring to Chapter 12.5.

8. Next retract the carriage and take an air shot into a pan
in order
to check the melt temperature. Having heated the probe tipof a hand-held
pyrometer (to atemperature 30-50F hotter than the expected melt
temperature) just before the airshot, quickly insert the probe intothe shot
and determine if the melt temperatureis at the desiredleveL

9. If the melt temperatureis not at the desired level, adjust the

heater band controlsto achieve the proper melt temperature and alsothe
proper balance of the sources of heat energy (shear and heater band heat),
returning the S W to the 800-1,200 psi range. Refer to Chapter 12.5 to
make these changes.

10. After the heat controls are stabilized, the proper melt
temperature is achieved and the SRP indicates a proper balance of heat
energy source, change to the automatic mode and review the molding
performance for several cycles. I f there are no problems, the cycle is
optimized andthe processing setup should be documented as described in
the next sectionof this chapter.

All of the procedures described in the Process Setup and Mold

Startup sections abovemay be modified by the process engineer basedon
his expertise and experience. Knowledge of these procedures and how and
why theyare accomplished in the manner prescribed by the engineer is key
to your understanding of the process. With experience, you may learn to
perform the procedures yourself with limited guidance.

10.5 Process Documentation

One of the most importantsteps in injection moldingis to carefblly
document the optimized processing parameters on a Set Up Sheet. This
document includes a description of the mold, the parts, plastic used, all
controls settings andthe screw recovery and cycle times achieved afterthe
96
desired cycle has been established. The next time the mold is run,the Set
Up Sheet may be referred to for the proper settings so that a comparable
cycle may be achieved.

This information is'alsothe basis for a "Benchmark" against which

fkture processing parametersof the mold may be compared. Performance
measurement is discussedin a later chapter.

CASESTUDYNO. 13: Dealing with Set Up Problems

When setting up the machine to process a mold that has beenrun

previously on a particular machine, the new set upmay deviate fiom the set
up on the Set Up Sheet thatwas developed forthe previous run. This is an
indication that something about the material, machine, mold or machine
components has changed. This has happened fiequentlyin the field andthe
answers canlie in anyof the following: a new lotof material that is not the
same as the previous lot;there are some machineh c t i o n s that may require
maintenance; the barrel, screw or valve are not the same or are worn,
requiring repairor replacement; the mold needs repair, perhaps vents have
been hobbed, cooling lines partially blockedor corroded, and many other
possibilities; andso on.

The lesson is: Carefully document the process deviations and

submit them to a supervisor whois in aposition to recommend or take
remedial action.A majorpurpose of the Set UpSheet is toprevent a sub-
standard processing of a mold which will result in lost efficiency and
reduced profits.

Also note thattwo machines, runningthe same mold design and the
same plastic material may not result in the same processing parametersor
part quality. Differences may result fiom the conditions described above.
Although each machine should have aSet Up Sheet for each application,
theyshould all be based on the sameplasticvariables.Deviations in
performance need to be corrected by maintenance to the machine and its
components.
 97

11 An Overview = The Cycle

The injection molding machine produces a finished plastic part (or
parts) in each completed cycle. The cyclecan typically be as short as four
seconds or less and as long as several minutes. Only one part may be
produced in the cycle (if it ais largepart) or more thana hundred parts may
be produced (ifthe part is very small). For example, a fender or body panel
for an automobile or a 55 gallon trash dumpster may be a single part
produced fiom the mold. By contrast, perhaps 128 small components for
a medical syringe might be producedin a single cycle. In some cases, the
plastic is reinforced with calcium carbonate (powdered limestone) or small
fiberglass fibers. A steering gear housing foran automobile or the rollers
for roller blade skates may be the end product. Very small, thin-walled
parts may require only a few seconds for their cycle, whereas a large thick
part, such as an optical lens, might require several minutes.

11.lThe Cycle Defined-

The injectwn molding cycle is usually expressed as the time (in
seconds or minutes) thatis required by the injection molding machine to
produce a plastic part or parts from one filling of the mold. The cycle
must include the time required to close and clamp the mold, inject the
molten plastic into the mold and apply holding pressure, cool the plastic
part, openthe mold and ejectthe part. The mold again closes, signalingthe
start of a new molding cycle.

During the time that the part is cooling, the screw begins to rotate
and, as plastic melts and moves forward through the non-return valve,i i h g
the chamber in front of the screw, the resulting pressure pushesthe rotating
screw backward until enough melted plastic residesin fiont of the screw
(between the end of the valve andthe end cap) to make the next part. This
overlap of machine functions, as well as the entire molding cycle, is best
understood by reviewing a molding cycle diagram. See Figure 30 on the
next page.
 In today's molding environment,the machine desirablyoperates in
the automatic mode, allowing one cycle to follow another withthe parts
being ejectedonto a conveying system that takes them to another stationfor
subsequent operations, inspecting andor packaging. In some cases,a robot
picks the part(s) out ofthe mold, also allowing automatic cycling. During
automatic cycling, the operatoronly intervenes when there is a problem. It
is commonto have an alarm system which calls the operator tothe machine
where the problem exists. If only one cycle is to be performed, or an
operator is required to open thesafety gate, retrievethe molded parts and
close the gate tostart the next cycle, we have learned that
the machine is in
its semiautomatic mode.Now is a good time to refresh your memory by
referring to Chapter 8 for a review of thethree types operating modes.

11.2 The Importanceof Cycle Time

It is apparentthat the more rapidlythe machine can complete cycles,
thereby creating greater part production, the more profitablethe molding
operation will be. There are instances where even as little as one second
reduction in cycle timecan represent a signiscant percentage of profit.
 99

Example: Using a 300 ton, 30 ounce shot capacity machine. The mold
is a four-cavity mold with a hot runner system. Parts weigh 71
grams with total shot size of 284 grams or 10 ounces.

Production: 15 second cycle,operating in automatic mode,24 hourdday

for 26 daydmonth. A 5% reject rate is standard and the machine
operates 90% of the available time (the balance being reservedfor
normal interruptions and maintenance). This standardor benchmark
production rate is also used for latercomparisons to actual
performance.

The importanceof cycle time is illustrated in the table below where

we assume animprovement of one second on the 15 second cycle (or a 14
second cycle), a sale price of $.l5 per part. Materials cost $.40/lb and
machine operatingcost is $45/hr. Operating expensesare 17% of budgeted
sales. Benchmark profit is budgeted at 5% of total sales.

Nde: Numbers are rounded. I Production for One

Month
1secondcyclelmpravement

Tdal Plant Hours 624

Totd Machine Hours 560
Parts per hour 960 1.028
-
Less Rejecls
Good Parts per hour
Tdd Good Parts per month
(481
912
510,720
I (511
977
547.120

sales value $76,610 $82,070

T U Costs:
Materids 33,610 35.990
MachineOperation 25,200 25,200

I
-
n g E w == 14,000 14,000
Tdal casts 75,190
Profit for the month $3,800 $6,880

~~ ~ ~~

As you can see fiom the illustration, the profitfiom operating the
machine forone month witha one second improvement in cycle time can
nearly double the profitability. The importance of cycle time cannot be
overstated!!
 ~~

11.3 The Greater Importanceof Good Production

We haveseen that the multiplier effectof producing more parts
in the same number of machine hours through reduced cycle time is
significant to profitability because most
of the costs (such as depreciation,
maintenance and overhead) are fixed, thatis, donot vary directly with
volume. Of even greater importance is the need to produce koodparts
or, in other words, avoid rejects. The productionof rejected parts not only
carries allof the fixed costs but also the variable
costs (material, labor and
power) of operating the machine without any revenue. Producing rejected
parts is worsethanhaving the machinedown. At least,when the
machine is idle, no variable costs are being expended.

Using the same benchmark data, the following example illustrates

the profit improvement realized byreducing rejects from the standard
rate of 5% to an improved rate of 1%.

Note: Numbers are rounded. Production for One Month

Benchmark Rate Rejects from 5%to 1%

Total Plant Hours 624 624

Total Machine Hours 560 560
Parts per hour 960 960
Less - Rejects 0 0
Good Parts per hour 912 950
Total Good Parts per month 510,720 532,000

Sales Value $76,610 79,800

Total Costs 72.810 72.810
Profit for the month $3,800 6,990

Profit Improvement NA $3,190or84%

The profit improvement from reducing bad part productionis even

greater than improving the cycleby one second. There are measures that
can be taken to optimize cycle times and reduce the number of rejected
parts that are produced. Some of these measures will be discussed in the
following chapters.
 101

CASE STUDY NO. 14: Reducing the Rejects

Consider the molder usinga new 57- 400 ton injection molding
machine to produce coloredparts and operatingat 43.3% of the machines
shot capacity. The time for the screw to recover was 16.0 seconds at a
screw RPM of 75 and a screw drive motor pressure of 1,900 psi.In this set
up, the molderwasexperiencing a rejectedpart rate, mostlydue to
improper color mixing, of 5% to 6%.

The operation was studied and althoughthe machine was new and
was using new components, itwas believed thatthe screw was inadequate
to the color mixing task. A new screw was designed and installed with
the
following results:

Screw recovery time dropped from 16.0 secondsto 15.2 seconds

of .8 seconds
which translated into a cycle time reduction

The screw RPM was reduced fiom 75 RPM to 50 RPM and the
screw drive motor pressure required also
was reduced itom
1,900 psito 800 psi, which reduced energy requirements

The percentage of rejected parts dropped fiom 5% to 6% to

.l% to .5%

In thismolders case, the resultingimprovementinprofitabilitywas

significant. Not only wasthe number ofrejected part reduced, but
the cycle
time and energy requirements were also improved.

The lesson is: Do not underestimate the importance of cycle time

and the even greater importance of avoiding the production badparts.
of
The solutwn may be as simple as using a different screw!
12 The Ten Keys to Successful Molding
The elements of injection molding have been presented and you have
learnedhow to get started in the moldingprocess.Thecycleandits
importance have been reviewedso you are now readyto begin assisting in
the fascinating businessof injection molding. Through years of experience
in working with molders, the authors have learned that there are a few
considerations that are absolutely essential to successful molding. We
would like to share these thoughts with you so that you wil not have to
learn themby trial anderror.

12.1 Adequate Mold Venting

Although the venting of the mold is a common and necessarystep

in its manufacture, the importance of venting is often misunderstood by
injection molders. To fill the mold cavities, the air in the cavity must be
pushed out by the melted plastic flowing in. The more easily athe ir can be
pushed out, the less likelihoodthere is of experiencing burnsor voids in the
parts. In addition, if the air is more easily pushedout of the mold, a more
rapid injectionrate can be used, which could result in ashorter cycle time.
We have learned about the benefits of reducing rejected parts and lower
cycle times.

There are some guidelinesthat can be followed which should help

in achievingthe optimum ventingof the mold. Consider the following:

1. VenkF should be located oppositegates to help the melt flow

push the air out of the mold as the cavities are filled. Pockets or areas of
the mold that do not get properly vented can result in flow lines, weld lines
and burns. One authority suggeststhat 30% of the perimeter of the mold
should be vented.

2. Vents should be as deep and as short as possible without

allowing any flashto develop. Flash is the ragged, thin edgeof plastic that
can result from seepage outof the mold cavities atthe parting line.
 103

3 . The mold should berelieved. Relieving or removing the metal

from the face of the mold base surrounding the cavities reduces the length
of the vents and aidsthe venting efficiency. The resulting ventgrooves are
illustrated in Chapter 7 (Figure 27). Theclamppressuremustbe
concentrated aroundthe cavity to prevent flashing.

4. The runner system should also be vented unless the mold

utilizes a hot runner system. Air must also be driven out of the runner
system and, preferably, not intothe mold cavities.

We havelearnedthat the injectionmoldingmachine has many

control elements that are used to develop amelt of uniform viscosity and
moldable temperature.It also hascontrols to govern the pressure and speed
of movement used to push this melt intothe mold. Resisting the melt flow
into the mold are:

> The viscosityof the melt

> The nozzle size and temperature
> The size and lengthof the runner system
> The size of the gate(s)
> The part thickness andthe length of flow in the cavities
> The location and size of the vents
> The temperature of the mold steel

As you can see, the determination of why a mold is not filling

properly, or has sinks, weld lines, voids and burnsis not a simple problem.
A common @&flawed) solutikn is to raise the melt temperature which
reduces the melt viscosity enabhg the cavities to fill more easily. The
increase in melttemperature will cause cooling time (and the cycle time)to
be lengthened. To avoid that, the mold coolant temperature is lowered in an
effort to maintain the originalcycletime. As aresult, the injection
pressure andor injection speed must be increasedin order to fill the mold
before the plastic melt solidifies andstops flowing. Using this technique,
it ispossible to produce parts of potentially unacceptable quality!
1 04

A better solutionis to check the vents to make sure that they are
not filled with dirt and debris or, over time, have not become hobbed
(made more shallow by constant clamping of the mold), decreasing their
efficiency. Clogged or hobbed vents can easily cause the burns, voids and
weld lines thatmay be occurring. Cleaning out vents and makingsure they
are the properdepth should be a routine mold maintenance activity.

On most molds the ventsare probably as deep as possible without

allowing plasticto escape into them. Sometimes, however, theymay be too
long or aredirected into the space between the moldplates on clamp up.
In either case, theair cannot get out at the required rate.

A vent is an opening similar to a mold gate. An opening wl cause

i
a pressure drop across its length as fluid flowsthrough it. Air is considered
a fluid and experiences this pressure drop depending on its cross sectional
area and its length. For example, consider a small diameter drinking
straw. Cut off apiece 1/2 inch long. Blow through iL. Now take the rest
of thestraw and blowthrough it. You willexperienceadecided
difference inthe required effort (pressure) between thetwo sections of
the straw.

This is fkequently the problem with mold vents. Assume the vents
in the mold are 1/4 inch wide and.008 inch deep. If the lengthof this vent
is 2 inches to the edgeof the mold,there would be a large pressuredrop and
it would take higher injection pressureto overcome this resistance. If the
vent length were shortened to 1/2 inch, there would be less resistance,
allowing the use of a more rapid injection rate. Improved part quality
(fewer burns or voids) and increased production should result. Please refer
back to Chapter 7 on Mold Venting fora fhther discussion of the subject.

Remember,molds run millions of cycles. A certain amount of

hobbing (compressing) of the mold steel takes place over the life of the
mold. Even ifproper venting is providedin the beginning, a long running,
trouble-fkee mold will require periodic inspection to determine that the
venting is still adequate. It is one of the keys to successful molding!
 105

12.2 Proper Mold Cooling

A large partof the success of molding a good part in a short cycle
time is due to the cooling of the mold. In Chapter 7, we discussed the
importance of moldcoolingandpresented the basics of how that is
accomplished. The design of the mold must take into accountthe need to
cool the plastic efficiently and uniformly to insure quality parts. Each
machine cycleputs a load of heat intothe mold steel. The coolant medium,
usually water, is circulated through passages in the mold to remove this
heat. The hotter the melt, the higher the heat load. To compensate, the
molder mayuse colder water. This procedure might make sense until you
readize that it may ultimately be se&-defeating. Here 'S why:

As plastic flows into the mold, the material that touches the cold
mold surface wil immediately start to solid^ as it slows andstops
moving. The molten plastic continues to flow by and through the
portion that has solidified. This process usually requires that even
more heat be added to the mold or the melt to keep the material
fluid long enoughto fill the mold cavities. It also requires a faster
injection speedto fill the cavities before the flowis completely shut
off by the cooledplastic.With colder mold surfaces,higher
injection pressures and/or speed be required which, inturn, may
will
require increased clamp tonnage to prevent flashing.If the vents are
not properly designed, the higher clamp pressure can reduce venting
capacity, whichfirther aggravates the filling process. You cansee
why decreasing the temperature of the coolant(water) may be self-
defeating!

As stated in Chapter 7, the answer lies in the placement of the

cooling lines and the movement of the water rather than lowering the
temperature of the water. Proper mold coolingallows the mold to be filled
at the desired speed and assists in achieving quality parts in the lowest
possiblecycletime. Proper moldcooling is another key to successful
molding.
12.3 Using the Right Screw

In Chapter 5, we learned that all screws are not alike. They may
differ in the following ways(see Figure 31 below):

wz)Ratio (ratio of the flighted length to the diameter)

Channel Depths (the depth of the channels in the three

zones of the screw)

Helix Angle (the angle of the flights of the screw relative

to a plane perpendicularto the axis of the screw)

Number of Flights (number of primary screw flights,

excluding secondary flights)

Mixing Sections (short sections of the screw, near the

meter end of the screw, that employ flutes, different helix
angles, and barrier flightsthat provide a mixing action
to the melted plastic)

I
Secondary Flight

Figure 31 Injection screw elements, including secondary flights and

mixing section
 Theselection of theproperscrew for a givenprocessing
environment should be based on the resin or resins to be processed [ 5 ] .
Chapter 2 noted that the two broad groups of plastic, crystalline and
amorphous, do not melt in the same manner nor do they conduct heatin
the same way. The degree of sensitivity to shear also varies significantly
between the two material types. Without getting too deeply involved in
screw design technology,it is important to understand some fundamental
differences in materials and howthose differences influence screw design.

1. Melting the plastic - one of the differences between the two

types of materials is their resistance
to deformation (convertingto melt) as
their temperature increases. ExamineFigure 32 below.

M
\
\
\
\

I pCnrsEelineMaterial

Amorp-- I
------
\

Figure 32 Melting characteristicsof amorphous vs. cytalline pobmers

Both materials soften somewhatat the glass transition temperature

but the amorphous material, with no dehed melting point, continues to
soften gradually until it reaches
a fluid state. The highly crystalline materials
remain ina relatively solidstate until the temperature reaches their melting
point where they quickly change to melt.
108

2. Thermal Conductivitv - referring to Figure 5 in Chapter 2, a

second difference between the two types of material is their relative ability
to absorb heat (referredto as thermal conductivity). Amorphous materials
simply do not conduct heat (i.e., absorb heat) nearlyas readily as do the
more crystalline materials.Stated another way (asdiscussed in Chapter2),
you cannot add more heat to amorphous materials and expect themto
me& anyfaster? And . . .if too much heat is applied to amorphous resins,
they burn andor degrade.

3. Shear Sensitivity - as a consequence ofthe first two differences,

whichillustratetheheatsensitivity of amorphous materials, it can be
understood why amorphous materials are also more shear sensitive. High
shear rates result in rapidly increased resin temperatures which amorphous
materials do not tolerate well.

We can summarize these findingsin the table:

Amorphous Materials Crystalline Materials

m SaRen gradually with no melting point m Melt abruptly with a defined melt point
Donoteasilyabsorbheat m Absorbheatmorereadily
Are sensitii to shear m Are nd particularlysensitii to shear

From these considerations, it may be concluded that amorphous

Itl(Lferh!sshould be gradually (not abruptly) changed fiom a solid to a melt
with as little shearas possible. Screws with longer transition zones, deeper
channel depths and lower compression ratios help protect amorphous
resins fiom burning or degradingandhelpensureoptimumphysical
properties in the completed parts.

In contrast, the more crystalline materials can be processed more

effectively by screws with shorter transition zones, more shallow channel
depths and highercomprmwn ratios. These principlesare illustrated in
the following tableof Screw Design Guidelines.
 109

SCREWDESIGNGUIDELINES

Processes like an amorphous material tBottle grade material

.

(a)Dagreeof meterzonedepth. Example:Mediumfor2"(50mm)scre.v=.100-.125'.

(b) Medium = 5 to 7 diameters. Short is less, long is greater.
(c) Medium = 2.5 to 2.9to 1. LW is less, hgh is greater.
110

As the table illustrates, there is a large number of materials that

require a medium channel depth, transition length and compression ratio.
This is the predominant reason why machine manufacturers typically supply
a General Purpose screw withtheirnewmachine.Althougheach
manufacturer has a different definitionof a general purpose screw design,
a typical design for a2 (50mm) diameter screw might beas follows:

Channel Depths: Feed = .300 Meter = .120

Screw Profile: 10-5-5 (a feed zone that is 10 diameters
long, and 5 diameters lengthin transition
and meter)
CompressionRatio: 2.5 to 1

Thisgeneral purpose screwwouldprocessanumber of materials

satisfactorily and, with some effort and a narrow processing window,
would likely process nearly all of the materials listed. However, those
materials requiringa long transition zone, low compression ratio and deep
channel depths will not be processed withthe same efficiency, optimum melt
quality andminimumrecovery timeas they wouldifprocessed with a screw
designed for those particular materials.

As stated above, not all machine manufacturers general purpose

screws share a common design. There are some manufacturers that would
consider a general purpose designto be as aggressive as the following:

Channel Depths: Feed = .300 Meter = .loo

Screw
Profile: 10-5-5 (asshown
above)
Compression Ratio: 3.0 to 1
This second design would not allowan optimum processingof amorphous
materials. Amorphous materials processed with this screw could be burned
and degraded due to the high shear that this screw would cause. This
design wouldbe fine for nylon and
many of the polyolefins, but should not
used for ABS or acrylic!
 111

There areother factorsthat affectscrew design, suchas the viscosity

of the material andthe fillers and reinforcements included in the materials.
Materials witha high melt index (i.e., low
viscosity) require ascrew that has
much more shallow channeldepths in order to melt the plastic efficiently.
Reinforcements, suchas glass fibersor calcium carbonate, require a screw
that is somewhat deeperin channel depths with a lower compression ratio
than the unfilled versions.And. . .they also require thatthe screw be made
out of a wear resistant material.

The main point to be understoodis that if the very best molding of

parts is to be expected, thenthe very best melt qualityis needed This is
accomplished with screw
a that is designedfor the material beingused
This is true whether processing a varietyof materials or processing the same
materials overan extended periodof time. The use ofaproperly designed
screw ranks very high among the "Ten Keys to Successful Molding!"

12.4 Selecting the Appropriate Valve

Chapter 5 discussed the use of the non-return valve to prevent
meltedplastic fiom flowingbackwardinto the screw channelsduring
injection.When the screwcomesforward as aram, the valvecloses,
preventing the backnow ofmaterial. When the screw rotates backward, the
valves opensto allow melted plasticto flow through the valve intothe area
in front of the screw (and valve). Because the melted plastic mustflow Over
a rear seat andthrough flutes or, in the case of a ball check valve,the flow
musf go through small openings (ports), there is a great opportunity for a
shearing of the material. Assuming that the screw and heater bands have
done theirjob and allof the plastic is meltedby the time it reaches
the valve,
the following rule couldbe stated:

Select a valve that achieves the required shut-offfor

shot controlbud causes the least possible shearing of
the plastic as itflows through the valve.
 The efficiency of a valve can be quantified bythe ratio of injected
volume to plasticated volume. Typically efficient valves range between 95%
and 97%, meaning that only 3% to 5% of the melted plastic flows back into
the screw channels as the valve closes [141. The valve efficiency is partly
a function of closing time, i.e., the time required for the valve to close
starting withthe forward motion of the screw. Failure of the valveto be
efficient and close rapidlycan influence the completeness of the shot (and
desired part weight).

Due to the mechanics of design, ball check valves shut off with
greater efficiency and speedthan ring valves. However, ball check valves
also create greater shear of the melted plastic and a pressure drop as it
moves through the valve. Moreover,if greater shearis caused by the valve,
the melted plastic will havean elevated heatas it goes through the nozzle
and enters the mold. Because most of the heat mustbe removed from the
plastic in the mold in order that solid parts may result, a hotter melt wl
i
produce a longer required cooling time. . . and a longer cycle. This same
undesirable shear can be caused by ring valves that are worn or are not
designed to be as free-flow as possible, where the opening through the
valve is restrictive.

Followingthesuggested rule, themoldermust select the

appropriate valve for theprocessing situatwn, giving considerationto the
following factors:

1. Avoid restrictive valves when processing amorphous or shear

sensitive materials.

2. Use maximumfree-flowvalves,manufacturedfrom wear

resistant materials, when processing reinforced plastics.

3. Plastics with low viscosity (high

melt index) require valves with
the most rapid and efficient closing capability.

4. Viscous (lowmelt index) plastics require valves with

maximum
openings and fkee-flowing characteristics.
 113

12.5 Controlling the Heat Profile

Setting the barrel heat profdeis one of the least understood and
mst importantfixtors in injection molding.The proper heat profile plays
a major role in moldingparts that possess their intended physicalproperties,
are fiee fiom degradation, heat splay, andstreaks and insure trouble-fiee
continuous operation. Improper heat profiles often result in rejected parts,
low production rates, and premature wear of barrels, screws and valves.

Proper control of the heat profile involves: (1) understanding the

sources ofheat;(2) setting the heater band controk utilizing the best heat
profile type for the molding situation; (3)andbalancing the heatsources.

1. Sources of Heat - the heat required to melt the plastic comes

fiom two sources: the heater bands and the shear caused by the screw
working and conveyingthe plastic.The conductive heat fiom the heater
bands canbe reasonably controlledthrough the settings of the temperature
controls. Shear heat that is generated from the shear of the plastic against
itself, the screw, the barrel wall, and inmixing devices, is much more
difficult to control. There are no settings for shear heat.

Excessive heatfrom shear is usually indicatedby a heat override

in abarrel zone (often the center zone where compression of the plastic
begins), heater bands sewing that zone are not cycling and screw rotat
pressure is high. Under these conditions, shear is the entire heat source!
The heater bandsmay as well bedisconnected! Evenin faceof these facts,
there is a natural inclinationto reduce the heaterband settingsor even direct
a fan atthe barrel. This approach does work and increasesthe problem.

To reduce shear heat, the screwRPM and/or back pressure can be

decreased, however, thisis a solution of limited value because may
it also
extend the cycle time and result in a lower production rate. The best
solution is a surprise to many, and that is to increase the heater band
settings in the zones just behind (upstream) the zone experiencing the
override. Yes, increasethe heater band heat. The melt temperature will
114

not go up, but instead go down. Why? Because the uncontrollable shear
heat is reduced to permit a balance of shear heat and controllable conductive
heat. The softening of the plastic by the heater band heat in the zone
preceding the overriding zone reduces the shear heat in the zone indicating
an override. The heater bandsin the override zone should again begin to
cycle. If this technique does not work, it indicates that: (1) the heater
bands, whose settings were increased, do not have sufficient wattage to
accomplish the objective, or (2) the screwdesignis too aggressive
(transition zone too short and/or compression ratio to high), or (3) there
may be excessive screw and barrel wear that is causinga level of shear heat
too great to overcome.

Anotherbenefit of this approach should be the corresponding

decrease in hydraulic pressure required by the screw drive motor during
screw rotate (recovery). Back pressure may even be reduced to further
improvetherecoveryrate,productquality,reject rate andenergy
consumption.

2. Setting the HeaterBandControls - theheater band heat

controls should be set based on thematerialsbeingprocessed,the
percentage of the shot capacity being utilized and whetherthe material is
heavilyreinforced.Settingtheproperheaterband temperatures also
requires that you know the rear zone temperature recommended by the
material manufwturer and the desired temperature ofthe melt to be injected
into the mold. When setting the heat profile, the following choices are
recommended:

W Flatprofde - can be used where the shot is in a range of

20% to 40% of the machines shot capacity, the resin is not
reinforced or heavily filled and
the residence time is
adequate
but not excessive.
 115

W An Ascending Proflle is acceptable whenthe shot size is

less than30% of machine shot capacity andthe calculated
residence time is long, i.e., more than4 minutes. This profle
should not be used when processing reinforced or heavily
filled materials or with short-to-medium residence times.
W A Hump Profile is a very good solution for processing
most non-reinforced materials where the shot size is in a
range of 25% to 50% of the machines shot capacity and
residence timesare not extremely longor short, i.e., in the 2
to 4 minute range.
A Reveme Profde is exceUent for use with all semi-
or heavily filled materials.It is also
crystalline and reinforced
recommended where screw recovery and/or residence times
are short and where the shot size is 50% or m r e of the
IIlaxbnLlm.

L-TargdsdMeltTwnperaturs

Figure 33 Illtmation of heater band heat profile ranges

 The heat profile guidelines described providea starting point and
should be adjusted to produce the best melt qualityat the lowest possible
moldable temperature withall heater band zonescycling.

3 . Balancing the Heat Sources- after setting the heater bands, the
sources of the heat energy should be balanced. To do this involves an
understanding of the hydraulic pressure requiredto rotate the screw.

If the screw is doing no work, this pressure (referredto as Screw

Rotate Pressure or SRP) will be very low, less than 800 on psi a 2,000 psi
system. If the screw is meeting a lot of resistance to tunring, hence, doing
a lot of work, theS W might beas high as 1,800 psi. The cause of the work
required of the screw is the resistanceof unmelted plasticto the rotation of
the screw. If the plastic is softened or partially melted, the resistance can
be reduced.

If the centeror front zoneof the barrelis showing a heat override,

check theSW. Its a good betthat it will be registering well above 1,200
psi, indicating that the screw is doing a lot of work. As the heater bands
behind the overriding zones are increased in temperature, the S W will
decrease, the plastic willmeltmoreeasilyand the screw will recover
(retract) in a more rapid and consistent manner.It is not uncommonto see
a screw recover erratically, pausing inits backward movement, when heat
overrides are detected. This simplyindicatesthatunmeltedplastic is
moving into the transition zoneof the screw with insufficient heatto melt
uniformly andprogress up the screw. Experience in a number of field cases
and under controlled laboratory conditions supports the conclusionthat heat
developed from the two sources in approximately equal amounts produces
the best molding results.

This balance of heat energysources is achieved bydjusting the

heater band settingso that the SRP memures between 800 and 1,200psi
in a 2,000 psi system (Figure 34). These readings indicate that heat
produced from shear energy is between 40% and 60% of the total, a
desirable range.
 117

Screw Rotate Pressure (SWin psi

l m 1000 1m 3
l0
0

Pressures greater than 1,200 to 1,300 psi indicatesthat the screw is working
hard, creating potentially excessive shear. Readings under 800 psi suggest
that too little shear energyis being used indicating that the process may be
experiencing long residence times, long cycles, or abnormally high melt
temperatures.

It is unfortunate that all injection molding machines do not have

the
ability to measure theSRP on a continuous basis. If your machines do not
have this ability, it is very inexpensive to put a gauge on the hydraulic
system to measure the S W .

Adjusting the heat projile to achieve the correct processing

temperatures, appropriate SRP and desired melt temperature requires some
experimentation and patience. It is difFcult to develop a simple decision
chart or a step-by-step routine to accomplish the heat profile objective,
however, there are some general guidelines that may help:
118 ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~

1. Set the heater band settings as suggested inthe following table:

nor
Shot
Qw=nY
2 minutes
Ascending
Suggested by Average affront Desired mett
amore I
resin mfr Brearmnes I
temoerature
25% or
less bsthan2 Flat Desiredmett Desiredmett Desiredmel
minutes temDeratUre temmre temperature
2 minutes Flat Desiredmett Desiredmelt Desiredmett
ormore temperature temperature temperature

c%$ ~essthan2
minutes
H- sugptedby
resin mfr
miredmelt
temp+30F
Midmett
temperature
2minutes Hunp Suggestedby Desiredmett Desiredmelt
amore resin mfr temp + 30 O F temperature
%
%$ Lessthan2 Rewse Desiredmelt Awagedfront Desiredmett
minutes temp+40F &rearzones temperature
More 2minutes Rewse Desiredmett Awageoffront Desiredmett
m&% amore ~ ~ ~ ~~~
temp+40F &rearzones temperature
Lessthan2 Reverse Desriedmetl Averageoffront Desiredmett
minutes temp+ 5oF 8 rearzones temperature

2. Determine if the CenterZone is overriding. If it is,ruke the

Rear Zone IO "Fand the Center Zone 5 "l? Allow the heats to stabilize,
indicated by a proper cycling of the heater bands. If the Center Zoneis still
overriding,repeat the adjustment, adding ten more degreesto theRear Zone
and five more degrees to the Center Zone and stabilize. If this does not
cause the Center Zone to cease overridwand cycle properly, the screw
may be too aggressive for the material, the valve may be too restrictive
andor the screw and barrel may have excessive wear. Determine the cause
and start over fiom step 1.

3. After the Center Zone is cycling properly andnot overriding,

check the SRP. The Screw Rotate Pressure should be in the 700 psi to
1,300 psi range, depending upon shot size, recovery rate and other
variables. If the SRP is too high, raise the Rear Zone 5 O F and check.If still
too high, raise the Center Zone5 O F and check. Repeatthese steps until the
 119

SRP is within the desired range.If the S W is too low, reverse the process,
lowering the zones, one at a time, by 5 OF and check.

4. After the Center Zone and SW are responding as desired, check

the Front Zone.If it iscyclingproperly,check the melt temperature with
a pyrometer. If it is too high, lower the Front Zone 5 F. If too low,
increase the Front Zone5 F.

5. If the Front Zone is overriding, raise the Center Zone 5 OF

and check.If still overriding, repeat the five degree adjustmentalso and
add
5 OF to the Front Zone. If these adjustments do not solve the problem,
check the valve for proper design and/or excessive wear and check screw
design for restrictive mixers at
or near the endof the screw.

The guidelines suggested above relativeto setting heat profiles for

injection moldingare not universally accepted, but they work1 Monitoring
the SW on a system tells the moldera great deal about what is happening
in the barrel and provides a valuable assist in solving molding problems.
Setting and controlling the heat profile is one of the most important
Keysto Successful Molding.

12.6 Using Back Pressure Wisely

Back pressure results from hydraulically restricting the backward
movement of the screw during the screw rotate portion of the molding
cycle. This pressure helpsforce any air in the melt back andout through the
feed throat of the barrel. In addition, back pressure causes the screw to
work the resin harder and increases the melt temperature of the plastic
through the increased shear. There are both advantages and disadvantages
to the use of back pressure. It should also be noted that the machine itself
will generate about 50 psi when thecontrol is set at zero pressure [ 5 ] .

Advantages - as previously discussed, shear heat

creates a more
In aproper amount, back pressure
d o r m melt temperature and viscosity.
helps create a better melt quality with improved flow characteristics and
potentially better part quality. Back pressure can also enhancethe mixing
of color which can improve part quality. Fine tuning of the plasticating
process is possible through the prudent use of back pressure where the
proper screw design is not available.

Disadvantages - backpressureincreasesmelttemperature,
restricts the recovery of the screw and can lengthen
both recovery and cycle
times.Because the screw works harder,moreenergy isconsumed
increasing the cost of production. Excessive back pressure w liresult in
increased wear of barrels, screws and valves and, if used with glass-
reinforced resins, may cause the breakageof the glass fibers, reducing the
mechanical properties of the parts.

There are no universal rulesfor the use of back pressure, however,

(50 to 100 psi) helps the molding
a little back pressure process by stabilizing
shot size, recovery rate and feeding without sacrifice in part quality or
production cost. It is importantthat in a continuingprocessing
environment, back pressure should not be used as a substitute for a
proper heatprofileor a correct screwdesign. Back pressureis clearly one
of the Keysto SuccesshlMolding and mustbe used wisely.

12.7 Controlling the Injection Rate

The maximumshot size(or shot capacity)of an injection molding

machine is listed bythe manufacturer as the number of ounces of genera2
purpose polystyrene (GPPS) that the size of the barrel and stroke of the
each shot. This shot size can
machine will allow to be injected into the mold
be calculated in two steps, as follows:

Shot Displacement (in3)= Barrel DiameteP x .7854 x screw stroke

Shot Capacity (Ounces GPPS) = in3 (above) x SgPS x .5778

 For example:Assume a machine witha barrel bore diameter of 90
mm (3.54 inches) and screw stroke of 15.75 inches (400 mm) and a specific
gravity (Sg) of polystyrene (atmelt, not solid &m@) of .97 grams/cm3.
Note that the .5778converts grams/cm3to ounces/in3.

Displacement (in3)= 3.542x .7854 x 15.75 = 155 cubic inches

Shot Capacity (ounces) = 155 x .97 x S778 = 86.8 ounces

Note: The area of a circle may be calculated:

a. Pi (3.1416) x radiusz, or
b. .7854 x diameter2. Because d2is 4 times as great
as rZ, Pi must be divided by four in the second
calculation (3.1416 + 4 = .7854)

In this instance, the machine manufacturer listed the shot capacity at 85

ounces. Keepin mindthat various manufacturers use different factors in the
final determinationof the rated shot capacity, however, these calculations
should approximate their listings.

The injection rate ofan injectionmoldingmachine is also a

calculatedfigurebased on themachineshydraulicsystem(usingthe
maximum hydraulic oil in gallons per minute and the area of the injection
cylinder). The rate indicates how fasta specified number of cubic inches of
meltedplasticcan be pushed out of the barrel(into the air without
resistance) in one second. Machinery manufacturers list this injection rate
in their literature as: cubic inches per second(inches3 per second) or cm3
per second.

For e m d e : The machine above witha shot capacityof 85 oz.

has a listed injectionrate of 28 in3 persecond.

All of this theoretical informationis very important

to the molderof
thin wall, longflow parts, such as drinking cups, food containers and
similar
items. The cavities ofa thin walled part must be filled as fast as possible
before the thin wall of melted plastic sets up and prevents total filling.
122

Unfortunately, the molder is often unable to achieve the filling speeds

in rejected parts andor slower
specified in the machine literature, resulting
cycles. When a molder does not know why a machine is not successful in
achieving the desired rate, the first solution selected
may be to raise the melt
temperature to lower the viscosity of the melt. With the resulting hotter
melt, the molder may then attempt to use a colder coolant in the mold to
save cycle time. This, too, as we have learned, is not successful.

Meltedplastic is a viscousfluidand does notfloweasily. In

addition, there are restrictions to the flow of the melt caused by:

1. The size of the nozzle orifice

2. The size and shape of the runner system
3. The size and placement ofthe mold gates
4. The effectiveness of the venting in the mold

All of these factors must be considered in controlling the actual injection

rate. Current machines have five or more stagesfor which an injection
speed (in inchedsecond) may be set and the point at which the speedis
increased or lowered may also be set.

For example: In setting the injection velocity profile for a new

mold, the shot size (in inches of stroke)and cushion are entered into the
control. (Cushion is the quantity of melted plastic that is left in the barrel
after injection takes place. It is set in fiactions of an inch.) Thesesettings
w i cause the screw to begin its forward movementat a point equalto the
l
shot size (expressed in inchesof stroke) + the cushion (alsoin inches) away
fiom the fully forward position.

Stage l (the first part ofthe injection stroke) may then be set relative
to injection speed (in inchedsecond) and % ofthe injection stroke distance.
Hence, the screw mightbe set to move 2.00 idsec until the screw reaches
a point where 80% of thestroke remains.

Then Stage 2 may be set, at a higher speed until60% of the stroke

remains, and so on. Stage 5 would typically drop in speed for the last
 123

portion (say 20%) of the stroke. At that point, the transfer position is
reached, which changes the screw actionfrom injection to pack (or hold).

Part ofa control screen for setting the Injection Velocity Profile
for one injection molding machineis illustrated in Figure 35.

I INJECTION VELOCITY
Cushion Pm]
mow

Rpm 35 Typical control screen showingfhe injectionvelocityproAls

When starting up a new mold,it is best to start slowly using modest

injection speeds, whichmay create short shots (assuming the creation of
short shots doesnt create a problem in their removal). As the mold begins
to fll more hlly with increases in speed, the parts may be examined to
determine ifthere are burns (indicating injection speeds that may be too
high) or voids or weld lines (indicating speeds that may be too slow).

Controlling the injection rateis a critical element insuccessful

injection molding, however, the manipulation of injection speeds comes
fiomexperience gained in molding varioustypes of parts and involvesother
factors, such as injection pressure and heat profiles. Do not overZook the
importance of the restrictionstoflow discussed previously which should be
investigated if quality parts cannot be produced inthe desired times.
124

As previously discussed,there is another schoolof thought for the

calculation and control of injection velocity. This differing approach is
presented in Appendix C.

12.8 Managing Screw RPM and Residence Time

An investigationof many moldingapplications would likely disclose
a screw RPMset at a high rate ofspeed in order to recover as rapidly as
possible. This is importantinrunning a thin walledpart or in other
applications where screw recovery time is limiting to the overall cycle time.
However, no purpose is served if the screw recovers, stops and waits for
several seconds beforethe mold can be opened and parts ejected. Rapid
screw recovery is possible when the melt ishotter, often associated with the
high heat profile. In such circumstances, the temperature of the melt may
be higher than required andthe cycle timeis adversely affected.In addition,
the quality of the melt wlibe poor.

As previously stated, the use of a proper heat profile anda screw

designed for the material being processedare keys to successllmolding.
SuccessfuC molding is &o aided by rotating the screw as slowly as the
cycle will allow, leaving one or two seconds before the mold opens.
Melting the plastic efficiently requires heat fiom the heater bands and shear
heat fiom the screw. Shear heat fi-omthe screw only occurs when the screw
is rotating or injecting, not when isit in a klly retracted position waitingto
inject.

In addition to controlling RPM, the use of torque control is also

important. Torque is the amount of energy necessary to turn the screw.
Some materials, suchas polystyrene, polypropylene and polyethylene have
low viscosities and require the least amount of torque. In contrast, acrylic
and polycarbonate have more than 50% greater viscosity. As the viscosity
of the material being processed increases, is there
also a need to increase
the available torqueto turn the screw. Most machines have a high and low
torque range setting. The low torque setting enablesthe faster screw RPM
which can be used for many of the materials being processed.A switch to
 125

the high torque setting reduces the screw speed

by about 30 to35% but
increases the available torqueby 50 to 55%.

One of the reasons that molding machine injection units (usually

22:l L/D and less) are shorter than extrusion plasticating units (typically
24:1 and longer) is residence time.Residence time is the amount oftime
that apellet of plastic resides in the heated barrel before being injected
into the mold ( k ,from the time it enters the barreluntil it leavesthe
barrel in the form of melt). Because there is very little residencein an time
extrusionbarrelduringwhichtheplasticisbeingheatedandmelted,
extrusion barrelsare often 30:1 to 36: 1 L B . Even with the added length,
extrusion grade resins contain heat stabilizers which enable more shear he
to be used to melt the plastic without degradation. For injection molding,
residencetime is an importantfactor to be considered in judgingthe
adequacy of a given molding application. To determine residence time, it
is necessary to calculate the inventory of plastic thatis in the barrel whenthe
screw is in the back position. There are some complicated formulas used
to make this calculation, buta short-cut formulaworks reasonably wellin
most cases.

Screw Inventory = (RSC+ 1.05) x F x (L/D + 20) x Sg

Where: RSC = Rated shot capacity of the machine

F = Factor (see table)
Sg = Specific gravityof the plastic @ room
temerature in gramdcc

Thefactor referred to makes allowance for the size of the injection

useh1 L/D is actually somewhat less than the
unit and the fact that the L/D
that is commonly used (see L/D definition in the Terminology section of the
book). The factoris based on the bore diameterof the barrel, as follows:
126

Bore Diameter Factor Bore Diameter

Factor
30mm & l e s s 1.80 - 89 mm 1.25 80mm
31 mm- 49mm l.65 90mm - 104mm 1.20
50mm - 69mm 105mm - 109mm 1.45
1.15
70mm -79mm 1.30 IlOmm &greater 1.10

Residence timemay then be calculated using the following formula:

RT(minutes) = Screw Inventory + Shot Size x (Cycle timeh0)

Where: RT is the Residence Time in minutes

Screw Inventory isas calculated
Shot Size is the actual size of the shot used
Cycle Time is actual cycle time in seconds

A sample set of calculations assuming the following processing

parameters is presented below foran 18:1 L/D machine:

Rated shot capacity = 54 ounces Bore diameter = 80 mm

shot size
Actual = 43
ounces
Cycle
time = 55
sec.
Specific gravity of PC at room temperature
= 1.20 g/cc

(54 + 1.05) x 1.25 x (18 + 20) x 1.20 = 69.43 ounces (say69 oz)

69 + 43 x 55/60 = 1.47 minutes

Under these conditions,withapproximately80% of theshot

capacity of the machine being used aand residence timeof a little morethan
a minute, it would be possible to find some m e l t e d pellets or unmixed
color in the resulting parts. The molder would most certainly needto use
an aggressive reverse heat profile and bring
the screw backas slowly as the
total cycle would permit, usinga screw properly designed for the material
being processed.
 127

If theseprocessingparameters do notresult in a satisfactorily

molded part, the molder might consider lengthening
the injection unitfiom
18:l to 22: 1 or more. A 24: 1 L/D would increase the residence time to
about 2 minutes which, with a proper processing set up, might very well
accomplish his objective.

Experience in the field and laboratory indicates residence

that times
should ideallybe greater than2 minutes andless than 5 minutes. When
residence times are less than 2 minutes, it is not uncommon
to see unmelted
pellets in the parts andor added color not being adequately mixed. Screw
rotate pressure is usually higher under these conditions. When residence
times in excess of five minutesare used, resin damage in the form
of surface
defects (burn marks) andor the loss of mechanical properties (such as
impact strength) become common.

It is apparent thatthe calculation and management of residence

time is an important key to successful tmlding. This becomes even more
clear when the residence time tooislong. Under these conditions, materials
sensitive to excessive periods of high temperature (including PC, ABS,
PVC, acetals, cellulosics andothers containing flameretardants) may exhibit
evidence of burninganddegradation.Thecorrectivemeasures to
counteract high residence times include:(1) lowering the screwRPM, (2)
reducing back pressure, and (3) reducing barrel heat in the feed zone. In
this case, an ascending heat profile would appropriate.
be If these remedies
are not effective, the only remainingcure is to reduce the shot capacityof
the machine, hence, downsizing the injection unit.

Downsizing the injection unit involvesa new barrel witha smaller

bore andshorter length (to allow fora 20: 1 L/D), a new screw, end cap and
valve. Downsizing should be done only with the assistanceof the original
machinemanufacturer or a competent barrel and screw manufacturer.
Because theshot capacity is less and the hydraulics are the same, some very
high injectionpressurescan result. These pressuresare sufficientto result
in damageor injury to both equipment and personnel.
128

12.9 PerformanceMeasurement

All plastics processors should maintain some type of production

record which enables a comparison of actual production performance
against a production standard or benchmark. In those operations where
such a record is not maintained in written form,it is frequently kept in the
mind of one or more production supervisors. Unfortunately, unwritten
records are not capable of being accessed, summarized or analyzed [5].
Performance measurement begins witha simple Set Upor Process Sheet.

The Process Sheet contains all ofthe processing parameters that are
carellly developed when a particular mold is first set up to run. The
processsheet sets forth the drying time, barrelheat profile, mold
temperatures,clamptonnage,injectionrate, filling andholding
pressures, back pressure and all of the times that are included in the
overall determinationof cycle time. Included are the times forfill,pack,
holri, cooling, screw recovery and total cycle time. These times,together
with the other set points in the process, constitute the plan that has been
made to effectively and profitably produceparts from the mold.

The measurement of the actual results compared with eachof

these processing parameters is essential to the determination of the
success of the molding operation. This evaluation of production
performance is also critical to the determination of undesirable trends in
productivity of a particular machine, shift andor plant. Moreover, the
record isvital to the immediate correctionof processing problems antUor
component wearlong beforethe problems become seriously damaging to
equipment or processing profitability.

There are a number of real-time production monitoring systems in

use today and many of them offer scheduling, production floor status
reporting, machinestatusreporting andother desirable evaluative measures.
Such systems are u s e l l in assisting production management in problem
identification and solving. These systems generate reports and computer
screen displays similarto those shown:
 129

This report not only indicatesthe number and percentageof parts that are
rejectedbutalsoshows the number that wereactuallyproduced as
compared with the number that should have been produced.

M8Cbk
No.

This report (Figure 37) can be the basii for a varietyof corrective action.
If the cycle time is slowerthan the original setup, it may bedue to excessive
recovery, SU, or cooling times or other causes. A deteriorationin recovery
time couldbe the first indicator that a valve,screw or barrel is worn.

It should benoted that plastic materialsdo vary somewhatfrom lot

to lot and processing conditions may require some change each time a
particular mold is used. However, if such changesare always inthe same
direction (raisiiheats, increasingscrew RPM, changing back pressure), a
problemis likely
developing that needs
attention. Pe@ormance
measurement is an essential toolfor successful molding.
12.10 Preventive Maintenance Program
Preventive maintenance is the process of putting out fires as
theyoccur. A PreventiveMaintenanceProgramshouldenable the
identification of all machines and components, permil the scheduling
and recording of maintenance activities andprovide reporting that give
assurance that the maintenance activities are being conducted properly
and ona timely basis. Additional reports may be developed that allow the
evaluation of the performanceof components (screws, barrels, valves) and
the materialseom which theyare made relativeto the typesofplastic resins
they are processing.

All machines and machine components have an approximate wear

life and by identifLingthat life and making maintenance changes before the
life expires,production can continue on a scheduled basis.It is much better
to schedule the replacement of machine parts and components at a time
that fs convenient to production rather than be forced to make such
repairs or replacements on an emergency basis.

There are a number of computerized maintenance programs available

that list all of the normal maintenance activities and their fiequency, either
based on a number of days of service or machine hours of use. Based on
such fiequencies,a maintenance schedule can be developed to perform the
activities routinely. Problemsor trends in undesirable performance or wear
life can be documented for later follow-up. A well-conceived Preventive
Maintenance Program is the foundationof efficient production and
easily qualifiesas one ofthe Keys to SuccessfulMolding.,

The Keys to Successful Molding are essential to the profitable

operation of an injection molding facility. Because this was
a long chapter,
we thought you might liketo see allof the keys listedin one place. You
may reviewthese in the tableon the next page.
 131

The Ten Keys to Successful Moldingm

1 Make sure that the mold and the runnersystem are

adequately vented.
2 Determine that theplacement of cooling lines and
the movement of water in the mold will provide the
required mold cooling.
3 Use the right screw for the materialbeing processed.
4 Select the appropriatenon-valve for the molding
process.
5 Set the optimum barrel heat profile
for the process
and balance the heat sources.
6 Use the least amount of back pressurenecessary and
do not use it as a substitutefor the proper screw.
7 Control the injection rate to achieve the properfill
rate without burns,voids or weld lines in the parts.
8 Determine that theprocess has adequate (but not
excessive) residence time and managethe screw
RPM to rotate asslowly as thecycle will allow.
9 Measure the continuing performanceof the process
against benchmarks that represent the
desired
production standards.
10 Adopt a Preventive Maintenance Programthat
provides assurance thatall maintenance activities
are being conducted properly and on a timely basis.
132

13 Thermoset Molding
Injection molding thermoset materials is quite similar to molding
thermoplastic materials. The changes required to mold thermoset materials
are caused by the differences in the materials themselves. Thermplastic
materials can be melted, molded and solidified into parts and those parts
can be ground up, remelted and remolded intodserent parts. There is no
chemical change that takes place in molding thermoplastics. In contrast,
thermoset materialsundergo achemicaZ change or polymerization during
which the molten materialcures (or cross-links) as itsolidljiws. This curing
process occurs within a specifiedtemperaturerangewhichshould be
achieved just after the melt enters the mold. Premature curing of the
material can leaveit solidified inthe barrel and its removal is a very difficult
process. Once cured, thermoset material will not melt again. If exposed
to intense heat, the cured material may burn, scorch or disintegrate, but
never melt.

Although there are some thermoset materials that are activated by

catalysts or by mixing two liquid chemicals together, with neither process
requiring heat,the most common thermosets are temperature-activated. The
temperature-activated materials are those discussed in this chapter and
include the most typical resins that are formaldehyde-based and include
phenoplasts and aminoplasts [4]. Because of the complexities of these
materials, the discussion ofthermoset molding presentedin this chapterwill
be limited and principally involve a presentation of the basic differences
between processing thermosetsas compared with thermoplastics.

13.1 Thermoset Materials

There are five major familiesof thermoset molding materials. They
include:Phenolics,Polyesters, Aminos, Epoxies,andAllyls.Phenolics
account forthe greatest volume of thermoset material used[15].

Phenolics are a reaction product of phenol and formaldehyde.

These materialsare available intypes that offer strength, heat and electrical
 133

resistance andare often glass reinforced.

In the molded condition, phenolics
typically turn to a brownor black color over time. These materials, before
being molded, have a limited shelf of lifeapproximately six (6) months.

Polyesters offer most of the same molded characteristics but are

perhaps easierto process. The curing time of polyesters canbe much faster
than a phenolic. In contrast with phenolics, polyesters will maintain their
original molded color.

Aminos are very hard and have abrasion resistant surfaces. They
can also be processed to have a wide range of colors that are retained.
Aminos were originally used in the manufacture of dinnerware. These
materials are most often compression rather than injection molded.

Epoxies are noted for excellent dimensional stability, resistance

to
most chemicals and the ability to flow and cure under very low pressures.
As aresult,thesematerials are oftenusedfor the encapsulation of
semiconductors, coils and similar products.

Allyls, in theirmolded form, arecharacterized bydimensional

stability, chemical resistance, mechanical strength and heat resistance. Most
importantly, they retain their electrical properties under high temperatures
and humidity. The most common allylis diallyl phthalateor D M .

A fiuther study of thermoset materials is not within

the scope of this
book, however, itis important to understandwhyandunderwhat
conditions thermosetsare desirable. If the product is used in sustained
temperatures in acess of 80C (176F) or is stored at temperatures
greater than120C thermosets area consideration. In addition,
(248"F),
thermosets have good dimensional stability little withwarpage and good
chemical and electrical resistance.

Although some thermoset materials are molded by compression,

injection-compression,high-temperatureinjectionandtransfermolding
processes, requiring differentmold designs, the discussion in this chapter
will discuss onlythe injection molding process.
134

13.2 Machine Modifications

Thermoset injection molding machines are available ina wide range
of sizes. In addition,moststandardthermoplasticinjectionmolding
machines canbe converted to process thermoset materials.

There are two major differences in processing thermoset materials

that influencethe modification of the thermoplastic molding machines.

1. Thermoset materials will cure rapidly ifsubjected to heat above

a spcljied range. Consequently, the heat source for processing thermosets
must be carefblly controlled. The temperatures for used
thermoset materials
are typically much lower than those for thermoplastics (commonly less than
300F or 149OC). Thermoset materials also have a higher viscosity than
mostthermoplasticmaterials. As a result of thesefactors,machine
modifications are required, as follows:

The barrels havewaterjackets that surround the mainbarrel with

three (or more) zones wherethe circulating water temperaturemay
be controlled to gradually increase the temperatureof the resin so
that it is melted just prior to being injected. This is the principal
heat sourcefor melting theplastic.

M T h e m s e t screws have zero compressiolL whichvirtually

eliminates shear as a heat source. Typical screws have a 1:1 (or
less) compression ratio and simply convey the resin through the
barrel so that the heat to melt the plastic is conducted ftom the
water jackets through the barrel wall into the material.

Smear tips are commonly used insteadof non-return valves.

Because of the potential for shearingof the material goingthrough
is quite viscous, a conical tip at the end
a valve and because the melt
of the screw(or smear tip)is used in placeof any typeof valve.
 8 N o d e s at the end of the barrel are typically water-cooledor
temperature-controlled to avoidanyunwantedshear of the
material. This type of nozzle also helps maintain a proper balance
between a hot mold (350-500F or 177-260C) where the material
50-200F or 66-93C ) [161.
cures and a relatively cool barrel (1

8 The barrelis typically shorter, in

the range of 12 to 16:l U D .
The shorter barrel helps avoid excessive residence times andany
shear that may be a by-product of conveying the material up the
screw.

2. In addawn tobeing heat sensitive and viscous, most thermoset

material is very abrasive. Because many thermoset materials are rather
brittle in the curedandsolidcondition,fillersandreinforcements are
common additives. The abrasive area in the injection unit is the point
in the
barrel whereit becomes melt.This area is the lasttwo to three flights ofthe
screw andthe conical smear tip. Withina short time, these areas can wear
to the point where the flightsare gone andthe ability ofthe screw and smear
tip to holdduringcuringtimeis severely lessened.Component
modifications required are:

8 Barrels are typically lined awith

highly wear resistant material,
such as tool steels or premium cast bimetallic linings.

8 Screws and smear tips are mQdefrom wear resistant tool steels
or aretungsten carbide coated to prevent excessive wear.

13.3 Processing Modifications

Thermoset molding requires a curing time whichoccurs in the mold
while the machineis in a holding position. Cycle timeis as important in
thermoset molding as it is in thermoplastic molding. Therefore, the closer
the melted material is to its curing temperature when it is injected, the
Careh1control of
shorter the time thatis required to hold the mold closed.
136

the heat inputin the barrel (from the water

jacket) is essential.

Because the runner system of a thermoset moldingis not capableof

being saved, ground up and used as a regrind added to virgin material, the
elimination of the runner system is desirable. This objective may result in
a cold runner system. Nearlyidentical to its counterpart for
thermoplastics (the hot runner system), the cold runner manifold simply
maintains the temperatureof the melted (but uncured) thermoset material
within a range acceptable for injecting but not so hot that curing couldbe
initiated.Thetypicalrunner systems in thermosetmolding are quite
extensive andthe ability to use a cold runner system resultsa significant
in
cost saving. A similar arrangement is referred to as live sprue molding,
where the conventional sprue bushing is replaced awith water-cooled sprue
bushing. This permits the sprue portion of the runner system to remain
melted but uncured, readyto be molded in succeedingshots [151.

For the reasons previously presented, it is desirable to avoid high

screw RPM andexcessivebackpressure whenmoldingthermoset
materials. Both of those conditions can giverise to unwantedshear
resulting in higher than desired melt temperatures. In addition, thefiff rate
must be controlled so that too much fiictional heat does not develop.
Control to avoid excessive melt temperatures in thermoset molding cannot
be overemphasized.
 137

14 Safety
As stated in the booklet Omrators Handbook for Plastic Iniection
Molding, producedby the SPI Molders Division and published by the S.P.I.,
Injection molding machines are lightning fast, tremendously powerful,
blisteringly hot and run by electricity. The pressures, temperatures and
electrical currents are more than suflicient to severely injure an
operator or
helper. These hazards have resulted in crushed or amputated fingers,
hands, arms, legs and have, in some cases, terminated human life.

Sincethe creation andacceptance of the AmericanNational

Standard ANSI B 15 1.1, now in a recently updated version,all horizontal
injection molding machines manufacturedandor sold in the UnitedStates
must comply witha set of well-defined safety standards. The ANSI B 151.1
document is available fiom the American NationalStandards Institute, 1 1
West 42nd. Street, New York, NY 10036 fora nominal fee.

14.1 Safety Requirements ofANSI B151.l

Rather than repeatall of the sectionsof this publishedstandard in
this book, only the major elements of the standard are condensed and
presented below. This standard refers to the Horizontal Injection Molding
Machine (HI). In this
There is another standard for vertical machines.
reference, the machinewill be referred to as IMM (injectionmolding
machine):

1. It is the responsibility of the manufacturer of the IMM to

fUrnish instructions relativeto the care of the machine. Your Company
should have this document available for review.It is the responsibility of
your Company to ensure that maintenance and setup personnel are
competentand trainedincaring for, settingup,inspectingand
maintaining theZMM. In turn, these personnel should make certain that
any persons assisting in these h c t i o n s are also properly trained. (Once
trained, theoperatorsand helpersalso have a responsibilityto follow certain
safety rules thatwill be covered later in this chapter.)
138

2. The IMM has an operatorsgate as the primary safety device

which servesas a barrier, blocking off access to moving parts,the mold and
splattering of hot melt whilethe IMM is operating. The gate is mounted on
the operators side of the machine and has a window, made of a shatter
proof material, allowing the operator to view, but not access, the area of
the movement of the mold. The operators gate must be closed before the
machine can be operated If the gate is power-operated, it must have a
pressure-sensitiveswitchthat also preventsthemachine fiom being
operated if the gate is open.

3. Every IMM has three safety interlockswhich prevent specifled

machine operations, as follows:

a. ElectricalInterlock - which prevents any of the

following motions as long as the operatorsgate is open:

platen
closing core action
injectionforward ejectormovement
screw rotation

b. Mechanical Device - which prevents the platen from

closing if the operators gate is open. It also has a
monitoring device that causes an alarm if the mechanical
device is not functioning.

c. Hydraulic or PneumaticInterlock - which also

prevents the platen from closing if the operators gate is
open. Thisinterlockalso has amonitoringdevice that
verifies that it is functional.

4. A rear guard covers the same spaceon the back of the machine
(opposite the operator) as does the operators gate on the fiont. This is not
an operating gate and is equipped with a mechanical latch that has two
interlocks that separately interrupt
the control circuit andthe power circuit,
preventing all IMM movements fi the guardis open or removed.
 139

5 . A top guard is also installed on smaller machines where an

operator could reachover the top of the operators gate. If the top guard
is moveable, it must also have
an interlock preventing all motion if the top
guard is open. Note: Keep in mind that the top guard is installed only on
small machines. Larger machines may permit personnel to climb up and
access hazardous areasfrom the top of the machine. Such access must be
prevented by other safeguards and Company safety rules.

6. There are also guards that prevent access to hazardous areas

(such as the mold area) through the parts discharge opening and, if a
nozzle shutoff device is used, prevent screw rotation with the operators
gate open if the nozzleshutoff device is in the open position.

7. Guards that relate to areas other than the mold (platen) area
are also required. Theareas covered by these guards include:

feed
openings purging protection safety
signs
electricalsystems injectionbarrel covers vent covers
injection unit swivel interlocks

Of particularnote is the safeguarding duringpurging. A guard is

provided to protect thefront, rear, andtop of the purging area over the
barrel nozzle and behind the stationary platen. This guard is interlocked
to prevent screw rotation, screw forward and injection carriage forward
motion whenthe guard is not in position. Purgingis also prevented with the
operators gate open.

In larger machines where the operator can stand between the

operators gate and the mold area, an emergency stop oremergency reverse
button is provided that is readily accessible to the operator. Additional
devices prevent the unintentionalreturn of the gate to a closed position and
allow thestart of a cycle onlyafter complying with a prescribed sequence
of pushing two safety buttons and closing theoperators gate. The latter
system is referredto as a double acknowledgment system, which is fixther
protected by a monitoring circuitor presence-sensing devices.
140

8. Operators, setup and supervisory personnel be musttrained in

the use of all safety devices and procedures before starting work on an
injection molding machine. The standard suggests that a checklist be
prepared to ensure that operators are keptaware of procedures.The
checklistshouldbekeptin the instructionmanual of the Ih4M and
periodically the employer should havethe operators check off the list.

The employer should provide a clean and adequately spaced work

area around the I. If the parts discharge area requires modificationto
allow for conveyors or chutes, the employer should provide appropriate
safety devicesto protect personnel fiom any attendant hazards. Safety signs
are to be provided and should conform size, format and
to a specified color,
content. Additional provisions for guards and safety, particularly where
very large machinesare used, are presented in the standard. This standard
should be available for review by all molding personnel.

14.2 Safety Rules to Follow

Although not intended to be an all-inclusive listing of safety dos and

donts, safety rules
to be followed when working around injection molding
operations should, at a minimum, include the following:

I . Perform the Machine Safety Check. Machinery manufacturers

provide a protocol or procedural routine for checking the various
safetydevices on the machine,especially those relating to the
operators gate. These are often found printed on an instruction
plate at the operators station or a decal nearby. These typically
state the procedures to assure that allsafetyinterlocks are
functioning at the start of each shift. The shiftforeman or other
supervisory person should perform this check to ensure that all
safeties are hctioning properly.

2. Dont be careless! Treat the machine and auxiliary equipment

with respect and think
carehlly before initiating any operation.
 141

3. Wear theproper clothing.Follow the companys standards for

protective wear, includingshoes,gloves,eyeglassesand ear
protectors.

4. Understand all the machines safety devices, where they are

and how they work. Make sure all are hctional before work
begins. Also determine that operators gate windows are not
broken, cracked or removed.

5. Do not remove or defeat the guards for the operators gate.

These guards insure that personnel cannot reach into the main
danger area.

6. Do not climbor crawl up onto the machine while it isrunning.

A slip can mean a fall and on larger machines this could result in
very serious injury.

7. Do not fw or perform any maintenance functions while the

machine is running. Shut off the power before makingany
adjustments.

8. Do not reach overor under closed guards,the hopper orfeed

throat while machineis in operation or while motors are running.

9. lfthe mold should be stopped during closing,the hit machine

stop button. Do not open the operators gate and attempt to
quickly fix the problem or remove any plasticor other obstacle.

10. Stand clear of the machine when a maintenance man is

working onit. Do not attempt to help unless heasks you to doso.

11. Keep the workingareaclean! It is veryeasy to slip on

hydraulic oil, spilled plastic pellets, parts and scrap. Sweep it up.
And remember, molten plastic is very hot even long after it has been
purged. Usegloves or tools to movepurgedplastic or newly
molded parts.
142

There are other concernsrelative to theworking area around

injectionmoldingmachines.Electrical heaters andwiringbothcarry
relativelyhigh voltage andcancauseseriousinjury.Be carell when
working around anywiring. Remember that thewiring around the nozzle
is more exposedso look out for it. Report any exposed or fiayed electrical
wiring or electricalboxeswithoutproperlyfunctioning doors. Scrap
grinders are a great potential for injury. Shut the power completely off
before workingon oraround the grinder.

Safety has to be establishedby management as a necessary part of

any operation. The practice of safety is wisely called risk management,
which meanscontrollug both human and mechanical factors that can cause
harm. Everyone must be a "risk manager." Everyone involved must do
their partto act in a safe manner andto insure thata safe work environment
is maintained.
 143

15 Recognizing Molding Problems

As experience is gainedinworking in an injectionmolding
operation, it wil become increasingly importantto understand the typesof
molding problems that can occur. Molding problems cause defective parts
and producing defectiveparts is the most undesirable condition that can
occur in molding. A defective part includes the variable costs of labor,
material and power and although the part may be captured, ground up and
the material reused,the cost of grindingis added as well. These costs can
never be recovered. By contrast, if the machine were down, that is, not
producing anyparts, there are no variable costs, only the loss
ofproduction
time. Molding problems may be placed in two categories: (1) process
problems, and (2) component wear problems.

15.1 Process Problems

Most molding problems can be identified by either examining the
parts or by observing the performanceof the injection molding machine. In
either case, it is important to understand the nature of the problem, the
possible causes of the problem and some potential solutions to the
problem.

Presented in the followingparagraphs are some of themost

commonly experienced typesof problems, their potential causes and some
typical solutions. As more experiencein molding is gained, this listingcan
be expanded to include other situations requiringmodifications to the
molding parameters thatare necessary to produce the desiredparts.

15.1.lBrittleness of Parts
Brittleness in parts can be recognized by physically examining them,
but moreoften, parts that are presumed to have impact and tensile strength
are subjected to laboratory tests which will confirm the presence
or absence
of the required properties.
144

Causes:

Brittleness is commonly caused by a lossin molecular weight in

the part resultingfiom excessive heat and/or shear occurring during
the molding processor improper drying. Excessive moistureparts in
produced fiom polycarbonate and nylon (among others), may also
cause a reactionthat can produce brittleness. Brittleness may also
be caused by excessive residence time. The residence timemay be
calculated (see Chapter 12.8) and should range from 1.5 minutes to
no more than5.0 minutes, depending uponthe type of resin being
processed.

Potential Solutwm:

Determine that the proper drying procedures are being

used, especially with hygroscopic resins.

Determine thatthe screw has the proper design anddoes

not excessively shearthe resin.

Correct the heat profileto gain more heat fromthe heater

bands and lessfiom shear. Check melt temperature with a
pyrometer to determine thatthe desired temperatureis being
achieved. Make sure that all heater bands are operational.

m Check the residence time andif it is too long, reduce the

rear zone temperature and use an ascending profile. If this
does not solve the problem, consider alteringthe shot size
of the injection unit.

15.1.2 Bubbles and Voids

Bubbles are ordinarily the result of trapping air inside the molded
part. Voids may appear similar to bubbles but representthe absence of air
or a vacuumin the part. Voids typicallyoccur after themelt is injected into
the mold.
 145

Causes:

Inadequate venting in the mold or runner system, preventing

the air in the cavities from escaping during injection. Excessive
suckback or melt decompression after injection may cause a void in
the part.A determination should firstbe made whether the problem
is a bubbleof gas or a void, then the solutions applied.

Potential Solutions:

Clean the vents in the mold and runners, increase the

venting,orresurface the moldface,re-establishingthe
vents.

Reduce the injectionfill speed allowing more time for the

air tobe expelled through the vents.

W Reduce the clamp tonnage pressure, taking care not to

flashtheparts.Iftheventsarepartiallyhobbed,this
solution may help.

Decrease the melt decompression and reduce the nozzle

temperature.

Use a reverse taper nozzleor a shut-off nozzle.

15.1.3 Burned Material

Burned material is evidenced by part discoloration or black, sooty
marks in the parts. Similar to the previous problem, the surfaceof the part
can be burned by dieseling. Dieseling results from the compression of air
in the cavities resultingin very high heat which burns the carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen in the plastic.
146

Causes:
Dieselingorthebuming of theplasticcausedby the
compressed, heated air in the cavities, results in black, charred
surface bums in the part. Excessive melt temperatures causedby
shear, long residence times, incorrect heat profile or malfunctioning
heater bands.

Potential Solutions:

Cleanand/oraddtheventsinthemoldandrunner
system. Also clean the ejector pins.

W Reduce the injection fill speed and/or reduce theclamp

pressure, taking care notto flash the parts.

W Determine thatthe screw has the proper designto avoid

excessive shear heat.

W Make sure the valve being used

is not too restrictive for
the material being processed.

W Determine that the proper heat profileis being used and

that all heaterbands are operational.

W If these solutions fail, gate size maybe increased to help

avoid any shear taking place during injection.

15.1.4 Cloudy or Hazy Parts

Clear parts that have a hazy or cloudy appearance.

Causes:
Contamination of the resinor the useof too much regrind.
Lack of proper or desired mold finish. Stressing of the material
during the molding process.
 147

Potential Solutwm:

Determine that previous processing ofcolored material or

a different typeof resin is adequately purged.

Check the materialsource (i.e., grinder or storage boxes)

that might indicate thattoo high a percentage of regrind is
being used.

Check the cores and cavitiesto determine that the desired

finish is present.

Process with a melt temperature that is not too cold nor

a fill rate that is too slow. Check for the proper heat profile
andmelt temperature. Determine that the fill rate is
appropriate for the material.

Determine that the mold temperature is correct for the

material being processed.

15.1.5 Drool
Drool is the oozing of melt (failure of the melt to fi-eeze off
either at the nozzle or at the gate in a hot runner system). Drooling can
cause soliditied materialto be introduced into the nexf part which causes
surface defects. It may also interfere with theflow of the material and/or
the mechanical properties of the parts.

Causes:

Ineffective nozzle design, inadequate heat controls at the

drool location and sometimes by inadequately dried hygroscopic
material.
148

Potential Soluiions:

Check for proper procedures for drying the material. If

possible, measure the moisture content in the material.

Use a reversetaper nozzle or a shut-off nozzle. Also, X

a nozzle filter is used, make sure that the filter is clean,
allowing effective melt decompression.

Lower the temperature of the heat source at the drool

location, i.e., the nozzle or hot runner probe.

Increase melt decompression or suckback. Watch for

evidence of splay.

Reduce back pressure.

15.1.6 Flash
Flash is the ragged edge of the part occurringat the parting line.

Causes:

Assuming that the mold is properly constructed (including

adequate sizing of the gates and good parting line match), flash can
result fiom avariety of processingconsiderations,including
injection pressure that is too high, an incorrect heat profile and
improper settingof clamp tonnage.

Potential Solutions:

Reduce injection pressure used for packing

andor filling.

Determine that the proper heat profileis developing the

desired melt temperature. Check the melt temperature with
a pyrometer.
 149

Increase the clamp tonnage,if available.

In rare instances, excessive clamp tonnage can cause

flash. Make sure the proper clamp tonnage is being used.

15.1.7 Flow Lines

Lines in the part that are shaped likethe letter J or U. Flow linesare
more commonto polycarbonate, polyesters and acrylics. Flow lines should
be distinguishedfiom knit lines. Knit linesare discussed at section 15.1.1 1.

Causes:

Core or cavity surface defects,melt

a temperature thatis not
on target, a mold temperature that istoo cold and improper filling
procedures can all cause flow lines.

Potential Solutions:

Check the mold for scratches or surface blemishes and

have them corrected.

Increase the melt temperature,usingtheproperheat

profile and confirmby checking with a pyrometer.

Increase the mold temperature to ensure even cooling.

Decreaseinjectionflow rate andincreaseinjection

packing and/or hold pressureor hold time.

15.1.8 Gate Blush

Gate blush is the hazy surfaceimperfectionfound at the gate

location on the part.
150

Causes:

Gates may be damaged, too small or the wrong type,or the

coldwell in the sprue may be too small. Melt fiacture may be
occurring as the molten plastic is forced throughthe gate(s). The
melt temperature may be too low.

Potential Solutions:

Change or repair thegate(s) andor increase thegate size.

Checkcoldwell in thespruefortheproper size and

correct, ifnecessary.

Reduce the injectionfill rate (velocity, not pressure).

Increase themelt temperature by raising thefiont zone or

nozzle settings andor increase the mold temperature.

15.1.9 Inadequate Color Mixing

The inadequatemixing of the colorant additivesis usually apparent
to the naked eye in examining the parts. However, in some cases, the use
of a spectrophotometer may be required to determine that colors exactly
match thecolors desired.

Causes:

If the color concentrate carrier resin does not have a melt

index comparableto the mainresin, theywill melt at a different rate,
resulting in different melt viscosities and potentially poor color
mixing. However, in most cases, the resinis not adequately melted
to permit the proper mixing andor the screw is inadequate to the
mixing task.
 151

In some cases, restrictionsin the resin flow path, caused

by
a restrictive mixing section at the end of the screw, a non-return
valve that causestoo much shear,an incorrect nozzle,or gates that
are too small, can all cause too much shear heat resultingin color
separation. Separation can alsooccur as a result of improper heat
profiles or an inadequate screw design that causes excessive shear.
..
But remember. materials will not mix unless they are in a
jluid state.

Potential Solutions:

Match the color concentrate carrier to the material being

processed or closely enough to allow melting within the
same heat range.

If a mixing device is used, be sure that it is a fiee flow,

distributive typeof mixer that will not shear the material.

Use fiee flowvalvesandlarge ID straight-through

nozzles.

Run a reverse or hump heat profile to help avoid too

much shear fiom the screw. Reduce the injection speed,
screw RPM and/or back pressure.

Be sure that all mating surfaces in the fiont-end barrel

assembly are perfectly matched, avoiding any hang-up areas.
Process with a clean, polished screw, barrel, valve end cap
and nozzle.

Use a screw designed to adequately melt the base resin

andthe concentrate and mix bothmeltedmaterials.
Considertheuse of a well-designed,fiee-flowtype of
mixing screw.
152

If the material is not adequately melted and in a fluid

state, increase the back pressure and screwRPM and adjust
the heat profile, loweringthe barrel heat control setpoints.
Usually, ifthe material is not adequately melted, a changein
the heat profile and screw design are needed to correct.

15.1.l0 Jetting
Jetting appearsas worm tracks or squiggly markson the wall of the
finished part. The problem gets its name fiom the cause rather than the
resulting condition or appearance.

Causes:

Jetting results fiom a squirting of the melt directly on the

mold surface (hence,the part surface) rather than flowing normally
into the mold cavity. As a result, the thin films of squirted melt
solidifies ahead of the rest of the melt leaving the marks described
above. This condition commonly occurs when the gate is in the
wrong locationor the melt fiont has nothing to deflect fiom.

Potential Solutions:

Reduce the injection fill rate, profilingto fill more slowly.

Increase the temperature of the meltand the mold

surfaces.

If the solutions abovedo not work,the size or location of

the gates may have to be changed.

15.1.11 Knit Lines

Knit linesare visible lines inthe part wheretwo or more melt flows
join. Knit lines may be a cosmetic problem and a weak point in the part.
 153

Causes:

Heavy knit (also called weld lines) are typically caused by

an inadequate mold design. If thetwo (or more) massesof molten
material do not come together quickly enough to weld together
while in a melt condition, a knit line will result.

Potential Solutions:

Increase the melt temperature and the injection speed. It

may help to also increasethe temperature of the mold.

Increase the packing or hold pressures and time. Also

adjust the transfer point and/or method for velocity and
pressure control.

If these solutions dont work,the mold design shouldbe

rechecked.

15.1.l
2 Part Deformation
A part maybe deformed if it stickson the cavity-half of the mold.
Deformation also occurs during ejection and may result from improper
ejection and can include ejector markson the part.

Causes:

Most part deformation occurs as a resultof using improper

ejectiontechniquesorinadequatemolddesigns.Ifthereare
blemishes or hang-up spots on the cavity
or mold undercuts that are
poorly designed, ejection will be hindered and part deformation
may result.
154

Potential Solutions:

Check for equal lengthknock out rods that activate the

ejector plate. If the platedoes not move squarely, improper
ejection canoccur. Also determine that the ejector pins are
the proper size for the part. Small ejector pins w li not
adequately ejecta large part, so an increase in the ejection
area may be needed.

Consider the use of air poppets to assist in ejection by

releasing the vacuum that occurs beneath the part as it is
being ejected.

Slow the cycle if ejection is occurring while the part is

still too warm. . . or improve the mold cooling.

Determine thatthere are no defects on the core or cavity

halves ofthe mold. Also check the mold undercuts for their
adequacy to retain the part on the core halfof the mold but
not impede ejection.

Increase the cavity-half mold temperatureandor reduce

the core-haK mold temperature to facilitate the ejection
process.

15.1.l3 Poor Screw Recovery

If the screw fails to recoverwithsufficientspeed to avoid
lengtheningtheoverallcycletime,itshould be considered a molding
problem.

Causes:

The three most common causes of poor screw recovery are:

(1) an improper heat profile;
(2) a screw that is improperly designed
to process the materialbeing used; and (3) a worn screw or barrel,
 155

or both. A doubling of the screwharrel clearance can cause a

25% drop in the production rate, usually associated with slow
screw recovery.

Potential Solutions:

Use a heat profile that generatesat least halfof the energy

needed to melt the plastic.Thiscanbemeasured by
determiningthat the screw rotate pressure(extrude
pressure) is at least 40% (but not more than 60%) of the
available hydraulic (or electric) energy available. For shot
sizes of 50% or more, or that involve highly filled material,
consider a reverse heat profile for better results.

Determine that the design of the screw being used is

appropriate to process the material being molded.If there
is a question, consult one or two reliable screw
manufacturing concerns.

Measure the wear in the barrel,screwandvalve at

opportune times,butnotlessf?equentlythanevery 6
months. Replace or repair worn components.

Minimizebackpressureandavoidusinghighback
pressure as a substitute for good screw design.

15.1.14 Short Shots

A part that is incomplete
in anyrespect is considered a short shot.
The problemis easily recognizedas being a partthat is not fully filled out.

Causes:

Short shots often result from starting up the IMM after a

cycle interrupt. Sometimes they result when some ofthe processing
 parameters are not fine-tuned.This might include the transfer point,
melt or mold temperatures, packing pressure and other variables.
Occasionally, short shots are caused by inadequate gating.

Potential Solutions:

m Allow the process to stabilize after a cycle interrupt,

discarding 3 to 5 shots to achieve proper part fill.

m Adjust processing variables such as the transfer point,

melt and mold temperatures, packing pressure, and fill rate
or fill speed.

Check for a worn or faulty non-return valve that could

result in inconsistent shot sizes.

If gating is found to be the problem, increase the gate size

and/or runner size.

15.1.15 Sink Marks

Sink marks are a depression in the surfaceof a part, often associated
with areas of increased wall thickness, such as ribs or bosses. The sink
marks will typically appear on theofside the part opposite the area of heavy
wall thickness.

Causes:

Sink marks are usually the result of improper mold or part

design, including gate and runner size, the solutions for which are
involved with the complexitiesof mold and part design andare not
presented here. However, process changes can be made to help
minimize the problem.
 157

Potential Solutions:

Increase the pack and/or holding pressure and time.

Reduce the melt temperature using a proper heat profile.

Reduce the mold temperature, especially the side the with

most visible sink and increase the temperatureof the other
haE. This may permit a longer packing time while fieezing
the outer surface. Also experiment with post mold cooling,
including placingthe molded part immediatelyin water.

Increase thesize of the gate(s).

15.1.l6 Splay
Splay is the term applied to silver streaks in the part surface or
through the part thickness in thin-walledparts.

Causes:

There are two major causes of splay. One occurs as the

result of processinghygroscopicresinswhich have notbeen
adequately dried. The other isreferred to as heatsplay,which
occurs as the result of entrapped gasesor excessive heat that burns
off volatiles.

Potential Solutions:

For splay caused by moisture, check the material for

proper moisture content. If not within specification, check
the dryer forproper operation and for proper drying time.

Check the mold for small water leaks.

 Splay resulting from excessive heatmay be prevented by
using the proper heat profile (assuming that all heater bands
are functioning properly) and a screw that does not cause
excessiveshearheat. Also reducenozzletemperature
(assuming the use of a correct nozzle design) and determine
that the non-return valve is not causing unwanted shear.
Reduced back pressure and injection speed may also help.

Splay causedby gas entrapmentmay be the result of too

much meltdecompression (suckback).Also check the resin
for any contaminants, including excessive fines (small
particles or resin) which quickly absorb ambient moisture.

15.1.l7 Warped Parts

Parts that havea warped shape usually result
fiom an inconsistency
half of the mold.
in the coolingof the part for each

Causes:

Warped parts most often result fiom an improper mold

are not coveredby this book.
design and mold construction, which
However, some processing adjustments can be made to help avoid
warpage.

Potential Solutions:

Adjust the moldhalftemperatures, cooling the hothalfof

half)rather than heating the
the mold (typically the cavity up
cold half. Check water flow in all circuits.

Reduce injection forward time andor increase cooling

time. Also, increase the fill speed.

Having read the section on process problem that can be experienced

in injection molding, we believed that it would & helpful to provide youa
 159

more simplified guideto troubleshooting processing problemsin the form

of a table. The table may be referred to quickly and if the more briefly
wordedcausesandpotentialsolutions in thetablerequire further
The
explanation, youcan review that section in the more detailed narrative.
table on troubleshootingisprinted at the end ofthis chapter.

15.2 Component Wear Problems

Excessive wear of the screw, barrelor non-return valve can cause
extensive molding problems. Undetected wear can result in many of the
problems that wereidentified as processproblems.These can include
excessive heat, splay, inability
to hold a cushion andmany others. Not the
least of the problemsis the reductionin the production rate.

Two separate studies have resulted in the same conclusion that:

Doubling the clearance betweenthe barrel andthe screw can result ain
reduction inplasticating capacity of25% The abilityto hold a cushion or
pack properly is greatly affected by the degree of wear on the outside
diameter of the non-return valve ring or the wear on the rear seat. In
addition, wear inthe stroke section ofthe barrel can allow the valve ring
to -and and break under the pressure of injection.

Causes:

The premature wearof the screw, barrelor valve can have

several causes. First, thecomponents may not be madefrom the
proper materials that are adequate to resist the wear characteristics
of the resins being processed. Second, inadequate
an screw design
relative to the resin being processed can cause the premature wear
of the screw. Third, an incorrect heatprofile andor heater band
mahnction can resultinrapidwear of the screwandbarrel.
Fourth, the inadequateremovalof moisture may allow water vapor
to unite with acid-generating gases can thatresult in corrosive wear.
Fah,processingparameters, such as excessive back pressure or
improper shutdown or start up, can also result in component wear.
160

And finally,contamination ofthe material (failure to remove metal

fragments and other items) can cause wear and breakage.

Potential Solutions:

Special wearresistantmaterials,such as particle

metallurgy tool steels or special alloys mustbe used when
processing heavily reinforced resinsor resins that develop
corrosive
acids. For example, PVC
can
develop
hydrochloric
acid,
acetals
result in formic acid,
fluoropolymers generate hydrofluoric acid andso on.

Screws that are notproperlydesigned can causea

pluggedflow,forcing the screwagainstthebarrelwall
resulting in adhesive wear. In addition, a screw that is too
aggressive (compression ratio too high andor transition
zone too short) can result in abrasive wear inthe transition
zone of the screw and the corresponding area in the barrel.
Screws thatare too shallow for processing viscous materials
or materials that contain a high percentage of reinforcement
or fillers also contribute to premature wear. The use of
excessivebackpressure to compensate for an improper
screw design shouldbe avoided.

Heater band settings that are too low in the feed and
transition zones can cause excessive shear, also resulting
in
adhesive and abrasive wear. Use heater band settings to
achieve 50% of the heat energy from conductive heat rather
than shear. Consider hump and reverse heat profiles.
Be sure to check all of the heater bands to determine that
they are hctioning properly.

Residencetimesthat are too longfortheprocessing

conditions
encouragecorrosive
wear.
Calculate the
residence time for each processing application and try to
avoid times that exceed5 minutes.
 161

The proper procedures used during shut down of the

molding machinehelp avoid both component breakage and
corrosiveweur. It is veryimportant to shut downthe
molding machine with the barrel properly purged and the
screw in the forward position. If resin solidifies near the
fiont of the screw or the valve, the valve can easily be
snapped off fiom the torque generated at the subsequent
start up. Moreover, if the machine is allowed to be shut
down with material thein screw channels,that material can
promote corrosion while cooling and sitting overnight. Shut
down procedures are usually carefully enumerated by the
injectionmoldingmachinemanufacturer.Follow those
recommendations!

Be sure that proper screening and magnetic devices are

included in the hopper to assure that the material is not
contaminated or contains bolts, nuts, pencils, ball point pens,
and so forth!
 Troubleshooting Processing Problems
Problem
Part Brittleness
BUMICE, a voids - Inadequate ventingofmdd
or runner system
-Excessiisuckbackormelt
decam pe
rs
sh
Burned Material - Excessive shear
-LOngreSidencetime
-lncorredheatprofile
- Malfunctioning heeter bands
- Resin contamination
- Using too muchregrind
- Improper mdd finish
- Stressing of material
- Improper nanle design
-lnadeqwteheatcontrolat
drod location
- Inadequateyl dried material
- lnjectian tW high
- Incorrect heat prafile
- Improper clamp tonnage
-coreorcavity"
" ~ r e t W C d d
- Mold temperature toocold
- Improperfill rate
Potential Solutions
Recheck drying procedures
Confirm used p q x r screw design
, Review heat profile 8 back
,CheckraSidencetilTl!
. Clean 8 increase venting
. Reduce i n @ i fill speed
. Reduce Clamp ton- PreSSUre
.Decrease melt decompression 8 reduce
nozzletemperature
.Use taper or shutoff nanle
.Clean 8 increase venting
.Reduce injectionfill speed
.Increase gate size
.Confirm use d praper screw design
- Check valw for too much restriction
- Review heat profile 8 check heater bands
- Determine proper purgingd prior mat&&
-Checkfortoohigha%ofregrind
-Checkcores&cavitiesforproperfinish
- Assure that melt temperature is correct
- Determine thatfill rate is not too s l w
- check mokl for proper temperature
- Checkdrying procedures
-Useteversetaperorshutoffnanle
-LawertemperatureddrodSWrce
- Increasemelt decompression
- Reduce back
- Reduce injedion pressureused for
packing and/or filling
-checkheatprofileandcheckmelt
e
tmperau
trempyranee
tr
- Increase clamp tonnage,if mailable
- Check mold for blemishes
-Increasemelttenperature&checkwith
PF-w
- Increase Inold temperature
-Decressein~ficmrate&increase
packing and/or hold pressureor time
- Repair gades and/or increasegate size
-Checkspruecddwellforpmpersize
- Reduce injection fill rate (VelOCny)
-chedcmelttemperaturemwrandera
increesefrontzone8nanleseitingif
t w low

Causes
.Meltindaxdresin&cdor
concentratecarriernot
compabble
.Excessiishearheatinmelt
fcmrm
- Improperheat profile
.Inadequatesccew design
- Gate too small inrelationto
wal thickness of the part
- Inadequatemold desgn
- Improper heat prdk
- ImprOperlydesigned screw
-WOmSCfWandlorbarrel
- Processing par;ameters are
m finely tuned
- Inadequate gating
163
Potential Solutions
~Impr~matChofCOl~CCflcentratecanier
MI to resin being processed
. Determine thatmixing device does not
shear the material
. Check VahR for possible restridion8
Shear
. Run revecse or hump heat profile to help
avoidtoomuchshearfrunscrew
. Reduce injectionspeed, screw RPM and
back pressure
. Use a weldesignedmixing s c r w
.If matetial isn d melted, alter the heat
profile and change to propertydesigned
SCreW
- Reduce injectionfill rate
- Increase temperatureof melt 8 mold
surfaces
- Increasesize of thegates
- Increasemelt temperature 8 injection
speed
- Increasetemperature af mold
- Increase packingor hokl pressures8 time
-Recheckthedesiindthehemdd
- Check knock out mds for equal length
- Determinethatejector pins are of proper
Size
- Consider air poppets to assist ejection
- If part is stillwann when e j e c t e d , slow the
cycleorimprovemoldcaoling
- Determine thatthere are no defectsin
cores or cavities 8 that mold undercuts
areadequatetoretainthepartonthe
core half
-lncreasecavitymddtempeiatureand/or
reducewtemperature
- Use a heat profile that generatesat least
halfoftheenergyneededtomettthe
plastic
- Determine thatthe screw design isproper
- Measure screwlbarrelW a r e p l a c e if
worn
- M i n i m i back pressure
164

Problem Causes Potential Solutions

Sink Marks - Improper mold design, - Increasepack &/aholding pressure 8
including gate8 runner time
Size - Reduce melt tempennure, using a proper
heat profile
-Red~~~~!rokltemperatuEUItheSidewith
the most visible sinkand incresse the
temperature on the other half
-Determineifchangesinthemolddesign
are required
-C M material for propar moisture
content
-Checkm0ldforsmallwaterIe&s
- Determine u s e d proper heat profile
-checkforanypointsdshear,suchasthe
wk. n o z z l e , s c m . runner system or
gat=
- Check for sccessive melt decanpression
- Determinethat resin does mt h a w
excessive "fines"which absorb ambient
moisture
warped Parts - Improper mold design or - Cod the hat half (typicallythe cavity half)
cons- dthemold. Checkwaterflwinall
arcuits
- Reduce inpction forward time &/or
increase cooling time.Also increase fill
speed.
 165

16 Terminology
The following pages include terminology that is commonly used in
the plastics industry and more specifically, in injection molding. Reference
ismade to glossariesalreadypublished,such as those in the Plastics
Engineering Handbook, Fifth Edition; The Kayeness Practical Rheology
Handbook; and in the RecommendedGuidelineNomenclature for
Machinery Components by the Machinery Division of the S.P.I. In all
cases, those definitions have been simplified
to facilitate their usefulness.

abrasive wear - wear caused by the continual contact, under pressure,of

hard particlesin the resins against a barrel lining,
screw surfaces and
valves or othercomponents. The abrasiveparticles may be
reinforcements, such as fiberglassfibers,calciumcarbonate,
powdered metals and others.

accumulator - an awclliarycylinderequippedwithaplungerthatis
mounted on an injectionmoldingmachine (or blowmolding
machine) to provide a fast delivery of melt. The accumulator is
f l e d between shots with melt comingfiom the main barrel. It can
aid in injection speed butdoes not add injection pressure.

additive - a substance compounded into a resin to mod% its processing

as stabilizers, plasticizers,
characteristics or physical properties, such
flame retardants, lubricants and others.

adhesive wear - wear resultingfiom two metals rubbing against each other,
such as the screw flights and valve rings coming intocontact with
the lining of the barrel during injection molding operation.

air shot - injecting (into the a

ir)a shot of molten plastic without the
or examining the melt quality.
carriage forward, i.e., in purging

ambient temperature - temperature of the air or other substance

surrounding an object.
166

amorphous - term applied to resinshavingnocrystallinemolecular

structure.

anneal - heating an article to a predetermjned temperature and slowly

cooling it to relieve stresses. Usually relates to annealing steel or
plastics.

atactic - a term used to identi@ a polymerchain that has a random

arrangement of units.

autoclave - a closed vessel used to conduct a chemical reactionor other

operations under pressure and heat.An autoclave is used in making
particlemetallurgy tool steel in a processcalledhotisostatic
pressing (HIP).

automatic mold - an injectionmold (or other type ofmold) that permits the
entire molding cycleto be repeated, time after time (untilstopped)
without human assistance.

axis (of a screw or barrel) - the accurately straight centerline extending

through the screwor barrel from which to measure concentricity.

back pressure- the hydraulic restriction of the backward movementof an

injection screw during the recovery portion of the molding cycle.

ball check valve - a valve mounted at the discharge end of an injection

screw usedto allow forward flow of plastic during screw recovery
and
no
flow
during the injection stroke. The valving is
accomplished by the movement of a ball inside the valve housing.

barrel - a cylindrical housing in which the screw rotates, including the inner
surface lining material,or replaceable liner,ifused. Also commonly
referred to as a cylinder.

barrel shell - the outer thick wall of the barrel made froma strong metal
backing material (suchas chrome-molybdenum alloy steel, 4 140 or
 167

4340) to provide strength and hold the inner lining.

barrier flight - a secondary screw flight of reduced outside diameter

designed to separate melted plastic from the solid (unmelted) plastic
by allowing the melt to pass over the barrier flight fiom the solids
channel intoa melt channel.

bayonet adapter - a cylindrically shaped device with holding pins that

threads into a thermocouple hole (on a barrel, for example) and
retains a spring-loaded thermocouple.

bearing surface- the portion of the screw immediately behindthe flighted

length which prevents the escape of material and provides a seal
between the screw and the barrel. Sometimes referredto as a hub.

bell end - an enlarged portion of a barrel at its discharge end which

provides addedstrength to withstand internal injection pressures.

bimetallic - a term used to indicate that a barrel is composed oftwo (or

more)metals,commonlyused to refer to barrels thathave a
centrifbgally cast lining.

blister ring - a raised portion of a section of a screw root of sufficient

height and thicknessto effect a shearing actionon the polymeras it
flows betweenthe blister ring andthe inside wall of the barrel.

blow molding - a method of fabrication in which a warm plastic parison

(hollow tube) is placed between the two halves of a blow mold
cavity and forcedto assume the shape of that cavity by the use of air
pressure. Pressurizedair is introduced into the insideof the parison
through a blow pin thereby forcingthe plastic parison againstthe
surface of the mold that defines the shapeof the product (suchas a
bottle).

bore - the inside diameterof a barrel which houses the screw.

168

bulk factor - the ratio of the volume

of loose plastic feedstock (pellets or
powder) to the volumeof the same weightof resin after molding.

calcium carbonate - a filler or reinforcement usedin thermoplastics thatis

typically groundor powdered limestone.It is an abrasive ingredient
in the plastic that can cause premature abrasivein injection
wear unit
components.

carbon black - a very black pigment usedas a filler because of its useful
protection against ultraviolet light andenhances the life of plastic
products intended for outside weathering applications.

carbon fiber - a reinforcement additive to plastics used for lightweight,

high strength and high stiffhess applications. The fibers
are abrasive
andcancausetheprematureabrasive wear of injection unit
components, similarto calcium carbonate and fiberglass fibers.

cavity - the part of the injection moldthat usually forms theouter surface
of the molded part. Molds are fkequently identified by the number
of cavities they contain (such as a sixteen cavity mold) and as a
group (multi-cavity mold).

channel - the space between the flights

of a screw, bounded at the surface
by the inner lining of the barrel (with the screw in the barrel),
through which plastic is conveyed and melted.

channel width - the distance across the screw channel in a direction

perpendicular to the flights, measured at the periphery
of the flight.

check ring - the cylindrically shaped component that moves back forth and
along the axial lengthof a non-return ring valve. During injection,
the ring shuts off against the rear seatof the valve, preventing melt
fkom flowing backwardtoward the meter endof the screw. During
screw recovery, the ring rests against the fiont seat (or stud in a
three-piece valve), allowing melt to flow forwardthrough the valve
into the discharge end of the barrel.
 169

chiller - a system comprised of a refrigeration unit and a coolant circulation

mechanism (reservoir and pump) that maintains the desired heat
balance in an injection moldby circulating temperature controlled
cooling fluidsthrough the mold. Chillersare typically self-contained
units available from their manufacturers.

chrome plating - a process that deposits a hard film of chrome onto wear
surfaces involved in injection molding, such as screws, end caps and
mold cores and cavities. Typically the plating thickness ranges from
.001 (.0025cm) to .005 (.0127cm).

clamp force - the pressure applied to an injection mold to keep it closed

during the injection and hold portions of the molding cycle. This
force is typically expressed intons (kilograms).

clearance (screw/barrel) - the difference betweenthe outside diameter of

the screw and the inside diameter(bore) of the barrel.

coefficient of thermal expansion- the small growth in the dimension of a

material (metal, plasticor other) per a unit changein temperature.
For example, a fraction of an inch (mm) in growth of an item of
specified dimension per increase of a given number of degrees in its
temperature.

cold slug - the first material to enter an injection mold (in a mold
other than
a hot runner mold) which is typically cooled below the effective
molding temperatureas it passes through the sprue orifice. The cold
slug ends up in a space provided directly oppositethe sprue opening
called a cold slug well.

color concentrate - a quantityof die or pigment combined with a quantity

of resin (usually in pellet form) that may be added to a measured
quantity of the bulk resinto achieve a desiredcolor in the finished
plastic product.
170

compression ratio - the factor obtained by dividingthe volume inthe screw

channel of one diameterofthe feed sectionof a screwby the volume
in the screw channel in one diameter of the meter section of the
screw. However, the term compression ratiois commonly usedto
describe the channel depth ratio, which is simplythe ratio of the
channel depth in the feed section ofthe screw divided bythe channel
depth in the meter sectionof the screw.

concentricity - a term used to describe the relationship of two cylindrical

shapes to a commonaxis, such as the relationshipof the outside and
inside diameters of a barrel to a line running straight through the
center of the bore of the barrel fiom one endto the other. If both
diameters are a constant distance fiom the center line throughout
their length, theyare said to be concentric or have concentricity. A
deviation fiom concentricity is referred to as runout.

copolymer - a polymer thatis synthesized (madefiom) more than one type

of monomer, whereas a polymer consists of only one type of
monomer.

core (in a mold) - that portion of an injection mold that forms

the interior
surface of the molded part.

core (in a screw) - an internal hole extending down the center line of a
portion of a screw used to circulate a coolant
or heating mediumto
better control the temperature of the screw.

core pin - a pin that is included in an injection mold that is used to mold a
hole in the molded part.

corrosive wear - wear appearingon the surfaces of screws, barrels, valves

or other injection unit components resulting fiom the attack of
various acids. Acids come fiom the polymers themselves or from
additives, such as h e retardants, foaming and coupling agents,
and erode and pit the metal surfaces with which they come into
contact.
 171

counterbore - the recessed area in the discharge end of a barrel (or screw)
which acts as a pilot to ensurethe concentric fit and sealingof the
end cap (or valve) to the barrel (or screw).

cross linking- the establishmentof chemical bonds between the molecular

chains in polymers. Cross linking is commonly accomplished by
chemical reaction triggered by a combination of heat and pressure.
Once material has cross linked, itis like cured thermoset material
(i.e., it cannotbe remelted or reprocessed to make parts).

crystalline - the term applied to some polymers whose molecularchains

possess auniformityandanorderlystructure. The opposite
structure in polymer molecularchains is referred to as amorphous.

cycle - in injection molding, the complete, repeating sequence of operations

in molding parts. Cycletime consists of the elapsed time between
one point in the cycle and thesame point in the next.

daylight (in molds) - the distance between the stationary and moving
platens of a molding machine when they as arefar retracted (open)
as possible, without an ejector box
or any spacers.

degradation - the term applied to polymers that have been damaged in

their physical or chemical properties by excess exposure to heat,
light or other cause.

density (in plastics)- the weight per unit

of volume of resins either in their
solid state at room temperature (solid density) or at their melt
temperature (melt density) as expressed gramskubic
in centimeter
or pounds/cubic foot.Also referred to as specific gravity.

dessicant - a substance thatis used to dry other materials (such as plastic

feed stocks) because of its ability to absorb moisture. Dessicant in
the form of beads are usedin dessicant dryers.
172

dispersive mixing - the final melting and mixing of a solid (unmelted

polymer or pigment) with a fluid (such as melted polymer).

distributive mixing - the mixing of a fluid (such as a melted polymer) with

anotherfluid(such as a liquid colorant).Distributivemixing is
aimed at achieving thermal and color uniformity where no further
solids meltingis required.

draft - the angle or degree of taper used in a side wallor clearance in an

injectionmoldcomponent (such as the side of a thin-walled
container) to facilitate the removal of the parts during ejection.

drooling - the leakage of melted plastic ffom a nozzle during

the injection
portion of the molding cycle.

ejector pins - rods or pins that push a molded partoff of the core or out
of a cavity during ejection. The pins are usually attached to an
ejector bar or plate that can be actuated by the ejection systemof
the machine. Ejector sleeves can be used instead of pins to eject
parts (especially round parts).

elastomer - a polymer that at room temperature stretches under a low

stress to at least twice its length and snaps back to the original
length upon releaseof the stress.

end cap - the steel component that bolts to the discharge end
of an injection
barrel andalso adapts (holds) the injection nozzle.

family mold- a multi-cavity mold where each of the cavities forms oneof
the component parts of the assembled finished object. Theterm is
also applied to molds whereeach of the cavities produce a different
part in the interests of economic production.

feed opening - the hole through the feed section of the barrel through
which the unmelted plastic feedstock (such as pellets or powder) is
introduced. It is also referred to as the feed hole or feed port.
 173

feed section(or feed zone of the screw)- the part of the screw
that extends
under the feed opening andreceives the materialto be processed.
The feed section (in injection molding) normally has a constant
channel depth andconveys the material to the transition (or
compression) sectionof the screw.

filler - material addedto the plastic feedstock for the purpose of improving
its physicalproperties (such as strength) or its process ability (such
as a plasticizer or heat stabilizer), or to reduce the cost of the
material.

fines - very small particles (commonly under 200 mesh) that accompany
largerparticles (or pellets)ofplasticfeed stock. Finesoccur
especially in regrind materials.

fisheye - a pellet of plastic that has survived the molding process without
being completely melted.

flame retardant - a chemical that is compounded into a resin to make it

(and the finished partfiom which it is made) fire-resistant.

flange - a short, collar-like section of a barrel, with a larger diameter,

through which bolt holes have been placed to assist in mounting and
securing the barrelto the machine casting.

flash - extra plastic attached to the molded part along the parting line
which, under most conditions, is a defect and must be removed
before the parts are acceptable.

flight - the helical metal thread-like, raised portion of the screw which
defines the screw channel.

flow line - a line in a molded part caused by the joining of two melt flow
fionts during injection. Also called a weld Zine or knit Zine.
1 74

foaming agents - chemicals addedto plastics that generate gases during

the
melting process causing the resinto form a cellularstructure.

gas assist - the term used to refer to the introduction of a gas (such as
nitrogen), under pressure, into the melted resin, eitherat the nozzle
or the mold, to cause the molded part to have a hollow, gas-filled
center thus requiring less plasticto mold the desired part.

gate - the small, short and usually restricted section of a runner at the
entrance to the cavity of an injection mold. The molten plastic
enters the cavity through the gate during injection. Gates have
various shapes and forms, depending upon the design of the partto
be molded.

glass transitiontemperature - the temperature at which amorphous

polymers change fiom a hard, brittle (or glassy) condition to a
viscous, softened, more elastic condition.

guide pins - large pinsin a mold that maintainthe proper alignment of the
core and cavity halvesofthe mold when it closes.Also called leader
pins.

heater bands - electrically powered heating elements that fit around the
outside diameter of a barrelto control the conductive heat used to
helpmelt the plastic.They are commonlymade fiom mica or
ceramic and are connected to machine controls that permit the
desired heat settings forthe various heating zonesof the barrel.

helix angle - the angle of the flight of a screw relative to a plane that is
perpendicular to the axis of the screw. The most common helix
angle is 17.6568' which forms a square pitch.

homopolymers - a polymer thatis based on only one monomer. Typically

such homopolymersare referred to as polymers.
 175

hopper - the b e l shaped container that is mounted directly above the

barrel (andthe feed opening) which containsa supply of feed stock
(such as pellets) to be processed.

hopper dryer - the combination of a hopper and a drying system where

hot, dry air flows upward through the hopper containing the feed
stock pellets, drying the material.

hot-runner mold - aninjectionmold inwhich therunnersystemis

insulated fiom the rest of the mold and remains hot so that the
center of the runner nevercools during normal cycleoperation.

hygroscopic - the term that refers to resins indicating that they absorb
moisture fiom the air.

injection pressure - the pressure exertedon the melted plasticby the screw
and valve to cause the plastic to be injected into the mold. The
pressure is expressed in psi.

injection rate - is the calculated rate, expressedin cubic inches per second
(cubiccentimeterspersecond), at whichthescrew(andvalve
assembly)injectsmeltedplasticintothemoldattheinjection
pressure specified.

inlay - the hard surfaceportion of a flight that does not extend completely
across the widthof the flight.

insert - a part made of metal or other material that is molded into the
plastic part (or pressed into the part) as the molding cycle is being
completed.

jetting - the turbulentflow of melt fiom an undersizedgate or thin section

of the mold into a thicker section rather than uniform
the radial flow
of the melt fiom a gate to the ends of the cavity. Jetting can result
in irregular marksin the final molded part that are unacceptable.
L/D ratio - the ratio of the working flighted lengthofthe screw (that is, the
distance fiom the fiont edge of the feed openingto the forward end
of the screw flight when the screw is in the forward position)to its
outside diameter. In practice, the ratio is simplGed to dividing the
flighted length of the screw by its nominal diameter.

lead - (of the screw)is the distance, measured along the

axis of the screw,
fiom one edge of the top ofa screw flightto the same edgeof the
same flight after one completeturn.

liner - the wear resistant, removable sleeve(s)

that form the inside diameter
of a barrel.

lining - the wear resistant portion of an injection barrel that forms the
inside diameter. The lining may be metallurgically bonded to the
inside diameterof the barrel shell or may be removable linersthat
are press or shrink fit into the barrel shell.

locating ring- a metal ring located on the backof the stationary half
of an
injection mold that helps alignthe mold to the machine platen and
the nozzle of the injection barrel with the entrance of the sprue
bushing.

melt - plastic materialin a molten condition.

melt channel - the screw channel in a barrier screw designed

to collect and
convey forward the melted resin.

melt index - a measure of the viscosity of various plastics in their melted

condition. Melt index is determined by the number of grams of
melted resin at374F (190C) thatcan be forced through a 0.0825"
(.2 1 cm) oriiice during ten minute
a period when subjected to a force
of approximately 43 lbs/in2 (298kPa).

melting point - the temperature at which a resin changes fiom a solidto a

liquid. Usually associated with crystalline type
of resins.
 177

meter section - the portion of the screw at the forward (discharge) end
which has screw channels of a constant depth and a length of at
least one turn of the flight.

mixing section- a sectionof the screw (usually less than 3 diameters long)
that has special geometry designed to enhance distributive andor
dispersive mixingof the melted resin.

mold base - the assemblyof all parts of an injection mold, other thanthe
cores, cavities and pins. Standard mold bases of various sizes may
be purchased from manufacturers to expedite the mold making
process for more simple molds.

monomer - astartingmaterial,based on theelementcarbon,that is

synthesized (made from) simple, oil-based raw materials. Monomers
have typically low molecular weight and are put together by a
process known as polymerization to form polymers (or copolymers).

movable platen - the moving platen of an injection molding machine to

which half of the injection moldis secured during operation.

nitriding (gas) - the hardeningof the surface of certain alloy steels caused
by heating the steel in an atmosphere of nitrogen (ammonia gas) at
approximately925F(496C) to 950F ( 5 10C). The resulting
surface is very hard (70 RCor higher) with wear resistant hardness
(50 RC or higher) extending to a depthof .007" (.018cm) to .015"
(.038cm). The processis commonly used to provide wear resistance
to the surfaces of screws, valves and the inside diameterof barrels.

nitriding (ion) - similar to gas nitriding, achieved by heating steel to

approximately 600F (3 16C) in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas
while addinganelectricalchargetothesteelandintroducing
nitrogen gas. The positively charged steel is bombarded by the
hydrogen and nitrogen gas ions resulting in a surface hardness
similar to that achievedby gas nitriding. Ion nitriding produces a
slightlydeeperandmoreuniformhardnesswithlesspotential
178

distortion and contaminationof the steel thandoes gas nitriding.

non-return valve - a valve mountedon the discharge endof a screw that

allows the flow of melted plastic in one direction only (forward)
duringscrewrecovery.Duringinjection,thevalveallows no
backward flow and enablesthe screw to perform like a plunger.

nozzle - a device that threads into the end cap and adapts the discharge end
of the nozzle (and nozzle tip)to the sprue bushing in the mold.

nozzle tip - a device with an inner orifice

of various designs andsizes that
threads into the nozzle andadapts the nozzle (and nozzle tip)to the
sprue bushing of the mold.

olefins - the term applied to a group of hydrocarbons which are the basis
for certain polymers, most notably polyethylene and polypropylene.

overall length(of a screw) - the total length of a screw which includesthe

flighted length, theshank (drive end) butnot the non-return valve.

part - the term that is applied to the product of the injection molding
process. For example,a molded cup, container, toyor other object
is referred to as a part.

parting line - the term applied to the line on an injection mold (and as
evidenced in the molded part) where the halvesof the mold met in
closing.

pilot (in screws)- an internal cylindrical surface at the discharge ofend

the
injection screw that is usedto accurately locatea non-return valve
to the screw.

pitch - the distance, measured parallelto the axis of the screw, fkom one
edge of the top of a flight to the same edge of the next adjacent
flight. In the case of a multi-flighted screw,the pitch is less than the
lead.
 179

plastics - the term applied to polymers. Also referred to as resins.

plasticizing capacity - the maximumquantity of a specified plastic that

can
be elevated to a uniform and moldable temperaturein a given unit
of time. This capacity is generally expressed in ounces (grams) per
second or pounds (kilograms) per hour. This term is also referred
to as the recovery rate of the injection screw.

plasticizer - a material compounded into a thermoplastic to increase its

workability and flexibility and which may lower the melt viscosity
and the glass transition temperatureof the plastic.

pocket (in screws) - the location where a screw flightis initiated. Most
commonly, the feed pocket is located at the intersection of the
bearing of the screw drive and
the beginning of the first flightof the
screw.

polymer - a combinationof polymerized monomers that consistsof many

identical repeat units.AU plastics are polymers (or copolymers) but
not all polymers areplastics. Cellulose is a polymer but it cannot
be processedlikeaplasticmaterialunless it is modified. See
homopolymers, copolymers and monomers.

press fit - an interference fit achievedby mechanically forcingthe smaller

piece into the larger piece (with the larger piece having a slightly
smaller inside diameter than the outside diameter of the smaller
piece) by use of a press or similar machine. Press fits of .003"
(.008cm) are common in barrel liners press fit into the prepared
barrel shell.

purging - the cleaning out of the injection unit (barrel, screw, valve, end
cap and nozzle)of all plastic that might remain tiom the immediately
precedingprocessing. If changingcolor or shuttingdowntlie
machine, a differentplastic may be forced through the unit
(sometimes with the nozzle withdrawn from the wold). Purging
materials are also available. Purging sbudalways occur before
 shutting down the machine.

rear radius (of screw flights) - the radiusat the intersectionof the rear or
trailing side of the screw flight and the screw root. Usually this
radius is larger than the fiont radius and may change fi-om one
portion of the screwto another.

register (of a screw) - the cylindrical portion of aninjection screwat the

discharge endof the screw that is accurately machinedto match the
rear seat of the non-return valve.

regrind - ground up scrap that may be added to the "virgin" plastic feed
stock and remolded. See scrap.

reinforcement - a strong, inert material compounded into a plastic to

improve its strength, stifkess, andimpactresistance.Typical
reinforcementsincludefiberglassfibers,fiberglassspheresand
calcium carbonate.

resin - solid or semi-solid organicproducts of natural or synthetic origin,

generally of high molecular weight with no definite melting point.
However, resinis commonly usedto designate any polymer thatis
a basic material for plastics, i.e., the terms resins, polymers and
plastics are used interchangeablyin the industry.

Rockwell hardness - a common method of expressing the degree of

hardness of a material by testing its resistance
to indentation, under
pressure, by a diamond or steel ball. Resultsmay be expressed on
various scales, the most commonof which is referredto as the C
scale and is identilied as RC.Thismeasurementpermits the
comparison of the hardness of various materials thatmay be used
for barrel linings, screw surfaces and valve components.

root (in screws) - the surface of the screw betweenthe flights, usuallyof
a cylindrical or conical shape thathas a diameter smaller than the
outside diameterof the flights.
runner - the channel that connects the sprue with
the gates in a mold. Also
refers to the molded form connecting the sprue witha molded part.

scrap - any productof the injection moldingoperation that is not partof the
primaryproduct. Scrap may include flash, short shots, runner
systems, rejected parts and sprues,all of which may be ground up
and added to "virgin" material to be remolded. The ground scrap
is referred to as regrind.

screw -a helicallyflighted shaft which rotates within the barrel to

mechanically work, convey and inject the plastic being processed.

screw diameter - the dimensionofthecross-section ofthe screw, including

its flights. Althoughusually expressed as a nominal diameter, such
as 2" (50mm), theactualdiameter is usuallysmaller than the
nominal diameter, suchas 1.964" (4.989cm).

screw speed - the speed with which the screw rotates as expressed in
revolutions per minute(RPM).

shank - the rear, non-flightedportion of the screw thatfits into the quillof
the injection molding machine at the drive end. Also sometimes
referred to as the screw drive.

shelf life - the periodof time thata molding compoundor plastic feedstock
can be stored withoutlosing any of its physical or molding
properties.

short shot - an incomplete molded part resulting

fiom an incomplete filling
of the mold cavity.

shot - the yield fiom one complete injection molding cycle, including
the
parts, runner systems (unlessa runnerless mold) and flash.

shot capacity - the maximumvolume, expressed in ounces

(or grams), that
an injectionmolding machine can produce during one molding cycle
shrink fit - an interference fit, similarto the press fit, achievedby heating
the larger receiving piece and cooling the smaller mating piece
allowing the smaller pieceto enter. Once the pieces touch, the fit is
established. In somecases,barrelliners are shrink fit into the
prepared barrel shell.

sink mark - a depressionor dimple on the d a c e of a molded part caused

by local shrinkage of the plasticunderneaththemark. Often
associated with unusually thick bosses or support ribbing on the
underside of the part.

smear tip - a conical device used in place of a non-return valve at the

discharge endof the injection screw. It is typically used with high
viscosity, heat sensitive polymers where a non-return valve could
cause degradationof the material.

solids channel - the continuation of the feed channel in a barrier screw

designed to contain and convey forward them e l t e d polymer.

splay - linesappearing in thepartaftermolding,typicallycaused by

inadequate removalof moisture fiom the plastic feed stock. Splay
can also be caused by excessive shearing of the melt during the
molding process.

sprue - the primary openingin the mold that accepts the melted plastic for
further distributionthrough a runner systemor hot runner system.

square pitch - the term applied to a single flighted

screw which has a pitch
(or lead) equal to the nominal diameterof the screw. For example,
a 2" (50mm)nominal diameter screw with a2" (5Omm) lead.

stationary platen - the large plate of an injection machine to which the

fiont plate of the mold is attached during operation. This platen
does not move during the molding process.
 183

stripper plate - a plate in the injection mold thatstrips the molded part(s)
from the cores.

talc - a powdery material (hydrous magnesium silicate) that is compounded

into the plastic feedstock as a reinforcing filler.

thermocouple - anelectricaldevice withtwo metallic conductors in contact

that produce an electrical current whose magnitude is dependent
upon the temperature at the contact point. Thermocouples are
typicallyusedinbarrels to help monitor and control theheat
required of the heater bands.

thermoplastic - a plastic that w i repeatedly soften when heated and

l
harden when cooled. They are contrasted with thermosets (see
below), which soften when heated only once andbecannot remelted
again. Most polymers used today are thermoplastics and include
styrenic polymers and copolymers, acrylics, cellulosics,
polyethylene,
polypropylene,
vinyls,
nylons
and various
fluoropolymers.

thermosets - a material that softens as a result of a chemical reaction to

heat, pressure and other factors,andharden (or cure) intoan
insoluble and infusible condition. Thermosets cannot be resoftened
like thermoplastics. Typical thermoset materials include phenolics,
unsaturated polyesters, aminos (melamine and urea), alkyds and
epoxies.

TIR - an abbreviation, meaning "total indicator reading," to describe the

deviation in concentricity of a measured surface from a selected
surface as shown on a dial indicator.

transition section (zone) - the portion of a screw between the feed and
meter sections where the flightdepth decreases from deep(at the
end of the feed section) to shallow (at the beginning of the meter
section). This area is also referred to as the compression section.
184

two-stage screw - a screw that is typically used in a vented application,

consisting of a feed, transition and meter section (all
of which are
shortened) followed by a decompression section (nearly as deep as
the feedsection). The decompression section is followed by a
second, short transition sectionand a finai meter section. Usually
two-stage screws are longer than standard screws with L/D ratios
of 24:l to 32:l.

ultrasonic welding - amethod bywhichmoldedplastic parts or

components are joined together through the application of a
vibrating mechanical pressure at ultrasonic frequencies (20 to 40
m).
vent (in a mold) - shallow channels or small holes cut into the cavity to
allow airto escape as the melted plastic is injected.

-
vented processing the use of a barrel with a vent port and a two-stage
screw to accomplish the removal of volatiles (gases and water
vapor) fromthe material being processed.

vent bleed - the unplanned escapeof melt through the vent port (vent hole)
during the operation of vented barrel processing.

vent port - an opening through the barrel wall, usually located just forward
of the center of the barrel, to permit the removal of air,gases, water
vapor and volatilesfiom the material being processed.

vent stack (or chute) - a device surrounding a portion of the vent port
designed to preventanymeltedplasticthatmightescape fiom
collecting on the barrel, heater bandsor wiring.

virgin material- plastic feedstock that has not been processed previously
in an injection molding operation.
 185

window - a term, usually referred to as the processing window, that is

used to describe the degree of latitude available to the molder in
changingprocessingparameters and still producingacceptable
molded parts.
186

17 Other Molding Notes

What has been presentedin the first sixteen chapters has been fhirly
basic information about injection molding and the elements of machine
operation. There are someinterestingspecialmoldingprocessesthat
should be mentioned so that you may be aware of their use. In addition
there are some other items relatingto molding machineoperation that may
prove helpfblas well.

17.1 Special Molding Processes

In addition to all that has been presented in this book regarding
injection molding,there are still other types of injection molding processes
that shouldbementioned.Theseincludetwocolormolding, turret
molding, gas assist molding, powder injection molding, intrusion molding
and others.

Most of theseprocessesareconsideredmoretechnical and,

therefore, are not described
in detail. However,a brief descriptionofthem
may be helpfblif you should encounter them in your work.

17.1.1 Two Color Molding

You have seen coffee mugs that have a white interior and colored
exterior that have obviously been injection molded. Also, keyboards on
phones andcomputersare in two colors, but it is clear that the numbers and
letters have not been paintedon the keys. The answer is that two different
colored plastics have been injected into the same cavity, at butthenot
same
time. There are several ways to achieve two color molding. The most
commonly observed approach involves two injection units, each havinga
different color feed stock. The mold, which might have two cavity inserts
in the cavity plate, is equipped so that the entire cavity plate indexes180"
allowing a second color fromthe second injection unit to inject over the
first color. Let's illustrate:
 1 87

The core and cavity sets for positions A and B form the white
interior of the coffee mug, with that interior being retainedthe on
core (and
not ejected). The core plate of the mold indexes 180" and the cores with
B and A, allowing the
the molded interior now sit in slightly larger cavities
second injection unit to inject the dark colored material the around
smaller
interior part that sits on the core. The molded interior actually becomes
part of the core for the molded exterior.

With thetwo color part now complete, the mold opens the andtwo
colored partis ejected, andthe process begins again.It is obvious that the
cavities for the darker exterior must shut off accurately to prevent the
darker material from covering some portion of the interior maythat
not be
desired.

This illustration is quite simple but even the most complex two
color molds allow the first colorto become either part of the core or form
the cavity for the second injectionoperation.

Step 1 Step 2

The interior color (white) IS injected into After rotation, the second darker color
cavities A and B. The part stays on the is injected over and around the light
cores as the plate indexes. interior color, formingthe exterior of the cup.
1

After Step 1,the plate with core inserts indexes (rotates)

180 degrees so that the second color may be injected over the
first.

Figure 38
188

7.1.2 Turret Molding

Perhaps you will, atsome point in your molding career,be able to
observe themoldingofpreformsusingtheturretmoldingprocess.
Preforms look like a test tube with very thick walls. They are called
preforms because they are later placed in a blow molding operation, heated
and blown into a larger plastic bottle used to contain a variety of fluids,
including your favorite cola or other soda drink.

Obviously, if more of the preforms canbe manufactured withina

given time, a greater profit will accrue to themolder. One of thelargest
manufacturers of injection molding systems developed one of the more
fascinating applications of turret molding to mold the preforms. Instead of
the core half of the mold being a plate with core inserts,
it is a large four or
six sided turret that hascores on each of itssides. After injection on one
set of the cores, the turret indexes to the next position, leaving the prefor
on the first set of cores to cool, and so on. The first set of preforms is
ejected as the third index (assuming four sides) is completed and just
before that set of cores is indexed into position to mold the next set of
preforms. Each side of the four sided turret may have60 or more cores
which fit into a set of cavities.

Moving Platen

Block

Figure 39
 189

17.1.3 Gas Assist Molding

Gas assist molding is used where there is a need to reduce the
amount of plastic material and related weight inthe part andor produce
thick-walled parts without sink marks and air bubbles in an economical
manner.Simply stated, a gas injection unit is attached to the molding
machine which contains nitrogen.The nitrogen is injected at a pressureof
approximately 5,800 psi (400 bar) through the machine nozzle, or a gas
injection needle can be usedto inject the gas directly intothe cavity [14].

If thenitrogen is introduced through the nozzle, the cavity is first

partially filled with injected melt followed
by the introductionof gas, which
fills out the part against the cavity wall with the gas in the center of the
completed part.

This process is expensive because of the added components and

becomes complicated during part and mold design. However, in some
cases, the savings in the overall molding process far outweighthe added
costs of design and equipment.

17.1.4Powder Injection Molding

Another fascinating developmentin injection molding involvesthe
addition of a large quantity of ceramic powder or metal powder to the
plastic to produce parts that otherwise would have to be made from metal
or other material. Quite often these parts are complex in design, and if
made fiom metal, would require several machining operations.

Powder injection molding is essentially a three step process, partof

which is not dissimilarto the metal sintering process that has been used for
a number of years. First the metal or ceramic powder is added to the
plastic, quite often a polyolefin suchas high density polyethylene (HDPE),
so that the plastic is 20-30% by volume and the powder 70-80%. Waxes
are usually addedto the mixture as well. The HDPE is simply a carrieror
190

a binder and allows the flow of the combination of materials to be injected

into a cavity. The design of the part may involve core pulls and slides to
assist in the formation of parts with complex designs.

M e r the injection molding process is complete,the parts are placed

into an ovenat a temperature of approximately 915-95OoF (480-5 10OC).
At this temperature,the plastic is removed from the part, leaving it in the
approximate shape desired but in very fiagile condition.

The third step is the sintering process where the parts are placed
into an oven set at rather high temperatures, such as 2,200F (1,200C) for
metals, where the part is completed and now in usable form. Because of
the three steps, there is a significant shrinkage fiom the original injection
molded partto the completed sinteredpart, often as much as 2530%. The
shrinkage is simply calculated and allowances made the during
design of the
completed part andthe mold.

Step 1 I
Step 2 l Step 3
Injection mold the Place the partinto an Transfer the partto
part with powdered oven at about 93OOF to an oven at about
material added to plastic carrier 2,20OoFto complete remove the
polyolefin the sintering process

Powder Injection Molding Process

The authors have seen parts made from powdered metal that had
perfectly squarecorners and various holes and ribs in the parts. Suchparts
would have otherwise had to be machined fiom a metal block, requiring
several steps and considerable time.We have also viewed ceramic parts to
be used as insulators in electrical applications that were producedin the
powder injection molding process. There is a drawback to the process,
however, the molding ofthese materials simplyeats up barrels and screws
and other parts of the injection unit, plusthe mold cavities and cores. All
must be made fiom special, wear resistant materials.
 191

17.1.5IntrusionMolding
There are cases where the molder desiresto make a part thathas a
greater volume of plastic than the maximum capacity of the machines
injection unit. In such instances, the moldera combination
uses of injection
and extrusion to completely fill the cavity with the desired volume of
plastic. This process is called intrusion molding.

Thefirst step involves the injection of melt into the cavity by

causing the screw to rotate while in its screw back position. A sufficient
amount of plastic is forced into the cavity in this manner, much like
extrusion, so that a full shot would complete the necessary volumeto fill
the cavity. The secondstep is the conventional injectionof a full shot into
the cavity, adding to the material that is already there, resulting intotal
the
volume desired. Although ithas been described intwo steps, the sequence
of these steps is relatively continuous, causinga steady filling of the cavity.

It should be noted, however, that this intrusion process can only be

used where therotate pressureof the screw is sufficientto cause melt to
flow into the cavity. In addition, not all materials are of a viscosity that
would permit the processto be successful.

Although the process is not used extensively, it does afford the

molder the opportunity to occasionally mold parts that would otherwise
require a largerinjectionunitandperhaps a largerinjectionmolding
machine.

17.1.6 Other Molding Processes

There are other special molding processes thatare interesting but
are onlybrieflymentionedhere.Theyinclude insert molding, where
components, suchas metal pieces,are placed into the mold and are molded
into the part. You have seen knives with plastic handles and other similar
metdplastic combination parts that are molded in this fashion.
192

In the chapter on additives,no mention was made of foaming or

blowing agents. This agent is usually added to the material by the raw
material supplier and, during injection, causes
gas bubbles to form causing
the thermoplastic materialto become a foam Thisfoam molding process
produces parts with thicker walls that are light in weight with greater
stifhess. Although the surface of the parthas a smooth appearance,it may
not be of the same qualityas a conventionally molded part. The materials
that are commonly used in foam molding include polystyrene (PS) and
polypropylene (PP). However, most other thermoplastic materials canbe
used in this process.

Some larger parts that are used in the automotive andelectronics

industries are producedusing the reactwn injectionmolding (MW
process. RIMinvolvesthemixing of two or morereactive liquid
components and injecting the resulting mixture intoa closed mold at low
pressure. The most commonly used plastic is polyurethane (PUR). Parts
weighmg more than10 pounds can be produced by this process and can be
thin-walled becauseof the lower processing viscositiesor thick-walled due
to the uniform curingof the mixed components throughout the part. This
process is fairly complicated and dependson the molders knowledge of the
chemistry of the components and the mold design required by this process.

One final process that is being utilized extensively is decoration

molding. This process combines injection molding and hot-film printing.
During this process, film that has been placed on the parting line of the
mold separates fiom its supporting material and is essentially molded or
bonded to the part. This process is good for attaching labels or other
printed materialto the molded partin a single operation.

17.2 Molding Operation Items

The Molders Divisionof The Societyof the Plastics Industryhas
produced anexcellent bookletthat is recommended for distributionto all
personsinvolved inmolding operations. It is called the Operators
 193

Handbook for Plastic Injection Molding. The booklet contains information

about the moldingprocess,moldingsafety,plasticmaterials,molding
machines and molds. It also includes some information on quality control.
The booklet is available fiom SPI at a nominal cost.

From timeto time, youmay be required to assist in the removal and

replacement of a screwor valve, whichwil require the removal of the end
cap (nozzle adaptor) fiom the end of the barrel. This is hot work and
requires the use of long insulated gloves (assuming thatthe machine has
been running priorto the change). One of the most important steps in this
process isthe reattaching of the end capto the barrel. This process,ifnot
done correctly, can cause damage to the end of the barrel andor an
improper fit of the end cap to the barrel, causing potential additional
damage. The tightening of the bolts that attach the end cap to the barrel
should be done with a torque wrench and follow the process specifically
outlined in Appendix F of thisbook. Become acquaintedwiththis
procedure and usethe guidelines presented.
194

APPENDIX A
INJECTION MOLDING MATERIALS
THERMOPLASTICS GROUP Density gm/&

Technical (Long) Name Temp

OF Solid I Melt
AcrylCNlitl-ik3BLftadiityR3M3 ABS Amorphous 228 Tg .Q7 1.08

Acetals: PolyoJcymethylene POM Crystalline 358 Tm 1.17 1.42

Acrylics: Polymethyl Methacrylate PMMA Amorphous 203 Tg 1.05 1.20

I cellulosi: I I I
Cellulose Acetate CA Crystalline* 446Tm 1.14 1.22

Cellulose Acetate Butyrate CAB Crystalline' 284 Tm 1.08 1.15

CelluloseAcetate Propionate CAP crystalline' 374Tm 1.10 1.17

FlUWopdymers:

Peduoro Ethylene Propylene FEP Crystalline 527 Tm 1.49 2.12

PerfluoroAlkoxyAlkane PFA Crystalline 582Tm Unk 2.15

IOnanerS "_ Crystdline 205Tm .Q3 .73

Ketones: P-etone PEEK Crystalline 633 Tm 1.30 Unk

 195

APPENDIX A

THERMOPLASTICS GROUP Densltygmlccs

. Molecular Critical
Type Sdid Mdt
Technical (Long)Name SYmd OF

polyethylenes:
Linear LW Denslty LLDPE Crystalline 250Tm .70 .93

L W Density LDPE Crystalline 221 Tm .76 .92

High Denslty HDPE Crystalline 278 Tm .73 .95

PdyphenyleneOxide(m0dii) PP0 Amorphous 235 Tg 1.08 .90

Polyphenylene Sulphide PPS Crystalline 550 Tm Unk 1.07

pdypropylene PP Crystalline 348Tm .90 .75

polystyrenes:

~~ ~~

High Impact 1.04 210 Tg HIPS Amorphous .96

Polysulfone PSU Amorphous 374Tg 1.16 1.24

~~

Vinyls:

Poryvlnyl Chloride (Rigid) PVC-R Arorphous 1.40 188 1.22

Tg

Polyvinyl Chloride(Flexible) WC-F Amorphous 1.30 194 Tg

1.20

Rigid ChlorinatedW C CWC Amorphous 230 Tg 1.54 Unk

Styrene Acrylonitrile SAN Amorphous 300 Tg 1.07 1.00

Processes like an amorphous material.

Also may be processed as an amorphousmaterial.

196
PROPERTIES OF COMMON PLASTICS
MATERIAL PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES
TYPE
I opaque)?'ha\Rlow shrinbge dunng moldingand typ&lty have high k
they have poor chemical reslstance and poor lubrlclty.
~ ~
Good impadstrengul,rigidity,
heat stability, high gloss and
resistance to aging.
Very rigid with good impact
atkwtemperatures. canbe
used with foods.
~~ ~~~
Very tough 8 dimensionally
staMe OVBT a wide temperature
range. ~ l e n t o p t ~ c l a r i t y 8Trim, bezeis, taillight lenses 8 lamp
good electrical propertes.
PE1 High strength 8 rigidity at
(Pdyetherimide) elevated temperatures. very
stable. Heat, flame 8 chemical
resistant. Goodelectrical
properties.
Hard, hQh gloss,tigii 8 the bast
transparency 8 optical
properties. Good Wedher&
ytili 8
canusewithfood.
PP0 Madifii PP0 is most common.
Excellent mechanical 8 dielectric
pqmtesdwidetemprange.
water resistant.
PS Good rigidity 8 strength with
excellent cbnty 8 unlimited cola
range. Good electrical
pmperks8canbeusedwith
food.
~
Commonlyadruded but some
parts are injection mdded due to
its resistancetoweethering,
chemicals 8 impact.
Excellentweetherability, eledrical
prqxrka 8 chemical and impact
resistance. Good surface
alQ=mxe.
APPENDIX B
COMMON USES
pact&en& Hmwver,
Housings for appliances,electronic, and
computer equipment. Autanotive grills,
instrument clusters8 body panels. Also
luggage.
Food packaging and consumer
disposables. Appliances, electronic
housings and toys
Outdoor lighting, glazing,lenses tool 8
appliance housings and aircraft interiors.
housings for automobiles.
Commercial aircraft interiorcomponents.
Gears, bearings 8 piston rings.
Autcmc$iive, electric 8 electronic parts.
O f f i i equipment components.
Lenses, outdoor 8 indoor lighting,
taillights, instrumentpanels, dials and
signal lights. Bewage 8 food
dispensers and false teeth.
Pumps, valve handles, shaverheads,
filters, d c 8 appliance housings. Internal
TV parts 8 switch housings.
Food containers, packaging8
housewares. Disposable dishes 8 cups.
used for tays,c o m b s , closures. tape
cassettes 8 furniture.
Handles, seats and accessories that are
expcsed to weather or chemical
environments. Also used where flame
retardanceis required.
Pipefittings, housings 8 chemii
containers. Handle grips, vacuum
cleaner parts 8 beach shoes.

PROPERTIES OF COMMON PLASTICS
MATERIAL PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES
TYPE
SAN Similar pmperhes to PS with
increased chemical resistance
(esp food) 8 higher mechanical
8themlalplqXrks.
PSU at
Outstanding tensile strength
high temperatures. Good high
temperature creep resistance8
resists acids.
Crystalline:
Crystalline materials are typically opaque (rather than clear) and incur high shrinkagein the
molding process. These materials exhibit good chemical resistance and lubricity but low
ImDact strewth.
CA, CAB (L CAP Cellulosics am vwy tough &
(Cellulosics) rarely bred(. Good color 8
transparency with high gloss.
CAB is weather resistant.
HDPE POl@hylsnewithdensiabove
.Wprowding stiffness,
toughness. stresscrack
resistance 8 kiw temp properties.
LCP Liquid crystalpolymer is very
tough with excellent electrical
properties, is chemically inert8
has high temp resistance.
LDPE LW denslty polyethylene hasIW
temp toughws, good stress-
crack & tear resistancewith good
stiness.
~
PA Nylonisvwytcugh8ableto
(Nylon) withstand repeated impacts. It
has excellent abrasion resistance
&goodlubricity. Nylonis
Chemically resistantwith good
high temperature resistance.
PBT PBT has highstability, good
lubficii 8 surface gloss. It also
has good chemical resistance8
electrical-.
197
APPENDIX B
COMMON USES
Used for cups, tumblers, trays, picnic
ware, cosmetics and packagingitems.
Also used formedical. automotive8
appliances.
A u-
t parts, m p u t e r parts,
househdd appliances, coffee rdcers,
hgh intenslty lamps, shower heads 8 hot
drink dimers.
CA 8 CAP are used foreyeglass frames,
pen barrels, tod handles, toys 8
ornaments. CAB is used foroutdoor 8
electrical items.
Usedforalltypesdmokledparts,
including c o n t a i n e r s , c o v e r s ,
housewares. toys, furniture, disposable
medical items 8 closures.
Used for high temperature,
long wear
parts, especially in the
electricaVelectronicfM and automotim
Used for toys,lids, contaim and many
dthesmetypesoTitemsmadefrom
HDPE.
Gears.
bearings, housings 8
cams,
batterycasesaremadefrannylon.
Football face guards,gaskets and
handles for high temp appliances are
ouler applications.
PBT is used in
electricaVelectronic applications8 is
m m onto many automotive applications
because of its chemical resistance.
198
PROPERTIES OF COMMON PLASTICS
MATERIAL PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES
TYPE
PET PET hasgreat strength and
senriceebiliity athigher temp.
PET has dimensional stability,
chemicd 8 hea resismce.
POM Acetds haw?the highest fatigue
1-( resistance d any plastic with
great impadresistance. Good
temperature, chemical8 cmep
resistance.
PP PP has very high tensile strength Containers, housewares, hinged
& good fatigue, abrasion &
c h e m i i resistance. PP is a
good eledrical insulator.
APPENDIX B
COMMON USES
Used in manyelectricd, autamoti\re,
appliance and industrial applications.
Also commonly used for bdtles 8
containers.
Gears, leuws, housings, bearings 8
other industrial uses. Seat belt buckles,
dashboards 8 clips are among the
autanative uses. Toys, pen & pencil
housings, food & water contad are other
applications.
applications, &hospital usesare
a m m o n , Used for closures, disposables
8 a u t a n d i i applications.
 199
RECOMMENDED
PLASTIC
DRYING
DATA [l31 APPENDIX
C
Drying Parameters
Plastrc Symbol H Y g ~ ~ P l c Hours TemperatureOF
ABS
." YeS 24 190-200
CA YeS 2-3 160-180
CAB YeS 2-3 160-180
CAP YeS 2-3 160-180
HDPE No* 160-180 1 -2
IOnOITW YeS 150-160 7-8
LCP YeS 3-4 300-310
~~ ~~~

LDPE No* 160-180 1-2

PA6.6/6,6/12 (Nylon) YeS 5-6 160-180
PBT YeS 250-270 2-3
PC YeS 3-4 25G270
PEEK YeS 3-4 300320
PE1 YeS 6-7 300-310
2

PES YeS 3-4 300-320

PET YeS 250-270 2-4

PSU YeS 4-5 250-260

PUR YeS 2-3 180-200
PP No* 1-2 17G190
PP0 YeS 2-4 m250
PPS YeS 3-4 280-290
~ ~ ~~

PS No* 1-2 180-190

PVC (Mble) No* 1 -2 160-180
PVC (Iigii) No' 1 -2 160-180
SAN YeS 3-4 180-190
* Although notclassifled a8 hygroscopic,these materialsdo require drying.
200

APPENDIX D
Useful Data
Abbreviations andSymbok:

CR = Compression ratio fl = Flighted

lengthof screw
D = Nominal Diameter L/D = Length to Diameter Ratio
Dmin = Minimum diameter Mfd = Meter flight depth
Ffd = Feed flight depth Oz/sec = Ounces per second
Ffl = Feed flight length P/hr = Pounds per hour
H< = Helix angle psi = Pounds per square inch
hp = Horsepower RPM = Revolutions per minute
hpmax = Maximum HP RTF = Residence time factor
ID = Inside Diameter T = Torque in foot pounds
OD = Outside Diameter
LRPM = Lowest RPM screw can deliver at full HP
RC = Rockwell hardnessC scale
RSC = Rated shot capacity of an injection molding machine
Sg = Specific gravity or solid density (g/cm3)
Sgm = Specific gravityor melt density (g/cm3)
SI = Screw inventory of Dlastic when hll
- A

cm = centimeter kW = kilowatt Nm = newton-meter

ft = foot k w h = kilowatt hour oz = ounce
g=gram Ib =pound Pa = pascal
in =inch m = meter W = watt
J = Joule mm = millimeter W-S = watt second
kg = kilogram Mpa = megapascal yd =yard
 201

APPENDIX D
Calculations:

L/D Ratio = fl of screw + OD of screw

Compression Ratio = Ffd + Mfd
Shot capacity of an injection molding machine in ounces =
DZx .7854 x injection stroke in inches x Sgm x .5778
Stroke (in inches) requiredfor adesired shot size =
[Shot weight in ounces + (.4538x DZx SW)] x 1.03
Screw Inventory (in oz) =
SI = (RSC+ 1.05 X RTF) X (L/D + 20) X Sg

Bore Diameter m Bore Diameter g"J

30mm & less 1.80 80mm - 89mm 1.25
3 1 m-4 9 m 1.65 901"n - 1041nm 1.20
~OXIXII-69mm 1.45 ~ O ~ X I X I1091nm
I- 1.15
7Omm-79mm 1.30 llOmm&greater 1.10
Residence Time (min)= SI + Shot size (oz) x Cycle time + 60
I Lead (of screw) = (pi x D) x Tan H<
Helix Angle of screw = Atan of [Lead + (pi x D of screw)]
Torque (in foot pounds) = (5,250x HP)+ LRPM
Scale up a screw for desired meter flightdepth =
M f 4 = Mfd, X (D, X DJ7
Screw Recovery (odsec) =
x 2.3 x Mfd x (SW+ 225) x RPM
Screw Recovery (Ibs/hr) =
Screw recovery (odsec) + .00444
202

Conversions: APPENDIX D

To Convert I
One I To One I Calculation

in mm in x 25.4
mm in mm x .03937
in in x 2.54 cm
cm in cm x .3937
in2 mm2 n
i2 x 645.16
in2 mm2 mmz x .W155
in3 mm5 in3 x 16,387.06
in3 cm3 in3 x 16.387
cm3 in3 cm3 x B6102
oz 9 oz x 28.35
9 oz g x .0353
Ib kg Ib x .45359
kg Ib kg x 2.2046
oz/in3 @cm3 oz/ina x 1.7307
@cm3 din3 oz/in3 x.5778
Ib/in3 @cm3 Ib/in3 x 27.6799
@cms Ib/in3 @cm3x .03613
foot-pound N-m orJ foot-pound x 1.3558
N-m or J foot-pound N-m or J x .73756
N-m J N-m x 1.000
Mm2 Pa Nlm2 x 1.000
N/m2 bar N/m2 x .00001
bar Pa bar x 100,OOO
bar MPa bar x 1,000,000
psi Pa psi x 6,895
psi N/m2 psi x 6,895
Pa psi Pa x .OW145
MPa Psi MPa x 145
hp W hp x .W134
W hp wx746
W-S J W-S x l.m0
kwh hphour kwh x 1.34
 203

APPENDIX E

Velocity Control on Injection Molding Machines

How do you set first stage pressure limit?

by John W. Bozzelli, Injection Molding Solutions

Introduction:

Correct process control is critical for making identical

parts to tight
tolerances and meeting numerous complex quality standards. This study
focuses on why and how velocity should be controlled on an injection
molding machine. The objective is to have a wide operating window to
make good parts by having the machine adjust (on the current shot) for
normal viscosity changes.

Any successfbl plastic parthas four basic components:

1. Piece part design

2. Tool design and construction
3. Material selection and handling
4. Processing

Thestrategyproposed does notcompensateforproblems in

components1-3. It islimited to theprocessingcomponent.Ofthe
hundreds of variables within the processing component, only plastic flow
rate during first stage is targeted.

We define first stage,also called boost, to be the filling of the part.

For our discussion first stage is used to fill the part 99% full by volume.
The part is not packed out and mayappear shortor contain sink marks. The
last area to fill does not see much pressure and the flow front may be
obvious if the press is stopped at the end of first stage. This may be
different from the wayyou currently moldbutit is a critical point in
204

developing a stable process. Know what the part looks like at the end of
first stage.

Understanding the polymers flow characteristics during filling a

cavity is critical in developing astrategy for setting up first stage. Ofthe
numerous aspects to polymer flow we willconcentrate on only one: that is
thatmostplasticsexhibitaviscositychange as function of flow rate.
Plastics do not flow likeoil or water. Water andoil do not change viscosity
as a h c t i o n of flow rate, plastics do. Plastics change viscosity
as injection
rate changes.Thiscanbedemonstrated through moldfillinganalysis,
capillary rheology, or using the injection molding machineas a rheometer.
Figure 1 on page 208is a typical viscosity vs. flow rate relationship for most
polymers.

Figure 1 providesdata on just how muchthe viscosity changes with

flow rate which can be related shear rate. Temperature effects are not
shown. Most data of this type is usually and more correctly graphed on log
scales, however for clarity we have plotted the data on linear scales. Note
the horizontal scale is reversed,it goes fiom slow fills on the left to fast fill
times on the right. The scale coversfill times fiom 12 seconds down to less
than 0.50 second to fill this particular mold with an ABS. Most plastics,
99% of the plastic resins you use, exhibit this behavior. This curve or
changing viscosity may be confusing. Most of us were trained with the
industry standard for relating viscosity; the Melt Flow Rate (MFR) test.
MFR is also known as Melt Index(MI). The detailsof the MFR test are set
by ASTMD 1238-90band are reported as one number with the typical units
of gram/lO min. Without describing theMFR test, the point to be realized
is that itis a single number and a single number can not describe the
viscosity behaviorof plastics in processing. A single number can describe
the viscosity of water or oil. Note the straight line in figure 1. Waters
viscosity does not change whether you push it slow or fast. Also MFR is
a single numberat a slow flowrate or low shear rate. Does gramdl0 min
relate to your normal injection speeds? Once it is realized that plastic
changes viscosity with respect to flow rate, the next step is to apply this
information to molding.
 205

Since viscositydoes change with flowrate, a conclusion would be

that if we want a stable process:we must keepflow rate (injection velocity
or speed) constant. If flow rate changes then viscosity changes; if viscosity
changes then parts will be different! Therefore our first strategy of a
consistent process isto fill all cavities identically for each shot. To do this
we need to keep flow rate constant. We can measure injection velocityby
the rams velocity or by fill time. Since not all machines have velocity
measurement capability we will use fill time. Bottom line: filltime to a 99%
full part must be constant shotto shot andrun to run. This velocitycontrol
is similar to cruise-control on a car. Note we are not worried about a
specitic machine setting; we have established a universal number based on
a plastic variable that will work on any machine:fill time.

The next question is: Howto keep fill time constantwhile running
an injection molding machine? Most hydraulic machines have some of type
valve to control flow of oil to the hydraulic ram. This can be a manual
valve, servo-valve, proportional, cartridge, etc. These valves are adjusted
manually or electrically, closed-loop or open-loop, to regulate the flow of
oil to the ram. For these valves to function correctly they require one
common variable to be set correctly: A pressure differential (delta P)
across the valve. That is, first stage pressure must be set higher than the
maximum pressure required to push the plasticto fill the part 99% full. If
first stage set pressureon the pump side ever nearsor equals the pressure
in the hydraulic ramthe injection speed will slow down. If the ram slows
down then the viscosity or the plastic will change(get stiffer) andwe begin
a stairstep effect. If the plastic gets harder to push thenthe ram will slow
some more until we havea short shot.Bottom line: for velocitycontrol you
must operate your machine with a delta P across the flow control device and
with abundant pressureon the pump side.

Caution must be exercised in setting this delta P or the amount of

abundant pressure, thatis first stage pressure limit. We need an adequate
delta P to control velocity. We also must protect the mold&om the
situation that arises
if it is a 4-cavity mold and off
one of the cavities blocks
due to metal contaminationor unmelt. Then we would be driving in four
206

cavities worth of plastic into onlythree cavities. If there were slides inthe
mold,wemayflash them and damage the tool on the next shot. This
presents a dilemma. No delta P; no process control on fill and parts w li
vary dueto all viscosity changes (temperature, lots, colors,% regrind etc.).
Too much pressure and werun the risk of over packing the mold and we
may damage it. The ram must be taken off cruise control before the last
area to fill fills out. Otherwise the mold will likely flash. Its like driving a
boat into a dock, you mustcut the power before you hitthe dock. A well
built mold should be able to withstand a certain amount of excess pressure.
Over pressurizing the mold is likely to happen for a number of reasons
throughout its We. The question is how much extra or abundant pressure
is needed to gain velocitycontrol yet not potentially damage the mold. The
machine should not be setto full system pressure for all molds.

Methods to find the minimumdelta P are available, but not practiced

by many molders. One way to find this pressure is to raise the hydraulic
pressure limit on first stage as you are making shortshots until the fill time
stops decreasing. Then you can measure how much you are using to drive
the plastic for 99%
a full part and note what the first stage set pressure limit
is. Delta P is the difference between whatthe hydraulic ram uses and what
you have set for firststage (it must be higher). First stage set point limit is
areliefpressure.Younowhave to trialthestiffestlottheresin
manufacturer may supply youso that youcan set the machine with enough
first stage pressure to control velocity as it sees the resins typical viscosity
range. The ram will use whatever pressure it needs to control velocity.
Easy flowor hotter plastic, it will use less pressure. Stiffer flow material or
cooler temperatures, it will usemorepressurekeepingvelocityand
therefore viscosity constantshot to shot and run to run. Every shot should
take a little different pressure for first stage.

Another method of finding the required deltaP is to ask what the

machine manufacturer recommends. They designed and built the press.
They should understand this concept fblly. What is their recommendation
for setting firststage pressure limit?
 207

General rule: Set 1"'stage pressure limitto 200 to 4OOpsi higher

pressure than thepressure at transfer. Each machine hydraulic architecture
is different and required pressure differentials can vary. This is a general
rule. Also it is your responsibilityto make sure the mold can withstand the
possible over-pressurization.

A word ofcaution: many machinemanufktures and several molding

trainers teach the use of constant hydraulic pressure. This strategy is like
settingyourcar on a constantrpm to maintain 65 mph. There is a
difference of opinion in our industry on this and you have
to make a choice.
It boils down to a strategy of constant machine conditions or constant
plastic conditions. Which strategy makes your life easier and provides
higher profits? Try constant rpmon your next trip!
208

Figure 1:
Typical Plastic

0 SIOW 0.5 l 1.5 2 25 fast 3

Flow Rate (Shear rate) l/sec

Constant Fill Time Control

Maintain a W -
Use abundant pressure
 209

APPENDIX F
Procedure for Applicationof Bolt
Torque on Nozzle Adaptors (End Caps1

Step 1 Align component parts and clamp together with hold down.

Step2Lubricatestud(orbolt)threads in areaofnut(orforgedring
engagement. Also lubricate face of nuts (or bolt head) using a suitable
lubricant.

Step 3 Install all bolts and nuts finger tight.

Step 4 Number bolts so that torquing requirements can

be followed.

Step 5 Apply torque (using torque wrench) in 20% steps of required torque.
Loading all bolts at each step before proceeding to next step.

Step 6 Tighten bolts in sequential order (see chart) at each step until final
torque is reached.

Step 7 Tighten bolts in rotational order ( s e e chart) until all bolts are stable at
final torque level. (Two complete times around is usually required.)

Step 8 Repeat Step7 when the barrel is at operating temperature.

Injection Unit Size Torque (Ft Lbs) InjectionUnit Size Torque (Ft Lbs)
30 mm 22 75 mm 150
35 mm 27 80 mm 195
40 mm 34 90 mm 301
50 mm 64 105 mm 512
57 mm 83 115 mm 886
65 mm 98 135 mm 1,110
70 mm 146 155 mm 1,750

See next page for Sequential and Rotational Order Charts

210

10BdtPattem
12BotPattsm
14 Bdt P a t m

Sequential
Order
Sequential
Order
Sequential
Order
1 - 2 1 - 2
3 - 4
5 - 6 5 - 6 5 - 6
7 - 8
9 - 10 9 - 10 9 - 10
11 - 12 11 - 12
13 - 14

Rotational
Order
Rotational
Order
Rotational
Order
1 - 12- 2 1 - 2
5 -56 - 6 . 5 - 6
9 - 10 9 - 10 9 -10
3 -3 4- 4 3 - 4
7 - 8 7 - 8 11 - 12
11 12 - 7-8
13 - 14

Source:Van Dom Demag,Maintenance & Troubleshooting

 21 1

Practical Injection Molding

References:

Rees, H.: Understanding Injection Molding Technology. Hanser,

Munich, 1995
Suechtling, H.: International Plastics Handbook, 3rd Ed. Hanser,
Cincinnati, 1994
Chunda, M., Roy, S.: Plastics Technology Handbook. Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York,1987
Churrier, J.: Polymeric Materials and Processing. Hanser,
New York, 1990
Westlund Corporation:Cylinder & Screw Handbook, 6th Ed. 1997
Ruuwenduul, C.: Polymer Extrusion. Hanser, Munich, 1986
Rubin, I.: Injection Molding Theory and Practice. John Wiley&
Sons, Inc., New York, 1972
Webber, T.: Coloring of Plastics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1979
Weinpel, C.: Auxilliary Equipment Section, Modern Plastics
Encyclopedia. Modem Plastics, New York, 1997
[lo] Knights, M.: Plastics Technology, p.32, October, 1997
[ 1 l] Rosuto, D.:Injection Molding Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York, 1986.
[l21 Sherman, L.: Plastics Technology, p. 36, October, 1997
[131 AEC Whitlock.:Recommended Plastic Resin Drying Conditions.
AEC, Inc., Wood Dale, Illinois,1997
[l41 Potsch G. & Michueli, W.: Injection Molding,An Introduction.
Hanser, Munich, 1995
[ 151 University of Wisconsin - Madison, College of Engineering:
Thermoset Molding: An Introductory Course. University of
Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1996
[l61 Berins,M.: Plastics Engineering Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York,1991
[171 Bozzelli, John W.: Velocity Control on Injection Molding Machines.
Injection Molding Solutions, Midland, Michigan,1999
212

Index
APlate,mold 57 Benchmark96
Abrasivewear
165 Bimetallic
167
Accumulator
165 Blenders
18
Actuators 78, 80 Blister
ring
167
Adaptor
31 Blow
molding 167
Additivefeeders 18 Bore 167
Additives 1, 2,16,165 Brittleness of parts143
Adhesive wear
165 Bubbler
72
Air shots 93,95, 165 Bubbles 144
Allyls, thermoset
133 Bulkratio41,167
Ambient temperature 165 Burned material
145
Aminos, thermoset133 Calciumcarbonate 16, 168
Amorphous materials 10,108, Carbon black 16,19,168
166 Carbon fiber
168
Anglepins
66 Carriage forwardhack 80
Anneal
166 Castbimetallic,barrel30
ANSI B151.1 137 Cavity 3,55,168
Ascendingheatprofile 115 Ceramic insulated heater
Atactic
166 bands34
Autoclave
166 Channel
168
Automatic control mode78 Channel depth ratio 40
Automatic mold 166 Channeldepth,screw38,106
Axis (screw or barrel)166 Channel width168
BPlate,mold 57 Checkring
168
Backpressure28, 119,166 Chiller
169
Baflle
72 Chrome plating
169
Ballcheckvalves 36,37, 166 Clampforce (tonnage) 49,169
Barrel 26,29, 3 1, 166 Clamp stroke 50
Barrel
shell
166 clamp unit 1,2,3,45
Barrier
flight
167 Clamp unit control 76
Bayonet adaptor 167 Clearance (screwharrel) 169
Bearingsurface
167 Cloudy parts 146
Bell
end 167
 213

Coefficient of thermal expansion Decompression94

169 Decorationmolding192
Coldrunnermolds 62 Deformation of parts 153
Coldrunnersystems6 1, 136 Degradation17 1
Cold
slug 169 Density
171
Collapsible core 67 Dessicantdryers23,171
Color concentrate 169 Dieseling
146
Color mixingproblems150 Dispersivemixing
172
Colorants16,
18 Distributive
mixing
172
Componentwearproblems159 Draft
172
Compressionratio40, 170 Drool 147, 172
Concentricity 170 Dryers 1,5,21,22
Conductiveheat113 Dyes
18
Control hnctions 79 Ejectforward81
Controller ordoff 80 Eject retract 81
Controls
78 Ejection,
air 68
Controlsunit 1,2,76 Ejection,
hydraulic 67
Conveyor 1, 5,58 Ejection,
mechanical 67
Coolingchannels,mold72 Ejector bars 52, 87
Coolingtime 92 Ejector control 77, 89
Copolymer
170 Ejector housing 52
Core 3, 55, 170 Ejectorpins53, 172
Core pin 170 Ejector plate 53
Core pull control 77 Ejector stroke 5 1
Corepullin/out81 Ejectorsystem 5 1,67
Core
pulls 66 Elastomer
172
Corrosive wear l70 End cap 26,27,30,31,172
Counterbore 171 Epoxies,thermoset 133
Cross-linking 10,
171 Extruder(screw) control 76
Crystalline materials
10, 108, Eye
bolt 87
171 Familymold 172
curing
10 Feedhole(opening) 29,30,
Cushion 94,122 172
Cycle28,97,171 Feedsection, screw 38,39,
Cycle
time 28,97,98 40,173
Daylight, maximum 50,171 Fill
pressure 92
214

Fill rate 92, 120 Helixangle 38,41, 106,174

Fillers
16, 173 High speed cylinder, clamp unit
Fines
173 46
Fish
eyes 173 Hoist
hook87
Flameretardants16,18,173 Holding pressure94
Flange,barrel29,173 Homopolymers174
Flash 148,173 Hopper 2,26,175
Flatheatprofile114 Hopper dryer
175
Flight 173 Hopper loader
21
Flightdepth,screw 39 Hotairdryers22
Flight,screw 38,106 Hot manifold molds65
Flightedlength, screw 38 Hot runnermolds 64,65, 175
Flowlines149, 173 Hot runnersystems61
Foam molding192 Humpheatprofile106,176
Foaming agents 174 Hydraulicclampsystem46
Gasassist 174,189 Hydro-mechanical clamp system
Gate 56,61, 174 47
Gateblush 149 Hygroscopic 5,22, 175
Gaylord
4 Inject
forward 81
Generalpurpose screw 110 Injection control 77
Glassfiber 16,19 Injectionmoldingelements7
Glass transition point (temp) Injectionmoldingmachine2
11,174 Injectionpressure42,175
Granulators 84 Injection rate 120,121, 175
Grinders1, 5 , 84 Injectionunit1, 3,26
Guide rods (pins)52,174 Inlay
175
Hazy parts 146 Insert
175
Heat,conductive113 Insert
molding 191
Heat history
8 Insulatedrunnermolds 64
Heatprofile92,113,114 Intrusionmolding 191
Heat,shear 113 Jetting 152,175
Heatstabilizers 17 Keyways 42
Heaterbandsettings 118 Knit
lines 152
Heater bands 26, 31, 33, 91, Knock-out holes52
114,174 Knock-out system 51
Heats o d o f f 80 Lead
176
 215

Lengthldiameter (WD) ratio Mold

open 80
39,176 Moldsetup86,87
Linings,barrel 29,31, 176 Moldstartup
93
Loaders 1 , 4 , 21 Moldventing102
Locatingring 88, 176 Molding problems 143
Lockingstyleringvalves36 Monomer 9,177
Low pressure mold protection Mountingholes,mold52
88 Movablehalf,mold 55
Lubricants 16 Nitrided,barrel
30
Main cylinder, clamp system 46 Nitriding
(gas)(ion)
177
Mainram,hydraulicclamp46 Non-return
valve 26,27,
Maintenance, preventive 130 31,34,111,178
Manualmodecontrol78 Nozzle 26, 30, 31,32,178
Maximum daylight 50 Nozzle tip31,32,33,178
Measuring performance 128 Olefins 178
Melt 176 Operators gate
138
Melt
channel 176 Ounce capacity 49
Meltindex 14, 176 Overalllength178
Melt
temperature 11,95 Part 178
Meltingcharacteristics 11, 107 Part(product)designers 59
Meltingpoint 11, 176 Partingline 55,68, 178
Meter section, screw 38, 39, 40, Performancemeasurement 128
177 Phenolics
132
Mica
17 Pigments 18
Mica insulated heater bands 33 Pilot (in screws)178
Mineral insulated heater bands Pitch 178
34 Plasticizers 16, 17, 179
Mixingsection,screw106,177 Plasticizing capacity179
Mold 1, 3, 55 Plastics4, 8, 179
Moldbase56, 177 Platen size 50
Moldclamps88 Platens
45
Moldclose
80 Pneumatic material handling 2 1
Moldcooling71, 105 Pocket,screw38,179
Mold
designers 59 Polyesters,thermoset 133
Moldheight 50 Polymer 9, 179
Moldmakers 60 Powderinjectionmolding 189
216

Prefill valve, hydraulic clamp 46 Screw 26,27, 3 1,38, 106,

Press 2 181
Press fit 179 Screwdesignguidelines109
Preventivemaintenance 130 Screw diameter18 1
Problems,molding143 Screw drive 26,27,41
Process control 81 Screw,generalpurpose 110
Process methods 89 Screw inventory125
Process setup 90 Screw keyways 42
Process sheet128 Screw profde
40
Projected area 49,68,69 Screwpullback81
Purge control 77 Screw RPM 124
Purging
179 Screw recovery154
Pyrometer 1l 9 Screw rotate 8 1
Quill 38,41 Screw rotate pressure94,
Reaction injection molding 192 116,117
Rear
guard138 Screwspeed 18 1
Rear
radius180 Screw splines
42
Register (of a screw)180 Semi-automatic control mode
Regrind 8,180 78
Reinforcements 16, 180 Sensors
78
Reject rate 100,101 Set upsheet 87,95, 128
Residencetime124,125,126 Shank,screw38,181
Resin 180 Shearheat 113
Reverseheatprofile 1 15 Shearsensitivity13,108
Ring
valves35 Shelf
life
181
Robotics 1,2, 83 Shell
29
Rockwell hardness 180 Short shots 155,18 1
Root(inscrews) 180 Shot
28,
181
Runnersystems 60,61 Shotcapacity18 1
Runners 5, 55, 181 Shotsize 28,90, 120
Safety
137 S k i fit182
Safety, ANSI B151.1137 Silica 16
Safety
interlocks138 Silicone
20
Safety
rules
140 Sink marks 156,182
Safety straps 87 Sleeve ejectors 68
Scrap 181 Slide
molds 66
 217

Slug
well 61 Titaniumdioxide
19
Smear tips 134,182 Toggleclampsystem 47,48
Smoke suppressants
18 Toggle links 47,48
Solidschannel182 Toolsteel-linedbarrel 30
Splay
157,182 Top guard139
Splines
42 Torque wrench 32
Splitringgroove29 Transfer point (position) 92, 123
Sprue 55,182 Transition section, screw38, 39,
Spruebushing 32,58 40,183
Spruepicker 58, 83 Troubleshooting processing
Sprue puller 58 problems
162
Square pitch41,182 Turret molding 188
Stabilizers
16 Twocolormolding186
Stack molds 67 Two stage screw184
Start (hydraulicpumps) 80 Two-plate mold 56,62
Stationary half,mold 55 Ultrasonic
welding184
Stationary platen
182 Unscrewing molds
66
Stop (hydraulicpumps) 80 UV stabilizers17
Stripper plate53,183 Velocity control 90
Stripperplatemolds66 Vent grooves 71
Stroke 27 Vent
stack
184
Talc 16,183 Ventedprocessing184
Temperature control 77 Venting,molds70
Temperature controller 1,4,7 1 Vents71,102,184
Ten Keys to Successful Molding Virginmaterial 5 , 184
102, 131 Viscosity
14
Terminology165 Voids
144
Thermalconductivity12,108 Warped parts 158
Thermocouples 27,30, 183 Water jackets 134
Thermoplastics 8, 183 Window
185
Thermosets 9,132,183
Threadedend,barrel29
Three-plate molds62
Tie
bars 45,50
Tie rods 50
183
TIR