Morachnick

Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs

What is the current state, the causes, the effects, and possible solutions of ocean acidification on

coral reefs?

Current State

Coral reefs are a vital aspect of the marine ecosystem, providing a habitat and food

supply for approximately one quarter of all ocean species (Knowlton). Coral reefs appear, as

shown through Figure 1, all

around the world.

Nonetheless, coral reefs tend

to only reside in the tropics at

an approximate latitude of 0-

30 degrees north and south

(Miller and Spoolman 24 9). Figure 1: Coral reef locations

The corals mutualistic symbiotic relationship, where all organisms involved benefit, with

species such as the clown fish and zooxanthellae algae are a necessity for the marine ecosystem

(Knowlton). Coral reefs also provide a myriad of other key environmental services, such as

helping with nutrient cycling, assisting in carbon and nitrogen fixing, and protecting shorelines

and coastlines from erosion (Miller and Spoolman).

 Morachnick
2

Figure 2 depicts an image of a coral polyp. Contrary

to popular belief, these polyps that reside in the coral are

actually animals, not plants; thus, corals themselves are

classified as animals (Miller and Spoolman 24 9). Polyps

extract carbon dioxide from the water and turn this carbon

dioxide into limestone, forming their calcium carbonate

structure (The Importance of Coral Reefs). Coral is

considered a relative of both the jellyfish and the sea

anemone due to the presence of stinging cells (The

Figure 2: Coral polyp
Importance of Coral Reefs). Using the polyps

tentacles to scoop up and draw in plankton from the water, the coral uses its nematocysts, or

stinging cells, to stun and kill its prey before passing it to its mouth (The Importance of Coral

Reefs). The vast majority of corals are found in waters less than 100 meters deep (the photic

zone), for the zooxanthellae living in the coral require sunlight in order to undergo

photosynthesis and stay alive (The Importance of Coral Reefs). Not only do coral reefs offer a

major environmental service, but in regards to the economy, human beings rely on them as well.

Coral reefs have been estimated to provide a global economic value of as much as 375 billion US

dollars annually, as well as providing people around the world with over 100 different types of

jobs, due to the food, tourism, protection of shorelines, and medicinal purposes that they provide

(Krause et al.). However, a key threat that coral reefs are currently facing is the increase in ocean

acidification. Ocean acidification the rise of acidity in the oceans due to the absorption of CO2

in the atmosphere is destroying and/or severely damaging the worlds coral reefs (Miller and
 Morachnick
3

Spoolman 24 9). Currently it is estimated that half of the anthropogenic CO2 is in the upper

10% of the oceans (Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Coral Reefs). With the increase in

acidification of the earths

oceans, corals cannot absorb the

calcium carbonate required to

maintain their skeleton, which

leads to the coral ultimately

dissolving (Coral Reefs and

Figure 3: Coral Before and After Ocean Acidification
Climate Change). According to

the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, when water, H2O, and carbon dioxide, CO2, mix,

they form carbonic acid (H2CO3) (Knowlton). This carbonic acid, which, like all acids, releases

H+ ions into the water surrounding it, is what lowers the pH level of the water and therefore

deteriorates the calcium carbonate skeleton of the coral itself (Knowlton). Figure 3 highlights the

effects of ocean acidification on coral, by showing a before and after glimpse at a certain head

of coral. The image on the right shows the post-acidification of the coral. At this state, fish,

beneficial bacteria, and algae cannot thrive on the reef, leading to the marine food web being

severely disrupted (Coral Reefs and Climate Change). Currently 75% of the worlds coral reefs

are threatened as a result of human activity, and it is predicted that 90% of the worlds shallow

reefs will be threatened in 2050 (Miller and Spoolman 249). Over the past 200 years, the ocean

has taken up about 35% of the excess carbon dioxide generated by the burning of fossil fuels

(Garrison 379). The ocean is also 30% more acidic now than it was in the mid 18th-century

(Coral Reefs and Climate Change).

 Morachnick
4

Acidity is measured in pH. As pH levels increase, this means a substance is more basic,

whereas when it decreases, this means a

substance is more acidic (Krause et al.). Figure 4

provides a clear visual for how the increase in

concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide in the

ocean also increases the level of acidity. This

acidification is not only unsustainable in the

long-run, but our ecosystems are experiencing

major drawbacks and threats in the present which Figure 4: Carbon Dioxide vs. pH Levels

are directly affecting us as human beings. If significant action is not taken in the near future,

ocean acidification will lead to the death and destruction of our coral reefs, and therefore our

ocean environment, as we know it.

I have chosen to research the topic of ocean acidification as it impacts coral reefs because

I have always had a passion of the ocean and marine life. As an avid scuba diver, I have had the

opportunity to dive all over the world and experience first-hand mans impact on coral. From

Belize to Maldives to Thailand to Fiji and more, I have realized the present state of the reefs and

have developed a connection to those who inhabit them. Although this emotional attachment

plays a large role in my passion for the marine environment, I am also aware of the science and

data behind the issues our oceans are facing. Ocean acidification, to me, is something that we as

humans should feel responsible for and take action against. Delving into this topic will give me

more insight as to what ocean acidification really is, and what the possible solutions to the issue
 Morachnick
5

are. I feel that further knowledge on the matter will be very beneficial to me, and I will surely

take great interest in learning more about the subject.

Causes

Ocean acidification is caused by the increase in CO2 in the earths atmosphere that is then

absorbed into the ocean (Coral Reefs and Climate Change). Corals rely upon converting

carbonates dissolved in seawater into a skeleton by a process known as calcification (Bauer). As

the level of CO2 in the atmosphere increases, the acidity of seawater increases and the process of

calcification for the corals becomes increasingly more difficult (Bauer). Since the beginning of

the Industrial Revolution, the pH levels of the oceans has decreased 0.1 pH units, or an

approximate 30% increase in acidity (What is Ocean Acidification?). This relatively recent rise

in CO2 levels in the atmosphere is due to an increase in fossil fuel usage, land use, and industrial

processes (Krause et al). Originally scientists were not as concerned in regards to the absorption

of CO2 by the oceans for two reasons. One, scientists thought that rivers and streams provided

enough of a buffering effect and actually reduced the acidity of the oceans enough for any major

issues to occur (Knowlton). Two, scientists felt that the process of CO2 absorption may even be a

good thing, for the oceans absorption of greenhouses gases decreases the warming of the

atmosphere (Knowlton). However, scientists have now realized that the negative effects of ocean

acidification greatly outweigh the positives.

 Morachnick
6

The following graph, Figure 5, shows the rising levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, rising

levels of CO2 in the ocean, and decrease in pH in the water off the coast of Hawaii. It is evident

that as atmospheric CO2

rises, the oceans level of

CO2 increases as well. The

correlation between CO2

absorption and pH level is

also apparent, due to the

Figure 5: CO2 vs pH in Hawaii fact that as CO2 levels

increase in both the atmosphere and ocean, pH levels decrease. Therefore, this increase of CO2

absorption in the ocean leads to a lower pH level, meaning the water is more acidic. This acidity

comes from the H2O and CO2 combining in order to form the acid of H2CO3, leading to a drop in

pH level of 0.1 units (Knowlton). This drop in pH at first glance may not seem like a pertinent

issue; however, it is important to keep in mind that the pH scale, like the Richter scale used to

measure magnitudes of earthquakes, is a logarithmic scale (Garrison). Thus, as an example, pH 2

is actually ten times more acidic than pH 3. Therefore, this much of a decrease in pH that were

experiencing in the earths oceans is thereby extremely detrimental for the marine ecosystem.

Effects

Not only are the effects of ocean acidification detrimental to the marine environment, but

these effects are catastrophic for the overall stability and sustainability of the earth as well as

human life. The majority of coral reefs are thousands of years old, predating the most mature

old-growth redwood forests and the European colonization of US shores (Ocean Facts). Thus,
 Morachnick
7

planet earth has become dependent upon the wellbeing of these coral ecosystems to sustain a

healthy environment. Due to the complexity and interconnectedness of the natural world, coral

reefs are an essential aspect to the environment and other organisms rely on the wellbeing of

these reefs in order to survive. In turn, these organisms which are directly affected by the vitality

of coral reefs directly impact humans, for human beings depend on the oceans as a resource for

food and, interestingly enough, oxygen.

First and foremost, the collapse of coral reefs would result in a lack of food and shelter

for millions of various marine species throughout the world (Ocean Facts). With the death and

decay of coral reefs, organisms such

as the butterflyfish, wrasse,

parrotfish, lobster, and shrimp would

have a near guarantee of death, for

these organisms directly consume

coral (WWF). Figure 6 illustrates the

direct correlations between both

mortality rate and shortened length of

Figure 6: survival and length versus CO2 concentration

fish larvae (inland silverside) versus

the concentration of CO2 (ppm). It is evident that as the CO2 increases in concentration, both the

survivability of fish species and the length of fish larvae decrease drastically. It can reasonably

be inferred that the CO2 is promoting significant acidification of the water and thus the decrease

in fish. With such a low survival rate, this would further effect the rest of that ecosystems food
 Morachnick
8

chain, for the

species predators

would lack sufficient

food and the species

prey would likely

grow exponentially.

Figure 7 depicts a
Figure 7: CO2's effect on coral

marine site

containing various levels of carbon dioxide concentration. Unmistakably, as CO2 levels increase,

the amount and diversity of marine life contrastingly decreases, ultimately resulting in a void of

any life at all. Therefore, the increase in acidification of our worlds oceans has traumatic

consequences on coral reefs and the marine ecosystem overall.

The extensive biodiversity and abundance of marine life ordinarily found on coral reefs

translates directly into food security, income, and medicinal benefits to humans. Although

scientists have only just begun to understand how reefs can contribute to medicine, already coral

reef organisms are being used in treatments for diseases like cancer and HIV (WWF). For

instance, a toxin released from a certain coral reef bacterium called L. majuscula has shown to be

effective against several human cancers in laboratory tests (Science News). Additionally, due to

species necessity to defend themselves from natural predators, many corals have developed

chemical defenses to protect themselves from predators (Ocean Facts). Scientists continue to

research the medicinal potential of these substances. In the future, coral reef ecosystems could

represent an increasingly important source of medical treatments, nutritional supplements,

pesticides, cosmetics, and other commercial products (Kleypas et al). In regards to food security,
 Morachnick
9

coral reefs provide rich fishing grounds for fishermen to make a living off of and provide food

for the world. If the world were to be devoid of coral reefs, many countries with heavily fish-

dependent diets would suffer, such as Japan and Korea. Below, figure 8 highlights which

countries consume how

much fish in relation to

protein diets. In 2013, fish

accounted for about 17% of

the global population's

intake of animal protein and

provided 3.1 billion people

with almost 20% of their

Figure 8: Consumption of fish worldwide
intake of animal protein

(Marine Stewardship Council). World capture fisheries production in 2006 was about 92 million

tonnes, with an estimated first- sale value of US$91.2 billion, comprising about 82 million

tonnes from marine waters and 10 million tonnes from inland fisheries (UN). Thus, those who

catch fish both recreationally and occupationally and those who consume fish as a dietary need

would be heavily impacted and lives would have to significantly alter worldwide if the coral

reefs were to be depleted.

Lastly, coral reefs provide significant cultural and aesthetic value throughout the world.

In more tropical and isolated lands such as Samoa and Hawaii, legends, myths, and fables

usually connect back to the countries surrounding seas. These stories, being centuries old, are a

key feature of Native peoples identity, upbringing, and culture (Teach Ocean Science).

Additionally, both personal fish tanks and public aquariums provide people with entertainment
 Morachnick
10

and aesthetic value throughout the world. In 2002, the Georgia Aquariums total revenue was

190 million US dollars, and there are approximately 240 major public aquariums throughout the

world (Marine Bio). Thus, aquariums are widely prevalent as

pastime and entertainment worldwide. Similarly, coral reefs are

depicted through a multitude of different media platforms such

as motion pictures and television shows, providing amusement

for children and adults alike. Figure 9, the poster for Disneys

animated classic Finding Nemo, is instantly recognizable in

todays world due to its immense impact on society. If the

world were devoid of coral reefs, movies such as these would Figure 9: A successful children's
film
cease to exist, aquariums would turn obsolete, and cultural

values would die out and thus there would be a decrease in entertainment and aesthetic

appreciation.

Sustainable Solutions

Although the impact of ocean acidification on coral reefs is severe, there are

multiple sustainable solutions that are viable in addressing the issue. Researchers and

conservationists around the globe have proposed the use of alternative resources and the

cultivation of sustainable practices in order to reduce carbon emissions and to mitigate the effects

of acidification on coral reefs.

 Morachnick
11

Being that ocean acidification is caused by an increase in global carbon emissions, the

main goal in order to sustainably solve the issue of ocean acidification is to reduce ones carbon

footprint. There is a myriad of ways in which an individual can achieve this goal.

One being, for example, a reduction of ones meat consumption. This solution would lead to less

greenhouse gas emissions due to the animal waste,

fuel, and fertilizers which release carbon dioxide

and are involved in the production of meat

(Revolution). Another way to reduce carbon

footprint is to use less carbon dioxide-emitting

transportation such as cars and planes.

Figure 10: Carbon Emissions by Sector
Additionally, living a more conservative lifestyle in

regards to use of resources in daily life would assist in lessening carbon footprint. Due to the

carbon released from manufacturing products such as plastic water bottles; toys; and gadgets,

and the carbon dioxide emitted from heating water used for bathing and cooking, a decrease in

this consumption of products would be helpful in the global reduction of those outputs. As

shown by Figure 10, which was taken from a Duke University webpage, the preceding areas are

some of the most significant sources of global carbon dioxide emissions. A per capita decrease in

the utilization of such sectors would thereby contribute to a decrease in overall CO2 emissions.

Additionally, education of the public has the ability to motivate people to take action and

reduce the effects of ocean acidification on coral reefs. A stronger emphasis on the value of coral

reefs and sustainability of ocean environments is vital in order to foster environmentally

responsible habits within youth. With an increase in education, there will be an increase in
 Morachnick
12

understanding of the importance of preserving the marine ecosystem. Due to the fact that those

who are currently being educated by attending schools and universities are those who will

comprise of the futures governing bodies and global leaders, a promotion of sustainable and

eco-friendly practices would likely result in a future of an environmentally-conscious society.

Another solution would be to implement government regulation for business and

manufacturing in order to decrease the amount of carbon dioxide expelled into the atmosphere.

This solution has been implemented in some ways, but further action is possible. However, the

United States, one of the most predominant countries in the world with a significant amount of

global leadership and responsibility, current administration values the environment significantly

less than administrative bodies of previous years. This idea has already been proven in current

President Donald Trumps claim that global warming is hoax devised by the Chinese

government, as well as his hiring of Scott Pruitt, a staunch climate change denier, as the head of

the Environmental Protection Agency. Thus, there ought to be an even greater push by other

nations to implement certain atmospheric carbon dioxide-reducing restrictions and regulations.

Currently, the main legislation that has been passed in regards to the mitigation of ocean

acidification is the US Federal Ocean Acidification Research and Monitoring Act of 2009. This

Act, however, merely provides organizations with grants for further research and study of ocean

acidification (Federal Act). Therefore, a country like the United States is due to have an Act or

legislation passed that provides more than just monetary incentive for further research, but rather

introduces a more direct approach such as regulation on the carbon dioxide emitted into the

atmosphere.
 Morachnick
13

In conclusion, the current state of the planets coral reefs is frightening. Due to the

harmful effects that CO2 emissions will have on the reefs and overall environment, significant

action ought to be taken in the present in order to ensure a brighter future. Emphasis should be

placed on implementing sustainable solutions to the acidification of our oceans in order to

benefit economies, ecosystems, and livelihoods around the world.

 Morachnick
14

Bibliography:

Knowlton, Nancy. "Corals and Coral Reefs | Smithsonian Ocean Portal." Corals and Coral

Reefs. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

Garrison, Tom. Essentials of Oceanography. Sixth ed. Belmont: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning,

n.d. Print.

Miller, G. Tyler, and Scott E. Spoolman. Living in the Environment. Eighteenth ed. Stamford:

Cengage Learning, n.d. Print.

Krause E, Wichels A, Gimnez L, Lunau M, Schilhabel MB, Gerdts G (2012) Small Changes in

pH Have Direct Effects on Marine Bacterial Community Composition: A Microcosm Approach.

PLoS ONE 7(10): e47035. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047035

"Coral Reefs and Climate Change - How Does Climate Change ..." Teach Ocean Science.

University of Maryland, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

"Coral Reefs - MarineBio.org". MarineBio Conservation Society. Web. Accessed 18:46 PM

12/8/2016.

Bauer, Adriana. "Biodiscovery and the Great Barrier Reef." Importance of Coral Reefs -
Biodiscovery and the Great Barrier Reef - Queensland Museum. Queensland Museum, n.d. Web.
08 Dec. 2016.
 Morachnick
15

Figures:

Figure 1: "Coral Reefs - MarineBio.org". MarineBio Conservation Society. Web. Accessed

18:46 PM 12/8/2016.

Figure 2: Sydenham, Shirley. & Thomas, Ron. 2016. Coral Polyps Web. 8 Dec. 2016.

Figure 3: Feely, Richard A., et al. (2006) Carbon Dioxide and Our Ocean Legacy. Pew Trust.

Figure 4: "Coral Reefs and Climate Change - How Does Climate Change ..." Teach Ocean

Science. University of Maryland, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.

Figure 5: Knowlton, Nancy. "Corals and Coral Reefs | Smithsonian Ocean Portal." Corals and

Coral Reefs. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2016.