Beruflich Dokumente
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Dominick LaCapra
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For Ruthie with gratitude
zv Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
Sharyn Clough, Siblings Under the Skin: Feminism, Social justice and
Analytic Philosophy
Sander L Gilman, Nietzschean Parody: An Introduction to Reading Nietzsche
D o m i n ick LaCapra, Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
Gregg Lambert, Report to the Academy (re: the NEW conflict ofthefaculties)
Michael Strysick, E d . , The Politics of Community
Dennis Weiss, Interpreting Man
Contents
.
Foreword
.
Vlt
Preface, 2001 xz
1. Introduction 1
2. Durkheim's Milieu 25
Epilogue 281
Index 297
Foreword
In the past several decades, the dominance of critical theory i n int erdisc
i p l inary scholarship has l e d to the reformulation of the basic propositions
guiding research in the humanities and social sciences. While scholars i n
various disciplines continue t o express their concern over the status of tradi
tional forms of inquiry in response to the radical nature of critical theory, i t
is important t o note that these theoretical incursions into traditional research
methods h ave made possible p roductive reappraisals of key historical hgures
and their contributions to intel lectual life. In Emile Durkheim: Sociologist
and Philosopher, Dominick La Capra, a leading theoretical historian, offers an
important revi sed critical analysis of D urkheim's methodological and philo
sophical pursuits, with an emphasis on the metaphysical, epistemological,
and ethical problems inherent in fo rming constructs of the cultural and
social spheres. While Durkheim's thought did not " i nfluence significantly,
if at a l l , the writings of Roland Barthes, Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida,
M i c h e l Foucault, Julia Kristeva, Jacques Lacan, Jean-Fran<;:o i s Lyo tard and
other recent thinkers . . . the tradition he helped initiate was quite important
for such figures as Pierre Bourdieu, [Marcel .\1auss], Claude Levi-Strauss,
and members of the Annales school"(ix). It is significant to note that in ad
di tion to presenting Durkheim as a crucial resource for current theoretical
sociologists, LaCapra's revised study situates Durkheim's major writings in
relation to the current poststructuralist critiques of one of his central issues,
"the role of reason i n life and its relation to normative limits and the senti
ment of soli darity among members of society" (3). Emile Durkheim: Sociolo
gist and Philosopher i s a theoretically charged reexamination of the historical
and intellectual contexts that gave rise to a unique method of philosophical
sociology, providing readers from a wide range of interests with an important
critical reappraisal of Durkheim's life and writings.
Nous
Introduction
Ifyou wish to mature your thought, attach yourselfto the scrupulous study ofa
great master; inqu ire into a system until you reach its most secret workings.
- Advice of Emile Durkheim to a disciple
sential points, not details. 5 This state of affairs poses a formidable barrier for
the uninitiated b u t genuinely i n terested reader attempting to acquire some
insight into his thought and its relevance. Durkheim was a very vigorous
advocate of the idea of a social science. Incongruously, the interpretation
of the body of ideas in which he tried to lay the foundations of this science
seems often to circumscribe it with a magic circle whose center is everywhere
and whose circumference is nowhere.
Since Durkheim's ideas are the object of highly divergent interpretati ons,
it is important to make clear the basic interpretive schema that informs this
study. Unfortunately, to begin a work with even a schematic "showing and
telling" brings a loss of dramatic unity. The last act is given away in the
first. And aesthetic u n i ty th reatens to be replaced by the tedious rigor of
a syllogistic treatise. In the case of a thinker like Durkheim, i t is perhaps
better to incur these risks than to be open to misunderstanding.
Durkheim was a convinced and unrepentant rationalist. To characterize
his own perspective, he rejected all current labels, including the Comtean
and Spencerian fo rms of positivism. But he was willing to assert that "the
sole appellat i o n which we accept is that of rati o n al i s m . Indeed our principle
is to extend scientific rationalism to human conduct in showing that, con
sidered in the past, i t is reducible to relations of cause and effect which a no
less rational operation can transform into rules for the fu ture."6 Durkheim
most opposed romantic irrationalism and renascent mysticism as intuitive
or excessive responses to the complexities and disorientation of modern
soci ety. His Les Regles de Ia methode sociologique ( The Rules of Sociological
Method) was an attempt to do for the study of society what D escartes had
d o ne for the study o f nature. His lifelong ambition was to reanimate and
renovate classical rationalism until i t became a more fl exible, complex,
generous, and informed medium of both thought and action. Reason for
Durkheim had i ts full traditional sense: i t was a m o d e of analysis, criticism,
prescription, and reconstruction in soci ety.
Unintimidated by t h e applicat i o n of the sociology of knowledge to so
ciology itself, Durkheim concluded that sociology was the product of two
maj or historical and cultural forces: the manifestation of rationalism in the
natural sciences and the concrete experience of disruptive crisis in modern
societies. The role of reason in the study of nature intimated a promising
fu ture for rationalism in social science. But the second and more existential
Chapter 1 introduction 5
cause was perhaps the more important. For Durkheim, social consciousness
arose in response to the doubt, disorientation, and anomie anxiety caused by
the breakdown of tradition. The role of rational consciousness was t o state
as clearly as possible the causes of crisis i n society and the way to overcome
them. Indeed the primary function of rational conscio usness for Durkheim
was reparative: to respond to sometimes traumatic disruption and to replace
what had been destroyed with new forms of life . Unlike certain reactionary
conservatives, Durkheim did not present conscious thought as a cause of
disintegration in modern society. H e defended conscio usness, and science,
which was its highest expression, as the only effective instruments people had
to guide them in reconstructing the social order. Durkheim was concerned
with heal ing, not salvation. His fascination with medical metaphors attested
to this fact. The sociologist was not the quasi-transcendental advocate of
a messianism without a messiah, the prophet of an abstract, perennially
futuristic, perhaps vacuous utopian ideal situated beyond human limi
tations. He or she w a s the doctor who lucidly diagnosed the ills of society
and prescrib ed rational remedies. The alliance of Durkheim's rationalism
with his conception of the relation of theory to practice and h is di agnosis
of modern society was well expressed i n relation to his own society when he
delineated with his habitual combination of analytic rigor and moral fervor
the reasons why sociology (in his sense) was born in France. H i s statement
deserves to be quoted at length:
This [the genesis of sociology in France] was due in the first instance
to a marked weakening of traditionalism. When religious, political,
and j uridical traditions have preserved their rigidity and authority,
they contain all will toward change and by that token preclude the
awakening of reflection. When one is brought up to believe that things
must remain as they are, one has no reason to ask what they ought to
be and, consequently, what they are. The second factor is what may be
called the rationalist spirit. One must have faith i n the power of reason
in order to dare an attempt to explain in accordance with its laws this
sphere of social facts where events, b y their complexity, seem to resist
the formulas of science. Now France fulfills these two conditions to
the highest degree. She is, of all the countries of Europe, the one where
the old social organization has been completely uprooted. We have
made a tab ula rasa, and on this land laid bare we must erect an entirely
6 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
in the idea of homo duplex - the dual nature of man - which was inter
preted by Durkheim in terms of the opposition b e tween the organic and
what h e called the sui generis or specifically social. By this interpretation,
Durkheim arrived at the idea that mind was made up of a "sui generis
realm of social facts . " S o cio logy was defined i n the first instance not by
its perspective or method b u t by the supposedly autonomous status o f its
object, which was identified with the object of idealistic philosophy. But the
sociologistic revision of the idea of homo dup lex was only the most extreme
example o f Durkheim's tendency to force "clear and distinct ideas" beyond
conceptual analysis, or the elaboration of ideal types, into an analytical
dissociation of reali ty.
T h e n o t i o n o f the d i a l e ctical is m o s t o ften associated with the name
of H egel, but before the limits of knowledge that Hegel attempted to
transcend were reached, Kant himself so ught a nontotalizing mediation
of antinomies. Kant, like Durkheim, is perhaps best seen as primarily a
moral philosop her. His conception of religion, like that o f D urkheim, was
related to the needs of practical reason. B u t i n his Critique ofjudgment,
Kant saw t h e central position of aesthetics in its mediation of oppositions.8
And Kant's conception o f religion itself held out the promise of reso lv
ing, or a t least mitigating, the tragic antinomies which divided people i n
a w a y that w a s m o r e t h a n aesthetic because i t was, fro m his perspective,
more than subjective.
Durkheim d i d n o t recognize the i m p ortance of Kant's Critique of
judgment. His studies of "primi rive" cultures did not open up to him the
importance of aesthetics and the ways in which art, when not autonomized
or made narrowly self-referential, might itself be more than a subj ective or
p urely formal phenomenon. Nor did these studies fully reveal to him the
limitations of a purely sociological view of religion. His interpretation of
religion culminated in a vision of society as a rather disincarnate functi onal
equivalent of divinity - somewhat a collective ghost i n a "morphological"
mach i n e .
The antipathy between positivism and idealism, which Talcott Parsons,
in his Structure ofSociaiAction, took as the faulted foundation o f Durkheim's
thought, is best seen as a facet of Durkheim's Cartesianized neo-Kantian
ism. Indeed, the philosophical assumptions of b o th these methodological
foci were idealistic or, in Durkheim's own term, "hyperspiritualistic." In
8 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
the context o f his idea of homo duplex, which identifl ed mind and society,
positivism and idealism related to aspects of the ideal, autonomous object
that society was for Durkheim.
In Durkheim's early thought, positivism was most pronounced. I t was
epitomized in the assertion in The Rules of Sociological Method that social
facts were to b e treated like things. By this Durkheim did not mean onto logi
cally to classify "social facts" among material things. But he did en join the
sociologist to adopt a methodological attitude of extreme obj ectivism in the
study of society. Perhaps the primary meaning of" social fact" for Durkheim
was the institutional norm. Yet in the study of the genesis, structure, and
functioning of institutions, Durkheim carried the analogical value of the
natural sciences to a point at which he tended t o deny t h e speciflcity of a
science of persons. Intentions were placed beyond the realm of scientifl c
enquiry. The idea that emp athy served as a means of understanding i n the
social sciences was rejected out of hand. And the specifl c nature of symbolic
activity in society seemed to be both emphasized, at times idealis tically
exaggerated, and denied, especially through misleading metaphors and
methodo logical injunctions.
Durkheim's early posi tivism presented society primarily as an "action
system," and structure as the essence of social facts. Methodologically, i t
focused upon two sorts o f causation (often conceived "mechanistically") :
e ffl cient and functional. It attempted to determine h o w "social facts" were
causally generated by antecedent conditions and how they functioned to
produce certain consequences in the social system. Sociology, paradoxi cally,
was to be restricted to a mechanistically causal explanation of the most
external, reified, and d epersonalized aspects of the ideal things constitutive
of social facts. T h e criteria of social facts were asserted to be exteriority and
constraint. And Durkheim held to a rather dissociated, if not schizoid, idea
of the relation of the inner to the ou ter, of"subj ective" experience and "objec
tively" observable b ehavior. This was the source of his freq uently confusing
pronouncem ents on the relati onsh i p of sociology t o psychology. Inn er,
subjective experience was ascribed to the individual and often assumed to
be objectively unknowable. Instead, Durkheim i n his early thought stressed
the i m p ortance of "hard" data, "morphological" indices, legal codes, and
statistical procedures. His idea of the relation between society and morality
emphasized fo rmal o bligation and duty.
Chapter 1 introduction 9
There was indeed an important i f insuffl ciently defl ned sense in which
Durkheim's conception of the relationships among aspects of society was
structural and functional in nature. He attempted to see things whole and in
their actual and possible interactions with one another. More speciflcally, he
identified science with the attempt to show how an object of investigation
could be made to reveal systematic relationships, including the method in
social madness. Very often, these relationships were hidden and could b e
made manifest only through scientifl c investigation. Thus his conception
of rationalism, as well as his belief i n the existence of important analogies
between natural and social science, rested upon a notion o f !aws that com
prised structural models, functional correlations, and tendential regulari ties.
I n his own words, th ings social are "rational: by which one must simply
understand that they are linked to one another by de nite relations called
laws . " 1 0 On this basis, the most pertinent methodological similarity b etween
natural and social science was the status of the comparative method and
concomitant variation as the analogues in sociology of experimentation in
the natural sciences. Related to the role of the comparative method was
t h e use of statistical procedures in specifying the prevalence o f conditions
of social life and the direct or indirect consequences of the functioning of
social structures and symbolic systems.
The implication of the existence of defl nite relations among social and
cultural phenomena for rational prescription was the requirement that pur
poseful intention work with a defl nite, complex, and often little known reality.
Ignorance of typical relationships might frustrate human purpose through
the generation of unintended consequences. The only specifl city of society,
when compared with nature in this regard , was a greater range of what Comte
had termed "modi able fatality." D u rkheim believed fl rmly that socio logy,
in discovering the laws of social reality, would permit social agents "to direct
with more refl ection than in the past the course of historical evolution; for we
can only change nature, moral or physical, in abiding by its laws." Auguste
Comte, Durkheim himself observed, "even remarked with insiste n ce that of
all natural phenomena, social phenomena are the most malleable, the most
accessible to changes, b ecause they are the most complex." Thus D urkheim
could conclude that "sociology does not in the least impose upon man a pas
sively conservative attitude; on the contrary, it extends the fl eld of our action
by the very fact that it extends the fl eld of our science . "11
I2 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
rates and relations within the broader society, were seen as normal or patho
logical in fact and in right.
States of both pathology and normality were for Durkheim formally
rational in the sense that phenomena in them could be made to reveal in
telligible relations. There was method to social madness. It made sense, for
example, that certain pathological states of society would be characterized
by high rates of crime, suicide, and endemic violence. And means might b e
suited t o ends that were themselves pathogenic. But D urkheim d i d n o t argue
that anything that functioned in society was j ustifi ed - if by functioning i s
meant formal adaptation or efficiency i n maintaining a status q u o . O n the
contrary, only the normal state of society and fo rces adapted to its creation
or mainten ance were justified o r substantively rational. In the normal state,
conditions were "everything that they ought to b e . " In the pathological
state, they "ought to be other than they are." 1 2 The normal state of society
would h ave as the foundation of its structure a culturally relative variant
of practical reason that would function as the sole possible b as is for the
reconciliation of legitimate order and progress. Substantive rationality as
the basic p r i n c i p l e of social structure was, m oreover, the o n ly foundation
for commitment and solidarity in society as a whole. In the normal state of
society, the comcience collective would be the shared psychological ground of
practical reason and solidarity in the personalities of members of society: i t
would b e obj ectively real and subjectively internalized a t the same time.
The practical i m plications of Durkheim's ideas have b e e n the subject
of i ntense controversy. Most often, Durkheim has been seen as a conser
vative. In one important sense, this conception of D urkheim is correct. But
Durkheim's broader rationalist dream w a s to transcend partisan ideological
struggles and to forge a dialectical reconciliation of conservative, radical, and
liberal traditions in m odern thought. Scientifi c sociology, in Durkheim's
conception of i t , h a d this ambitious, perhaps unrealistic, rationalist dream
as its foremost practical goal.
One thing was b l i ndingly clear. Durkheim became i ncreasingly convinced
that modern society was significantly pathological. In what sense was he a
conservative? He was definitely not a reactionary traditionalist or, for that
matter, a protofascist. He did not advocate the restoration of monarchy,
feudal relations, aristocratic values, an established church, or medieval ver
sions of corporatism. Nor did he share the cultural despair of conservative
Chapter I Jntroduction 15
This assumption applied i n variable ways only to the normal state of society
and h a d at best only limited application even to a transformed m odernity
in which there would continue to be a role for critical questioning. In a
pathological state, this assumption converted conservatism from a living
force into a tragicomic attitude detached fro m social realities and conducive
to stereotyped reactions to situations of crisis.
Durkheim was not a simple status quo conservative. He was what
may be called a philosophical conservative. He desired the emergence and
maintenance of a signifi candy stabilized state of society t h a t deserved to
be the b as is of historical continuity and personal commitment. D u rkheim
was not a p u re optimist. For him the perfect society was an impossible
dream. B u t he d i d affirm the value of a state of society that was relatively
harmonious and in which anomie was confi ned to marginal proportions.
I n this "normal" state of society, the minds and hearts of people would be
united, a n d freedom would be reconciled with a normatively ingrained
sense o f limits.
In the context of modern societies, Durkheim's conservatism was
discr i m i n atingly radi cal a n d often future-ori e n ted. He d i d see elements
i n modern soci ety that genuinely deserved to be continued, better coor
diiuted, and strengthened: constitutionalism, individual rights, social sol
idari ty, represen tative government, and a certain type of division of labor.
B u t he also realized that in certain areas of m o dern l i fe the basic problem
was the absence of legitimate traditions that might plausibly claim rational
commitment and "sacred" respect. In these areas, Du rkheim - as analyst,
prophet, and lawgiver - longed for the creation of institutions that would
bridge the gap between reason and sentiment and open the way to a livable,
stabilized social environment in which only the i n corrigibly criminal and the
extraordinarily creative would not be b asically conservative. Unlike many
conservatives in modern history, he d i d not reconcile himself to a position
of tragic resignation or resentful grumbling in the face of rapidly changing
realities that contradicted h is values. To achieve stab i l i zati o n , consensus,
and fl exibly traditionalistic ends in critical areas of society marked by sig
nificant, if "transitional," conditions of social pathology, he believed that
structural reform was imperative. In a sense, Durkheim was a structural
reformer selectively open to radical ideas s o that one day people might b e
authentically conservative i n good conscience.
Chapter I Jntroduction 17
the past. Unlike Marx, moreover, Durkheim rarely displayed a telling sense
of the concrete with which to bring to life (and temper with life's nuances)
his analytical models and statistical surveys ; and he rarely was able to grasp
imaginatively the developmental possibilities o f a complex set of interacting
factors in society as a whole over time. One finds no Eighteenth Brumaire
among Durkheim's works. Marx had both an incisive sense o f history and
an almost cannibalistic sense of irony. D urkheim's more abstract and staid
approach lacked these cutting edges.
Significantly, D urkheim shared Marx's ideological blindness to questions
of gender and assumed a basically traditional role for women in society even
when his own analyses indicated the possibility of a critique of dubiously
gendered relations. "Man" in Durkheim, as i n Marx, can often be read literally
as well as metonymically. The M arx whom Durkheim especially abhorred
was the Marx who advocated class confl ict and violent revolution in modern
society. In contrast with Marx, D urkheim viewed modern society - and
particularly his own France, which was always his center of reference - as
suffering from severe but transitional symptoms of pathology and offering
the possi b i l ity of social justice without recourse to violent revolution. This
primary focus upon the conception of modern society as passing through a
pathological state of rapid transition on the way to normality was crucial for
the shape of D urkheim's thought as a whole. For Durkheim, modern society
was experiencing, not death throes, b u t prolonged and disruptive birth pangs.
Marx had mixed his metaphors and mistaken the nature and direction of
modern society.
If Marx was both too pessimistic in his idea of the historical evolution of
the industrialized West toward collapse (at least in terms of the precise pro
cesses he emphasized) and too optimistic i n his messianic faith in sociocultural
regeneration after apocalyptic upheaval, Durkheim combined extreme pes
simism about the potential of the individual "left to himself" with extreme
optimism concerning the ability of modern society to resolve the severe
problems presented to it in the course of h istory. This false optimism, which
vacillated between the mechanistically sober and the euphorically inflated,
generated in D u rkheim an air of complacency that was alleviated only by
genuine concern and a devotion to social action. D urkheim often seemed
able to snatch the spirit o f normality fro m the j aws of anomie. Despite his
sensitivity to possible abortive miscarriages i n the development of modern
20 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
Notes
each other's work, e. g., their conviction concerning the importance o f religion
i n social lif e. But, in accounting for their "mutual unawareness," he stresses the
role of exogenous factors such as opposing national allegiances. He does not
investigate the relation of serious intellectual differences to "mutual unaware
ness" or, perhaps, mutual avoidance. One basic difference was on the issue of
the ethical neutrality of social science. One might hazard the generalization
that, on subjects extending fro m epistemology to politics, the differences
between Durkheim and Weber were between a thinker who was traditional,
philosophically conservative, optimistically reformist, and sometimes naive
and one who was modern, heroic, irreducibly tragic, and at times fatalistic.
(Tiryakian, in his Sociologism and Edstentialism [Englewood Cliffs, N .J . :
Prentice-Hall, 1 9 62] , gives a thoughtful, i f brief, analysis o f Durkheim's
thought, stressing the importance o f his conception of the relation between
society and morality.) Alvin Go uldner, i n his generally insi ghtful introduc
tion to Socialism (New York: Collier Books, 1 96 2 ) , makes two exaggerated
assertions that are opposed, if not contradictory, to one another. Go uldner
sees Durkheim as attempting to build a bridge between the traditions of
Comte and Marx in sociology. But he also presents Durkheim as concerned
with the "fi ne-tuning" of modern society. I would maintain that at least
some bases for integrating Durkheim and Marx do exist but that Durkheim
himself did relatively little to b uild upon them. This was true, for example,
of the problem of relating anomie to class or, more generally, group conflict.
But to characterize Durkheim's idea of needed reforms as "fi ne-tuning" is
extreme. Durkheim increasingly believed that the problems besetting modern
society were severe. One might well argue that his proposed reforms were
excessively vague or inadequate for solving the problems he perceived. But
they were basic, at least in certain respects. It i s true, however, that Durkheim
believed modern society would naturally evolve in the direction o f "normal
ity," certainly without violent revolution.
1 6. Les Formes elementaires de Ia vie religieuse (first pub. 1 9 1 2 ; 4th ed.; Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France, 1 98 0 ) pp. 1 -2 .
,
Durkheim's Milieu
Once one has established the existence ofan evil, what it consists ofand on what
it depends, when one knows in consequence the general characteristics of the
remedy, the essential thing is not to draw up in advance a plan which foresees
everything; it is to get resolutely to work.
- Suicide
idea."4 The sole recorded instance of humor and irony i n Durkheim's life
was self-directed, and i t i nvolved religi on. In a rare pun, Durkheim played
upon the ambiguity of the French word chaire ("academi c's chair," "church
pulpit"). Passing in front of Notre Dame Cathedral, Durkheim turned to a
colleague, Celestin Bo ugie, and remarked, "It's from a chair like that, that
I ought to be speaking."5
Durkheim's life seems dominated by a strong sense of discipline that kept
the man together while the academic moved steadily from rung to rung up
the professional ladder and ultimately to a professorship at the Sorbonne.
As a young man, however, Durkheim experienced a number of crises that
revealed how he combined a strong mind with a fragile and anxious spirit.
Under the influence of a Cath o l i c i n s tructress, fo r exam ple, he underwent
a passing i nfatuation with mysticism. 6 In Paris, h e prepared for the Ecole
Normale Superieure at the Lycee Louis-le-Grand and lived at the Pension
J auffret, where he formed his lifelong friendship with Jean Jaures. But his life
at the pension was full of anguish and left him w ith bad memories.7 He was
admitted to the Ecole Normale after having failed two years in succession
to place high e n ough in the entrance exam i n ation.
Durkheim en tered the Ecole Normale in 1 87 9 . "Lanson, S. Reinach and
Levy- Bruhl had j ust been graduated. Bergson, Jaures and Belot had entered
the year b efore. Rauh and Maurice Blonde! were to be admitted two years
later. Pierre Janet and Go b l o t entered along with Durkheim. It is not an
exaggeration, the refore, to say that a veritable philosophical renaissance was
germinating at the Ecole Normale . " 8 But once he was finally in the Ecole,
Durk h e im's attitude was highly ambivalent. In his last year a grave illness
which may have been psychosomatic in origin compromised his chances for
the agregation, in which he was nonetheless received next to last.'1
In retrospect, Durkheim felt that the Ecole Normale was a "scientific
and social milieu of exceptional value," and he sent his son there. 10 He
retained a lasting respect for two of his professors: the historian Fustel de
Coula nges and the p h ilosopher E m i l e Boutroux. To Fustel, who preceded
Durkheim in the advocacy of the comparative method and the conception
of the importance of religion i n social life, Durkheim dedicated his Latin
thesis on their common intellectual ancestor, Montesquieu. To Boutroux,
who impressed Durkheim most by his "penetrating and obj ective way of
reconstituting and rethinking systems, renewing and fo unding scientifically
28 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
before his students the history of philosophy, " 1 1 D urkheim dedicated his
thesis on "The Division of Labor."
At a deeper psychological level, however, Durkheim did not fl nd the
Ecole Normale altogether to his liking. The impressionistic humanism and
dilettantism which he had found repulsive in cagne (the high school class
preparing students fo r the Ecole Normale examination) were dominant
traits of the Ecole itself. More important, he instinctively drew back from
the supercilious snobbery and defensive air of noblesse o blige in an overly
self-conscious intellectual elite.
His intelligence, sober and avid for substantial truth, held in horror
the literary persifl age and ironic tone so often to be fo und in the
conversation of the students at the Ecole Normale [ normaliens] . . . .
"I h ave seen h i m ( M . Holleaux recounts) wish ardently for the end
of the school year, for vacation time, the moment when he would
be able t o live again among 'good simple people' (this was his ex
pression) . Absolutely simple, he detested all affectations. Profo u n dly
serious, h e hated banter [/e ton Ieger] .
If many of D urkheim's character traits recall the austere Kant, others bring
to mind Rousseau. One of the happiest times of his school years was when
he went into the streets to mingle with the effervescent populace during
the July 1 4 festivi tiesY The sense of communal warmth was a force which
was i ncreasingly to break through the Cartesianized neo-Kantian su rface
of his thought, through its cold veneer o f devotion to du ty. At the Ecole
Normale, moreover, Durkheim formed several lasting and genuine friend
ships. His friend Maurice Holleaux remarked that "few people really knew
him. Few realized that his severity covered almost feminine sensitivity and
that his heart, a stranger to facile effusions of sentiment, enclosed a treasury
of tender goodness." 1 3
Lines later written b y Durkheim himself about his good friend Octave
Hamelin could be applied to the attitudes of D urkheim's friends toward
their relationship with Durkheim himself. Hamelin had died prematurely
in an absurd attempt to save the lives of unknown drowning people in spite
of the fac t that he was unable to swim. Durkheim edited and made ready
fo r p u b l i cation the book on Descartes w h i ch Hamelin never completed. In
words that evoke the sanctity of intimacy in friendship, Durkheim wrote of
Chapter 2 Durkheim 's Milieu 29
Hamelin: "As a man, we think that he belongs entirely to his friends, who
p i ously keep the cult of his memory. We would almost believe that we had
defiled his memory if we were to allow the public to penetrate the intimacy
of an existence which always Aed acclaim and which even hid itself from
the looks of others with a sort of jealous care. " '4
After leaving the Ecole Normale, Durkheim was granted a period of
relative respite to gather himself and h i s thoughts together. In accordance
with the traditional French practice that has to a signifi cant extent passed
out of existence, he began teaching at the secondary level b efore moving
on to the u niversi ty. If the primary and secondary levels in France repre
sented not stages in the educational process as much as different systems
of education h i g h l y stratified according to social class, t h e secondary and
the upper levels were strongly i ntegrated with each other. Indeed, certain
intellectual leaders of the time , such as Alain, preferred to remain at the
fycee level fro m a conviction that it was the locus of more authentic teach
ing. From 1 8 8 2 to 1 8 8 7 , Durkheim taught at the fycees of Sens, Saint
Qu entin, and Troyes. In 1 8 8 5 - 1 8 8 6 , he took a year off fro m teaching in
provincial fycees to study in G ermany. ' 5 T h i s trip was u n dertaken after a
conversation with Louis Liard, the Director of Higher Education (Directeur
de l 'Enseignement Superieur), a lifelong s u p p o rter of Durkheim. But i t
w o u l d b e a mistake to think that Liard showed any special o r conspirato
rial favoritism toward Durkheim. Rather, he saw in Durkheim a thinker
whose convictions and ideas coincided with his own deep commitment
to the renovation of the French educational system under the auspices of
the Republic. Liard had been struck in his o w n youth by the decadence
of e d u cation under the Second Empire, and he shared the belief of many
republican leaders that educational i n feriority had been a key factor in
France's defeat at the hands of the Germans. Thus Liard's fu rtherance of
Durkheimian sociology, while not a unique event in his actively i n nova
tive life as an administrator, was related to his idea of the institutional and
moral needs of the Republic.
In G e rmany, Durkheim studied social science and its relation to ethics,
primarily under the guidance of Wilhelm Wu ndt. He was considerably
impressed by the efforts of Albert Schaeffl.e and the "socialists of the chair"
to devise reforms of the economy in accordance with the demands of social
ethics. Yet he almost cut his visit short in order to return precipitately to
30 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
Paris as a replacement for his fellow educator and friend Ferdinand Buis
son, who had been elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He was given
Buisson's chair in the Science of Education in 1 9 06. As Durkheim's disciple
Maurice Halbwachs later phrased it, sociology was not admitted directly
to the Sorbonne "but was introduced into it through the narrow gate of
pedagogy. " 2 1 Indeed, throughout his career Durkheim devoted from one
third to two-thirds of his teaching time to pedagogy. He did not look upon
this as a waste of time, for he approached education sociologically, as an
institution having the crucial function o f socializing the child into the larger
soci ety. By special decree in 1 9 1 3 , the title of his chair at the Sorbo nne was
changed to the Science of Education and Socio logy. Comte's neologism,
barbarically combining Greek logos and Latin societas, finally gained official
recognition in the University of France through the instrumentality of a
thinker who questioned the preponderant role of the classics in traditional
French education. Durkheim was awarded the Legion d'h omzeur but was
denied access to the Institut de France. Davy remarks that he received news
of both events with the same detachment. 2 3 He had achieved the essential;
t h e superfluous was unnecessary.
In Durkhei m's works, sociology underwent its "identity crisis." Hence
his tendency to assert militantly and even overstate his point of view. In
his own France, his attempt to fo und a discipline was so successful that his
sociology emerged i n time as somewhat a "collective representation." As
an historian sensitive to the importance of social theory observed almost a
decade after Durkhei m's death:
Such indeed has been the infl uence of Durkheim i n our University
that he seems to have monopolized sociology. The latter in our
mind is so closely b o und up with the work of Durkheim that we
have almost become unable to realize that it can have an existence
beyond his works and those o f his disciples. In our discussions, in
o u r manuals, Durkheimian sociology and sociology tout court seem
to be more and more synonymous. 24
[After the Revolution] royal authority was re-estab lished. But these
revivals of the past did not constitute a solution. So the problem is
posed on the morrow of the Revolution, at the start of the nineteenth
centu ty, in the same terms as on the eve of 1 7 8 9 , only it has become
more pressing. The denouement is more urgent i f one does not wish
to see each crisis produce another, exasperation the chronic state
of society, and finally, disintegration more or less the result. Either
completely restore the old system or organize the new. It is precisely
this that is the social problem.
As we view it, it cannot be posed with greater profundity? 6
The realities of the Third Republic were o f course less elevated, and
its operational consensus proved to be purely negative. Astute, if cynical,
observer-participants like Adolphe Thiers were able to see this fro m the very
beginning. The m o n archist Right, which in the 1 870s had proved unable
to settle upon a compromise fo rmula reconciling the houses of Bourbon
and Orleans, accepted the Republic faute de mieux. After the Dreyfus Af
fair, resistance fro m the Right b e came increasingly militant. The far Left
was equ ally unable to propose a constructive alternative to existing policies.
Between these two extremes, most of those who agreed upon a democratic
and republican form of government did so with the tacit assumption that
politics would not disturb the basic configuration of vested interests in
society. Symboli cally, the French legislature held its meetings i n a "house
without windows." French labor legislation remained the most backward
of the "advanced" industrial societies. And French society continued to
be highly gendered and stratifi ed, with little equality of opportunity, less
equality of reward, and no positive consensus on the legitimate n ature of the
social structure or political regime. The b oundaries of invidious distinction
between socially distant and uncooperative cl asses continued to b e defined
with rhe Cartesian rigor so accurately described b y Tocqueville in his Ancien
regime. The youthfu l promise of the Republic turned i n creasingly into the
senile reality of a detached, deadlocked democracy superimposed upon a
stalemated society.30 In this context, there was little chance of developing
social and p o litical institutions which could viably control the disruptive
effe cts of the industrial revolution: memories of the great Revolution cre
ated expectations which heightened unrest.
The precise nature of the economy and of its impact upon society in
Durkheim's France is a complex subject that engages experts in debate. In
the famous dictum o f ] o h n Clapham, France underwent industrialization
without having a full-fl edged i n dustrial revolution.3 1 The rate of economic
change in France until the 1 9 50s was not comparable t o that of G e rmany
or England, but the degree of disparity has o ften been exaggerated.
Durkheim tended to see the problem of industrialization within the
broad context of modern society as a whole. B u t , during his own lifetime,
the rate of change i n F ranee itself, especially in the concentration of indus tty,
was probably more rapid than it had ever been, and its effects were quite
perceptible to the sensitive observer. I n fact, the unbalanced nature of the
34 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
Under the Second Empire, Liard bad been so militantly republican that
he was dismissed fro m his E rst teaching position and kept constantly under
the surveillance of the imp erial police. When he became, like Durkheim
and La pie after him, a professor at Bordeaux, h e was overwhelmed by the
parlous state of higher education. In his Histoire de l'enseignement superieur
(History of Higher Education), he described how courses were opened up
to the general public i n order to E ll seats for which there were not enough
students. The audience recruited in this way was a curious medley of bon
bourgeois with nothing to do and beggars in search of a warm place for a
few hours. Liard's taste for organization manifested itself at B o rdeaux, where
he not only recast the structure of his own courses b u t also drew up plans
for the new Faculty of Medicine a n d Pharm acy. H e fo llowed "always t h e
same method: a priori determination of the n e e d s o f each Faculty i n order
to deduce the proper installations." In L iard's own words, "The method
of my administrative work has always been the Cartesian method."53 At
the request o f Ferry, the post of Director of Higher Education which was
vacated in 1 8 8 4 was fllled by Liard. " ' Yo u will make the French universi
ties,' Jules Ferry h ad t o l d hi m . That was exactly what he wanted t o do."54
Subsequently ( 1 902- 1 9 1 7 ) , Liard was rector of the University of Paris,
a position in which Lapie was to succeed h i m . If the method of his ad
ministrative work was Cartesian, its guiding principle was a variant of
D urkheim's "organic solidarity. " From the lowest to the highest level and
through o u t all departments and faculties, the University of France was to
be characterized by solidaristic cooperation among its d i fferentiated parts
in order to ensure "the realization of a superior fu nction - the intellectual
and moral l i fe of the nation."55
Like Durkheim, Liard had been left fatherless very early i n life. His
m o ther, of old Norman stock, was tender and austere, and lived constantly
with the idea of death. She had even selected the wood for her coffl n . "She
taught her son that one thing was worse than death. Watching a funeral
p rocessi o n pass by in fro n t of them , she said: 'I would rather see you bur
ied than see you fail to do your duty' ."56 After a life of duty and devotion
to a cause, Liard experienced World War I as an unbearable shock which
hastened his death. He consented to being con ned to bed on! y when
"the categorical imperative commanded h i m to retire." In 1 9 1 7 , he died
of "total exhausti on. "57
40 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
"discover the rational substitutes for these religious notions which for so
long h ave served as the vehicle for the most essential of moral ideas. "65
B u t a rational conception of morality could n o t merely cut away religious
beliefs. The one Comtean dictum Durkheim always upheld was the idea
that one should destroy only what one could replace. This dictum dis
tanced him from a variant of anarchism prevalent at his time and quite
important i n French intellectual and cultural history down to the pres
ent.66 Although Durkheim at fi rst conceived his project as an attempt to
present moral forces in their "rational nudity . . . without recourse to any
mythological intermedi ary," his idea of rationalism was later expanded
to include a type of mythology which, in his eyes, complemented reason
instead of contradicting it. Society itse lf, in his thought, e m e rged at times
as an object of belief or even a mythical enti ty.
Within the republican institution and its rationalist cult, the function
of the teacher as a consensus builder became central. As Durkheim saw it,
the teacher's mission was to select and disseminate "those principles which
in spite of all divergences are from this time on the b asis of our civiliza
tio n , i m p l i citly or explicitly co m mo n to a l l , and which few would dare to
deny: respect for reason, for science, for the ideas and sentiments which
are the b asis of our democratic m orali ty. "67 The aura of mystique which
enveloped this conception of the educator's function i s diffi cult to convey.
In a magnifi cent phrase o f C anivez, the classroom was "le lieu de discours
retenus" (the place for hushed discourse).68 For Durkheim, as fo r s o many
other republican intellectuals, the teacher gathered u p in his chalk-marked
hands the lingering strands of the sacerdotal traditi on:
Elementary Forms o[the Religious Lfe ( 1 9 1 2) . And one fou n d the taste for
the individualism of an inwardness transcending society even in the doc
tri n e of Alain, with its practical reformulation of the Cartesian mind-body
dualism. Alain presented the role of the individual in society as a negative
conformism which said "yes" with the body to external constraints, b u t an
eternal, soul-saving "no" with the spirit. Such notions generated resistance
to Durkheim's idea that society was a solidary whole greater than the sum
of its p arts and to the analytic concepts which made theoretical sense of
this idea: social structure, conscience collective as its psychological ground i n
the personality, norm, a n d type. Durkheim, in brief, tended to shift Kant's
noumenal sphere in the direction of the conscience collective of society and
to situate the transcendental ego as a subject com m un icating with other
subjects in society. Indeed, secular debates a b o u t t h e individual and society
(like later debates about the sign and meaning) tended to displace religious
anxieties about the relation (or nonrelation) b etween the transcendent and
the immanent status of the sacred. The horrifi ed reaction to Durkheim's
initiative of a thinker who was perhaps the best technical philosopher of
his time i n F r a n c e set the to n e . I n a letter to Durkheim's o w n philosophy
professor Emile Bou troux, Jules Lachelier wrote of an earlier theorist of
solidarity:
[Tarde] does not have the superstition of order and logic: h e writes
notes, articles, and, gathering them together, he inserts a few j o ints
and makes of the whole a book. A certain dilettantism gives h i m
t h e ability to smile a n d dictates to him the m o s t alert a n d piquant
fo rmu las on the gravest subjects: "Obedience to duty offers two
advantages: it absolves you often of the need for foresight [p revoy
ance] and always of the need for success. "74
The fact that Dreyfus was a Jew, and that his condemnation led to a
wider drive by the authoritarian mili tarists and clericals to exclude not
merely Jews but Protestants and Republicans from positions of military
and admin istrative power, raised the issue in dramatic fo rm. It was a
clash of rival absolutisms - a challenge of intolerance which bred
an equally severe intolerance amongst the Radicals and Freemasons,
the anti-clericals and Socialists. Democracy had clearly to be a social
and political order based on common citizenship and civilian rights
within the Republic: or else it would b e replaced by an authoritarian,
hierarchic order, dominated by Church and privileged ruling classes in
Army and Civil Service. French logic interpreted the confl ict in these
clear terms, and the battle began.3 0
b a ckground in general culture, the type of training that would prepare them
for specialized functi ons in modern society. Yet it has not been recognized to
how great an extent the spirit of classical philosophy remained the foundation
of Durkheim's social philosophy. Suicide, with its emphasis on the sense of
legitimate limits and its intimation of an institutio nally furthered "golden
mean" in social life, owes much to the classical tradition.
It is synoptically useful tho ugh excessively stereotypical to frame the
question of the relation o f Durkheim's Republic to the Church i n terms of
contrasts: instituteur versus cure; social and na rural science versus the classics;
social and moral philosophy versus old-time religi o n . In any case, a fu rther
point must b e made concerning Durkheim's position on the church-state
con troversy and the battle over educati o n : he never made an express political
pronouncement on this issue. He indeed labeled the Catholic Church "a
monstrosity from the sociological point of view."83 But he directed this
comment against the extremely b ureaucratic, centralized, and h ierarchical
organizati onal structure of the Church. In the same vein, he p u t forth a
critique that applied to his own Republic: "A society composed of an infinite
dust of unorganized in dividuals which an hypertrophied state tries to hem in
and restrain consti tutes a veritable sociological monstrosity. "84 His positive
concern in both i nstances was the creation of solidaristic groups in which
communal values would be reconciled with institutional organization and
respect fo r the rights of the individual.
In addition, one did not find in Durkheim the offended, vengeful spirit
of the ex-seminarian Emile Combes or the crude positivism embodied
in Paul Bert's comparisons of the clergy to the phylloxera blight which
d estroyed the vines of France, and of the law imposing restrictive state
regulation on religious establishments to healing copper sulfate. Nothing
was more alien to Durkh eim's spirit than penny-ante Voltairianism. The
basic inspiration of Durkheim's conception of religion was ecumenical. And
he ultimately recognized, however tendentiously, the necessity of special
symbo lisms of a mythical nature insofar as they co m pl emented rather than
contradicted the general rational values basic to consensus i n modern society.
For different reasons, the social metaphysic which was his own ultimate
explanatory approach to religious symbolism was offensive both to students
of culture who saw religion analytically "from the outside" and to believ
ers who experienced religion "from the inside." B ut the practical thrust of
50 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
his thought within his own historical context was to offe r the Church the
same sort of !iving arrangement it had offered to prior religions i n occupied
territory: tolerance for their symbolic forms i f they accepted its basic mes
sage. Catholicism, in other words, had to become a nondisruptive part of
a larger social consensus.
The classical conservative indictment of the Republic, its philosophy,
and its corps of instituteurs was Les Deracines ( The Uprooted), the ideological
novel of Maurice B anes. But the best illustration of Rightest reaction to
Durkheim himself a n d his particular role i n the Republic was the report of
"Agathon," the pseu donym of Henri Massis and the son of G abriel Tarde,
the more status-conscious Alfred de Tarde. This work85 was man ifes tly in
spired by conservative pol itics, traditional religi o n , activist nationalism, and
a romanticized, soci ally elitist defense of classical education. It claimed to
represent the dominant opinion of French university students immedi ately
before World War I.
For the authors of the Agathon Report, Liard h a d made D urkheim
"a sort of prefect of studies . . . the regent of the Sorbo nne, the all-power
fu l maitre. " Durkheim's position o n key co m m ittees like the Conseil de
I' Universite de Paris and the Comite Consultatif enabled him "to su rvey
a l l appoi ntments in higher education." Under his iron rule, p rofessors of
philosophy were "reduced to the simple role of functionaries." Pedagogy
was D u rkheim's "own private domain." But sociology was b efo re all else
the "one o ffi cial doctrine at the Sorbonne." Sociology had taken the place
of the old phi losophy which had fallen fro m grace. It had become "the
kingpin of the New Sorbonne." Moving from the conspiratorial indictment
to the rhetorical question, the authors of the Agathon Report concluded
by asking: "Who is there that does not feel the truly inhuman quality i n
this debauchery of logic, these cold a n d deductive reveries, these misty
analyses of concepts, and what p o o r food is offered to the avid heart and
intelligence of students?"86
Attitudes toward Durkheim constitute d one area in wh ich extremes
found ad hoc consensus in France. The standard Marxist categorization of
Durkheim was that of "bourgeois Idealist," and the terms of criticism fre
quently coincided with those of the Agathon Report. The most sustained,
if savagely rhetorical, treatment of D urkheim and his milieu by (at least a
pro tempore) French Communist close to the controversies of the time was
Chapter 2 Durkheim s Milieu 5I
Writers and scholars are citizens; it i s thus evident that they have
the strict duty to participate in p u b l i c life . . . .
56 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
Thus Durkheim's growing sense of crisis led him to believe that the
scholar should move fro m his "normal" activities into a position of more
militant concern. Indeed all Durkheim's major works culminated in a call
to action. In the final words of Suicide, he perhaps gave clearest expres
sion to his idea of the relation b etween theory and practice: "Once one
has established the existence of an evil, what it consists of and on what it
depends, when one knows i n consequence the general characteristics of
the remedy, the essential thing i s n o t to draw up i n advance a plan which
foresees everything; i t i s to get resolutely to work."97
These considerations enable us perhaps to gain some insight into the
moot question o f Durkheim's relation to the solidarist, or solidarity, move
ment - a question on which we have little objective evidence. After the turn
of the centu ry, this m ovement secured extensive support from governments
in power until it became "a sort of offi cial philosophy of the Third Repub
lic."n In a sense the concept of "solidarity" came to have in Durkheim's
France a status comparable to that of "consensus" in recent American his
tory, with many of the same obfuscations and ambiguities. Solidarity was
Chapter 2 Durkheim 's Milieu 57
rationality, especi ally in the latter's moral sense. On the level of human and
specifl cally social relations, Durkheim was not concerned exclusively or
even primarily with "obj ective" solidarity either in the formal, value-neutral
sense or in the restricted sense of an interdependence of economic interests.
As he stated in the preface to the first edition of De La Division du travail
social ( The Divisio n of Labor in Society), his object was "to treat the facts of
the moral life according t o the method of the p ositive sciences." 1 0 1 Despite
certain ambiguities in the argument of the first edition of Durkheim's E rst
major work, the development of D urkheim's thought - including promi
nently the preface to the second edition of The Division ofLabor - makes
it abundan tly clear that the social sense of solidarity for Durkheim was
preeminently m o ral and that it i n cluded both an "objective" com p o n e n t
in institutional and symb o l i c structures a n d a "subj ective" component i n
internalizatio n , communal sentiment, a n d personal commitment.
Alpert did not provide any evidence whatsoever for the contention that
Durkheim had no relationship with the solidarist movement. Durkheim's
own trusted disciple Celestin Bougie, who, i f anyone, should have known,
p l aced Durkheim within the soli darist movement in a work publ ished
( 1 9 03) during the latter's lifetime and in a larger work pub lished ( 1 924)
after his death. In 1 90 3 , Bougie argued that in contrast with utilitarian
individualism, "solidarism helps us to oppose these desiccating, dissolving,
and aristocratic forms of individualism with a democratic individualism, a
fecund principle of social union and action, whose motto is not 'each man
in his own home' [chacun chez soil or 'each man for himself' [chacun pour
soil but 'one for all and all for one' [chacun pour tous et tous pour chacun ] . " 1 0 2
Indeed Bougie quoted D u rkheim himself as asserting, "One can say that
there is not a single sociological proposition which is not a direct or indirect
demonstration of solidarity." 1 0'
The key practical problem (as B o ugie saw) was whether and in what
contexts solidarity was proposed as a quality of the status quo or as a goal
of action i m p lying the necessity of change. In Durkheimian terms, this
amounted to the question of the extent to which the existing social order
was "normal" or "pathological," for a primary quality of the normal state
of society was the existence of solidarity. The mystifying and ideologically
tendentious use of the idea of solidarity to present a "pathological" status
quo as if it were in all essential respects "normal" and thereby to mask vested
Chapter 2 Durkheim 's Milieu 59
Ardent and critical souls are not in the least governed by formulas
as vain and as empty as this morality of "human solidarity" which
filled the mouth of the anticlerical p ro fessor: He believed he could
replace by these two words the living tradition of order and love
i n carnated in the Church. He did not see that this expression of the
relative dependence of beings with respect to one another had two
signifi cations: the well-meaning one was the only one h e wanted to
see. But are not all the ferocities of the struggle for life j ustified by
this formula? The lion is in a state of solidarity with his prey, since
he cannot live without it; only this solid arity consists in killing and
devouring i t . 1 04
During the war Durkheim rallied to the union sacrr!e and b e came
intensely involved in administrative work and propaganda. 1 12 The most
that can b e said ab o u t his propagandistic pieces is that they are among
the most level-headed specimens of a rather paranoid genre. At times they
offered vehicles fo r the expression of his thought, e . g . , in his attempt,
i n L'Allemagne au-dessus de tout - Germany above All - to portray the
German national character and define i m p erialism, with special reference
to the works of Heinrich von Treitschke. 1 1 3 His confi dence in the justice
of his own country's cause was neither diminished by considerations of
long-term causation nor m i tigated b y concern ab o u t the postwar settle
ment. The intensity ( b u t n o t the mere fact) of his propagandistic efforts,
however, must be seen in the light of his anxiety over the fate of his only
son. He received definite news of his son's d eath at the front only after a
prolonged period of uncertainty. For the first time, D u rkheim seemed to
face the temptation of madness. " I need not tell you , " he wrote to G eorges
D avy, "o f the anguish in which I live. It is an obsession of every instant
which hurts me more than I supposed." Durkheim was haunted "by the
image of this exhausted child, alone by the roadside i n t h e mi ddle of t h e
night and t h e fog . . . . That image held m e by the throat. " 1 14 When he
fi nally received definite word o f his son's death, the man who had writ
ten movingly of the spiri tually restorative powers of ritual in m o m ents of
crisis withdrew into a terrible silence which prevented him fro m so much
as talking about his feelings with his closest friends: " D on't speak to me
about my son u n t i l I tell you that i t 's possib l e . " 1 1 5 "Ab ove all, d o n't speak
to me of h i m . " 1 1 6 " Don't answer me. All that weakens and exhausts m e . " 1 17
Iron self-discipline remained the d o m i nant fo rce in Durkheim's life, and
i t fi nally broke h i m . In 1 9 1 7 he died o f what has b e e n called a " b roken
64 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
heart." But his own melancholic loss and his inability to mourn might b e
understood less i n terms o f h i s personal ethos than as a testimony t o the
deficit of effective social processes, including rituals of mourning, i n secular
society - a deficit his thinking tried in certain ways to address.
Chapter 2 Durkheim s Milieu 65
Notes
see the statements by Celestin Bougie, Felix Pecaut, Andre Fontaine, and
Xavier Leon in the Revue pedagogique, XC-XCI ( 1 927), 1 1 5- 1 66 .
51. Many people realized the extent to which the mystique of the instituteur was
the symbolic recompense for the fact that h e was miserably underpaid. In a
circular to instituteurs i n 1 8 3 3 , Franois Guizot remarked: "The resources
which the central power has at its disposal will never succeed in making
the simple profession of instituteur as attractive as it is useful. Society is
unable to give back to those who consecrate themselves to it all that they
have done for it. It is necessary that a profound sentiment support and
animate the instituteur, that the austere pleasure of having served men
and contributed to the public good become the worthy salary which his
conscience alone gives h i m . It is his glory to exhaust himself in sacrifices
and expect his recompense from God alone" (quoted i n Duveau, p. 5 4 ) .
52. Quoted i n Ribiere, pp. 49, 6 5 .
53. Lavisse, pp. 86-87.
54. Lavisse, p. 8 8 .
55. Quoted i n Ribiere, p . 9 .
56. Lavisse, pp. 82-83.
57. Lavisse, pp. 98-99.
58. Fontaine, Revue pedagogique, XC-XCI ( 1 927), 1 6 5 .
59. Pecaut, ibid., pp. 1 22 - 1 2 3 .
60. Leon, ibid., p. 1 6 0 .
61. Fontaine, ibid. , p. 1 66 .
62. Andre Canivez, }tdes Lagneau: Essai sur Ia condition du professeur de philoso
phie jusq u a Ia fin du )JXe siecle, Association des Publications de l a Faculte
de Strasbourg, 1 9 65, p. 275. See also Claude Digeon, La Crise allemande
de la pemee ji-mzaise, 18 70- 1 9 1 4 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,
1 9 59) .
63. Speech o f Paul Armand Challemei-Lacour before the Senate, Dec. 1 9 ,
1 8 8 8 ; as quoted in Maurice Barres, Les Deracines, I (first pub. 1 8 97 ; Paris:
Pion, 1 9 5 9 ) , 64.
64. Repotted by Bougie, "L'Oeuvre sociologique d'Emile Durkhe i m , " p.
283.
65. E m i l e Durkheim, L'taucatimz morale (first pub. 1 92 5 ; Paris: Presses Uni
versitaires de France, 1 9 6 3 ) , pp. 3, 9, 7-8.
66. See Richard D. Sonn, Anarchism and Cultural Politics in Fin-de-siecle
France (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1 9 89) and Peter Starr, Log
ics ofFailed Revolt: French Theory After May '68 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford
University Press, 1 9 9 5 ) .
67. Emile Durkheim, Education et sociologie (Paris: Alcan, 1 92 2 ) , p. 62.
Chapter 2 Durkheim 's Milieu 71
in the ni neteenth century with leftist and reformist movements and that
in the Third Rep ublic i t increasingly became an ideology j u stifying the
status quo. He places Durkheim in the latter context without attempting
to j ustify this classification. The problem concerning Durkheim is touched
upon briefly in Melvin Richter's excellent article, "Durkheim's Politics and
Political Theory, " in Kurt H. Wolff, e d . , Essays on Sociology and Philosophy
(New York: Harper & Row, 1 9 64), p. 1 8 8 . On the role of the concept of
solidarity in early n ineteenth-century France, including its radical use by
workers, see William Sewell, Work and Revolution in France: The Language
ofLabor fi"om the Old Regime to 1848 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1 98 0 ). Sewell argues that a democratic corporatism with socialist
components was dominant in laboring classes during the period treated
in his study.
99. Richter, op. cit.
100. Alpert, p. 1 7 8 .
101. Division du travail social, p. xxxvii.
1 02 . "L'Evolution d u Solidarisme, " p . 28. For the explicit reference to Durkheim,
see p. 3 .
103. Ibid., p . 7 . The quotation i s repeated i n Bougie's L e Solidarisme, p . 1 2 .
1 04. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard, 1 94 6 (first pub. 1 9 1 4 ), p . 207.
105. See Terry N . Clark, "Emile Durkheim and the Institutionalization o f Soci
ology," Archives europeemzes de sociologie, IX ( 1 96 8 ) , 63-64. See also Eugen
Weber, The Nationalist Revival in France; Charles Andler, La Vie de Lucien
Herr (Paris : Rieder, 1 93 2 ) , pp. 1 1 2- 1 50 ; Romain Rolland, Peguy (Paris:
Albin Michel, 1 944), I , 3 0 6ff. ; and Daniel Halevy, Peguy et "Les Cahiers
de la quinzaine" (Paris: Bernard Grasser, 1 94 1 ) , p p . 68-80
1 06. " D urkhei m's Politics and Political Theory," p. 1 7 5 .
1 07. "L'lndividualisme et les intellectuels , " Revue bleue, 4th series, X ( 1 898) ,
1 0, 12.
1 08 . Ibid., pp. 7-8, 1 3 .
109. XI V ( 1 907), 6 1 3 .
1 1 0. Quoted in Romain Ro lland, Peguy, p . 8 5 .
111. Paris: Grasser, 1 94 5 , p . 7 1 . For the French in tellectual scene between the
two wars and after, see H . Stuart H ughes, The Obstructed Path (New Yo rk:
Harper & Row, 1 968) .
1 1 2. A list of Durkheim's commi ttees in Davy, "Emile Durkheim: CHomme,"
Revue de metaphysique et de morale, XXVI ( 1 9 1 9) , 1 93 , includes: Conseil
de l' Universite, Comite des travaux historiques et scientifiques, Comite
consultatif de l' enseignement superieur, Commission des etrangers au
ministere de l'I nterieur, Comite fran<_;:ais d'information et d'action aupres
74 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
des j uifs en pays neutre, Fraternite fran co-americaine, Pupilles de ! ' Ecole
publique, Comite de publication des Etudes et documents s u r la guerre,
Comite de publication des lettres a tOllS les Franc;:ais, Ligue republicaine
d'Alsace-Lorraine, Societe des amis de Jaures, and Pour le rapprochement
universitaire.
1 1 3 . In L>lilemagne au-dessus de tout (Paris : Colin, 1 9 1 5 ) , Durkheim made
an interesting application of his concept of anomie to the problem o f
imperialism. For Durkheim, imperialism was a form of anomie fo stered
by dominant institutions like the state and military, and a thinker like
Treitschke attempted to legitimate institutionalized anomie in the form of
a national will to power. The limitless expansion of the power of a state at
the expense of o ther states was for Durkheim "a morbid hypotrophy of the
will, a kind of will mania" (p. 44). Durkheim realized that anomie might
be furthered by dominant institutions, instilled into the personalities of
citizens through education, and legitimated by intellectuals. Even in his
later work, however, he only at times extended his insights to broach an
analysis and critique of colonialism. Colonialism is not, for example, an
issue in his Elememary Forms oft he Religious Lfe or in his reflections about
the relation of sociology to anthropology.
1 1 4 . Davy, A mzales de l 'Universite de Paris, 2 1 . I would further note that i t
i s i nteresting to compare Durkheim's conception of Germany's primary
responsibility in causing the war with the similar thesis later made famous
by the German historian Fritz Fischer.
1 1 5 . Ibid.
1 1 6 . Davy, "Emile Durkheim," Revue fimzfaise de sociologie, I ( 1 960), 1 2 .
1 1 7 . Quoted b y Raymond Lenoir, "L'Oeuvre sociologique d'Emile Durkheim,"
Europe, XX I I ( 1 930), 2 9 5 .
3
We believe that our research would not merit an hour's tro u ble fit had only a
sp eculative interest. Jfwe sep a rate with care theoreticalfrom p racticalproblems,
it is not in order to neglect the latter; it is, on the contrary, to p u t o u rselves in
a better position to resolve them.
- The Division of Labor in Society
Quo vadis ?
prod uctivity. It fel l instead on the function o f the division of!abor i n relating
p e o p l e to one another in society. From economic product to social process
and the quality of human l i fe - this for Durkheim was the sociological
perspective o n the division of labor.
In fact, D u rkheim's first m aj o r work seemed to show a lack of concern
with economic problems. Durkheim's methodological goal was to fu rther the
idea of a u n i fi e d social science by stressing the extra-economic dimensions
of economic activity. His increasingly apparent ideological p urpose was to
subordinate the economy and materialistic motives to the moral and cultural
needs of people i n s o ciety. B u t h i s mode of affirmation often approached
disciplinary imper ialism and disdain fo r the dismal science with its specific
fo rm o f abstraction. Indeed, i n Durkh eim's conception o f economics, t h e
mind-body dualism fu nctioned to relegate economic activity t o t h e sphere
of the literally material a n d the individual. B y the end of h i s !if e, Durkheim
considered economic activity to be the p r o fane par excellence. His entire
conception of the problem not only failed to offer insight into the nature
of economic institutions; it also d i d little to illuminate the moral and reli
gious aspects o f modern economic activity t h a t Max Weber treated in Th e
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
Durkheim's i d e a o f economics was o n e case i n w h i c h the norm ative and
critical aspects of his thought submerged the analytic. For he saw the unlimited
desire fo r commodities and unregulated economic activity (the "free" m arket)
as prominent instances o f modern social pathology. This p o i n t of view would
become manifest in Suicide. But the distinction between social "normali ty"
and "pathology" was basic to the general argument of T he Division ofLabor.
In that book, D u rkheim introdu ced his basic definition of morality and h i s
idea o f the i n t i m a t e association b etween social normality and t h e prevalence
of soli darity in soci ety. "We can say in a general manner," he observed, "that
the characteristic of moral rules is to enunciate the fundamental conditions of
social solidarity. " L 0 The correlation of social normali ty, solidarity, and morality
revealed the fo undation o f D u r k h e im's thought i n organizing principles that
were methodological and normative at one and the s a m e time.
In h i s concepts o f mechanical and organic solidarity, Durkheim fo
cused u p o n "normal" states o f society. A consideration o f "pathological"
phenomena i n modern society was restricted to a concluding section which
was disproportion ately s m a l l i n comparison with the gravity o f the prob-
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial l-abor 79
mechanical solidarity] and condemn one i n the name o f the other; what i s
necessary i s t o give each at each moment o fhistory the place which i s proper
to i t ." 1 1 But it was only in writings of a later date that D urkheim became more
explicit about the possible role of community in modern society. His advocacy
of professional groups that would allow for some measure of decentralization
had as one of its most essential features the desire to remedy the lack of com
munity in modern life. And his last major work, The Elementary Forms ofthe
Religious Life, was postulated on the conviction that a significant measure of
continuity was necessary between the b ases of legi timate order in "primitive"
and modern societies.
Although Durkhe im's ideas about modern society became clearer in time,
one feature of The Division of Labor which continued to be characteristic of
his thought was the tendency to see "primitive" societies primarily, i f not ex
clusively, in terms of social similitudes, homogeneity, and communal identity,
to the exclusion of differentiation among roles i n the group or among groups
in the larger social context. This exaggerated idea of "primitive" conformism
became the b asis for the chapter in The Rules of Sociological Method on the
classification of social types (chapter iv). It was in fact one basic reason why
Durkh eim's project for a comp arative classification of social types remained
little more than a pious hope. In The Rules, as in The Division of Labor,
Durkheim gratuitously postulated a hypothetical horde as the basis of group
formation in society, and hence the "natural" b asis of classifi cation of societ
ies in terms of increasingly complex combinations of the nonexistent primal
horde. Individuals in the horde "do not form in the interior of the total group
any special groups which differ from the group as a whole; they are j uxtaposed
atomically. " 12 Du rkheim was forced to concede that no historically known
societies corresponded to this Darwinian notion of the undifferentiated
"protoplasm of the social realm." But the force of this model of primitive
homogeneity was so constraining in D urkheim's mind that he concluded,
with no appeal to evidence, that the "simplest" types of "primitive" society
were "formed i m mediately and without any i n termediary by a repetition of
hordes . " 13 The horde, which became a "segment" of a larger "segmental" so
ciety by recapitulating the atomistic j uxtaposition of its members in its own
relations (or nonrelations) with other hordes, was for Durkheim the clan. A.
R. Radcliffe-Brown detected with acumen h o w this sociologically false and
misleading conception of groups in "primitive" societies remained basic even
82 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
in The Elementary Forms oft he Religious Lfi:: "One o f the results ofDurkheim's
theory is that it over-emphasizes the clan and clan soli darity. Totemism does
more than express the unity of the clan; it also expresses the unity of totemic
society as a whole in the relations of the clans t o one another within the larger
society." 14 0ne could add that totem ism might also be related to tension and
conflict within and between groups.
The tendency to see phenomena in "primitive" societies in terms ofidentity,
homogeneity, and confusion was carried to absurd lengths in Lucien Levy
Bruhl's attempt to make the Platonic principle of mystical "participation" the
sole basis of experience among the "primitives. " Despite his own criticism of
Levy- Bruhl's tendency to see an unbridgeable gap between forms of experi
ence in "primit ive" and modern societies, a strong element of the tendency
remained i n Durkheim's attempt to fi nd the source of religious beliefs i n
undifferentiated concepts like "mana." And Durkheim often continued t o see
the type of communal identity that is at most attained within confl ict groups
in revolutionary "effervescence" and within a stable society only periodically,
in ritual activities, as the exclusive functional principle of solidarity in ongo
ing "pri m i tive" societies. Durkhei m's thought, however, was not dominated
by the abstract force of concepts alone or by the generally unsympathetic
ethnocentrism of a Levy-Bruhl. What remained from beginning to end in his
conception of "primitive" societies was the idea of savage experience as the
total realization of the communal bond that he fel t was missing in modern
societies. Yet it is no exaggeration to say that a fundamental basis fo r the
advance of social and cultural anthropology beyond Durkheim has been the
application of the principle of differentiation to symbolic systems and social
stru ctures in "primitive" societies, or, even more forcefully, the questioning of
whether any common label (much less the designation primitive) fits certain
societies or, instead, relies on the tendentious opposition between "them"
and "us." Along with such questioning has come a fuller appreciation for
both the nature of experience in these societies and the role of differences
and differentiations i n all cultural symbolisms and social systems. H i ghly
complex occupational specialization might not be typical of certain societies.
Nor were universalistic values (which applied to all people in certain situa
tions, independent of personal status) or functionally specifi c norms (which
were limited to certain spheres of existence differentiated from other spheres).
But certain sorts of difference and differentiation were crucial in "primitive"
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial l-abor 83
societies: the problem was their precise nature and relation to issues Durkheim
found important.
The difficulty of relating the universal and typical conditions of solidarity
in modern and "primi tive" societies was compounded in The Division ofL a
bor by the inclusion of other concepts and phenomena under the rubrics of
mechanical and organic solidarity. Under mechanical solidarity, Durkheim
included - along with similitude, or communal identity, i n "primitive"
society (indeed "traditional" societies in general) - the notion of conscience
collective, repressive or penal sanctions as the most objective index of this type
of solidari ty, and the idea of segmental structure. Under organic solidarity, he
included - along with differen tiation in modern society - the idea of the
weakening, if not the eclipse, of comcience collective, restitutive sanction as
the most objective index of this type of solidarity, the notion of "organized"
structure, and the emergence of universalistic values and individualism. As I
intimated earlier, at points in this intri cate exercise in opposing modern and
"other" societies, Durkheim threatened to fall into the trap of similar dualistic
attempts to classify the universe of societies known to cultural history: the
basing of "scientific" classification in sociology o n the vague and tendentious
opposition between "them" and "us."
Perhaps the most plausible way to pursue an analysis of this aspect of The
Division ofLabor is to take apart the idea clusters of mechanical and organic
solidarity, which were to decompose of their own weight over the years, and to
show how Durkheim and his disciples defined and redefined their conceptual
components until new and more (or less) relevant classificatory schemes ap
peared on the horizon of their thought.
Conscience Collective
expiatory punishment upon the person who offended the comcience collective,
especially in its religi ous demands. This punishment was in contrast with
restitutive sanctions (correlated with organic solidarity), which simply tried
to reinstate the status quo ante, e.g., through the paym ent of damages. The
confinement of the conscience collective to norms defining crimes leading
to repressive sanctions proved in time to be too restrictive a notion for
Durkheim, altho ugh h e never lost interest i n the problem of crime and
punishment a n d its relation to the "hard core" of the conscience collective.
The correlation of comcience co!lectivewith communal identity or similitudes
in the "internal milieu" of the group imposed more extreme and at times
misleading restrictions on usage (restrictions which, in one sense, confl icted
with the emphasis on repressive sanctions, for, within limits, soci ety tended
to be more communal when it was less repressive and more repressive when
it was less communal ) . But the emphasis upon the importance of community
in a normal state of society was to be retained by Durkheim. And it revealed
the influence of Rousseau on his thought, especially in the belief that com
m u n i ty was m o s t pronounced in "pri m i ti v e societies.
"
of solidarity in the "normal" state of society only because they shared in the
nature of the social system in general. For, in the "normal" state of society,
customary or written law was the most organized and stable dimension of
social structure . 1 7 Through its sanctions, a society put its authorized power
where its mouthed ideals were. One apparent defect of The Division of
Labor was the fact that Durkheim, despite his legalistic focus, did not treat
the problem of law and sanctions i n a society characterized by significant
conflict and marked differences among social groups in terms of wealth,
status, and power. What does law express and how does it function in a
society riven by conflict? Marx's answer was categorical: law serves the in
terests of the ruling class.
Durkh eim never provided a comprehensive and more nuanced answer to
the questions raised by the problematics oflaw i n a confl ict-ridden, stratified
society. His later writing contained only scattered references to the problem.
In Suicide, he observed i n passing: "When the law represses acts which public
sentiment judges to be inoffensive, i t is the law which makes us indignant, not
the act which it punishes." 1 8 One important problem which the propagandistic
World War I pamphlet Germany above All emphasized was the crisis generated
by a conflict between legal imperatives and the demands of a humanistic ethic.
Although the severity of this conflict challenged his optimistic evolutionary
assumptions about the non-authoritarian and democratic course of law and
government in modern society, Du rkheim's answer was unequivocal. In con
trast to the school of j u ridical positivism in Germany, which had exercised
some influence on his early thought, Durkheim without hesitation placed the
humanistic conscience collective of modern society above legal duties to the
state. Had he lived longer, Du rkheim might well have confronted in more
pressing terms the problem of the relation between his theory of value and
the issue of civil disobedience. 19
What was the nature of crime and the criminal from Durkheim's socio
logical perspective? The criminal was different from others. This difference
lay in the crimi nal's infringe m e n t of norms and values in wh ich oth ers found
identity through communal allegiance and shared commitment. Crime
disrupted the conscience collective. In Durkheim's neo-Kantian and some
what personifYing conception, punishment was the way a law responded to
transgression by reasserting its own threatened authority. As h e phrased i t i n
a later work:
88 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
A violated law must bear witness to the fact that despite appearances
it is always itself, that it has lost nothing of its fo rce and authority in
spite of the act which negates it. In other words, it must affirm itself
in the face of the offense and react in a way that manifests an energy
proportional t o the energy of the attack which i t has undergone. Pun
ishment is nothing other than this meaningfu l manifestation.20
Thus i n all states, types, and milieus of society, the nature of crime said
something profound ab o u t the nature of society. Crime and conformity
were themselves bound together by a structure of reciprocity. Indeed,
especially in periods of rapid transi t i o n , it m i ght b e i m possi b l e to distin
guish clearly and distinctly between the idealist and the criminal, for both
might ambivalently participate i n the destructive and creative potential of
anomie. With the collapse of fi xed and stable reference p oints, it would
a t times be d i fficult to tell who was above and w h o below the level of the
time. D urkheim's frequent references to the trial of Socrates rested upon
an awareness of this dilemma and the problems it presented for moral
judgment.
For Durkheim, m oreover, the contradictions and equ ivocations of crime
represented like a distorted mirror i m age the uncertainties of conformi ty.
90 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
So great was D u rkhei m's belief in the importance of the intimate rela
tionship between crime and conformity that i t led to what was for him a
truly signifi cant step: the reorganizati on of material i n the A n nt!e sociologique.
Beginning with Volume IV, Durkheim included a section on the functi oning
of moral and j uridical rules in which he included b o th statistics and an
analysis of conformity and deviance. (This section was paralleled by one
on the genesis and structure of norms and institutions.) The explanatory
basis of this classificatory reorganization was the realization that disobeying
a rule was a way of relating to it. The typological variations of conformity
were matched by variations of criminality. As Mauss later observed: "In an
epoch when few statisticians recognized the fact, he distinguished between
violent cri minality directed against persons in b ackward classes and popula
tions and the milder crimi nality against goods (fraud, abuses of confidence,
etc.) in commercial classes and urban, policed populations." 2 6 Here we have
an inkling of what Sutherland was to call "w hire-collar crime."27 Whatever
the problematics of the manner in which he applied it to specific cases,
the general principle which underlay Durkheim's conception of crime was
the idea that an institutional order or value system expressed i tself in its
fo rms of deviance or transgression i n a m a n n e r fully co m p l e m e n tary to its
expression in its forms of "respectable" b ehavior. Thus for Durkheim crime
itself was not a social disease. Rather, the crime rate became a symptom
of social pathology when i t rose ab ove or fel l below certain thresholds of
collective tolerance: then it pointed to severe causes of pathology i n society
and attested to the need for social reform.
It would, moreover, be false to conclude, on the grounds that Durkheim
assimilated ordinary crime and ideological crime, that Durkheim's theory of
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial l-abor 9I
I said [in The Rules] that it was useful and even necessary that in
any society the collective type not repeat itself i d entically in all con
sciences . . . . When I tried to show how crime could have even direct
utility, the only examples I cited were those of Socrates and the
philosophical heretics of all times, the precursors o f free thought . . . .
Then I said that the existence of crime had a generally indirect and
sometimes direct utility: indirect, because crime could end only i f
t h e conscience collective i m posed itself upon individual conscien ces
with such incorrigible authority that all moral transformation was
rendered impossible; direct, because sometimes, b u t only sometimes,
the criminal was the precursor of a future morality . . . . In all times,
the great moral reformers condemned the reigning morality and were
condemned by it.30
92 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
Here Durkheim did briefly address the problem o f colonialism and even
related its violent excesses to the "sublime" feeling of exaltation. His final
observation obscured the way social values and political or military practices
- not simply limitless individual assertion - may themselves be crucial
in exacerbating colonial excesses. But his valuable insight was that the truly
relevant variable in the severity of p u nishment is the degree of authoritari
anism in social institutions. Authoritarian structures or relations tended to
convert punishment into a systematic but often anomically unstable form of
extreme violence that might be met by the extremely violent reaction of the
oppressed.
Traditional D ijferentiation
These elementary forms exist now here in a state of even relative isola
tion which permits direct observation. Indeed, one must not confound
them with primitive forms. The most rudimentary societies are still
complex, although they have a confused complexity. They contain in
themselves, lost in one another [perdues les tmes dans les autres] , but
still real, all the elements which will be differentiated and developed
in the course of evolution.42
When Spencer affirms that the universe proceeds from the homo
geneous to the heterogeneous, this formula is inexact. What exists
at the origin is also heterogenei ty, b u t it is heterogeneity in a state
of confusion. The initial state is a multiplicity of seeds, of modali
ties, of different activities, not only mixed together, but, so to speak,
lost in one another so that it i s extremely difficult to separate them.
They are indistinct from one another. It is thus that in the cell of
monocellular beings all vital functions are as if gathered u p : all are
fo und there; only they are not separated. The fu nctions of nutrition
98 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
phenomena are not discrete; each phenomenon contains all the threads of
which the social fabric is composed. In these total social phenomena rJaits
sociaux totaux] , as we propose to call them, all kinds of institutions find
simultaneous expression: religious, legal, moral, and economic. In addition,
the phenomena have their aesthetic aspect and they reveal morphological
types." 4 7
The difference between "primitive" and modern societies that Durkheim
sought could, i n the light of M a uss's ideas, be formulated, I think, as follows.
Certain societies accumulated relations among roles, groups, persons, values,
and ideas in a way which set limits to economic growth and technological
control of nature, but which also implicated people in an intricate, inclu
sive network of spiritual and sym b o l i c relations with o n e another and t h e
cosmos. Modern societies distinguished sharply between nature and culture
(as between humans and other animals), dissociated institutional spheres
from one another (fami ly, j ob , politics, art, religion, and so on), defined
often depersonalized roles in functionally specific ways, objectified nature
in the interest of manipulation and control (at the limit as "raw material" ) ,
and furthered technological mastery and the accu mulation o f eco n o m i c
goods, often ( i f n o t typically) a t t h e expense of the environment. The say
ing "Business is business" was a meaningfully tautological expression of
this orientation. In modern society differentiations tended to b e detached
from one another in relatively clear and distinct, Cartesian compartments
of activity and boxes of experience. Advanced specialization, in the modern
division of labor, was one prominent fo rm of this phenomenon.
What were the implications of this con trast b etween "primitive" and
modern societies for the problem of relating self and society? In "primitive"
societies, the relation between the self and social experience was more en
compassing, like the relation b etween people and nature, b ecause individual
and group gave more of themselves i n each relationship and in more many
sided ways. Individuality was subordinated to personhood in a sense that
m ight dimi nish or even seem to deny any existential distance between th e
individual and his or her roles or subject positions. In ultimate forms, the
individual found meaning for his or her own life in the cosmic archetype
that countered the role, if it did not negate the reality, of chronological,
irreversible time and might to some significant extent mitigate the anxiety
ridden confrontation of the individual with death.
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial labor I 0I
Let us now test the notion to which we have opposed the idea of gift
and disinterestedness: that of interest and the individual pursuit of
utility . . . . If similar motives animate Trobriand and American chiefs
and Andaman clans and once animated generous Hindu or Germanic
noblemen in their giving and spending, they are not to be found in
the cold reasoning of the businessman, banker or capitalist. In those
earlier civilizations one had interests but they differed from those of
our time. There, if one hoards, it is only to spend later on, to put
people under obligations and to win followers. Exchanges are made
as well, but only of l uxury objects like clothing and ornaments, or
feasts and other things that are consumed at once . . . . It is only our
Western societies that quite recently turned man into an economic
animal. . . . For a long time, man was something quite different; and
it is not so long ago now since he became a machine - a calculat
ing machineY
The probe into the problems which held the attention of the Durkheim
school has b een continued by a thinker who has acknowledged the indirect
infl uence o f D urkheim and the more direct, informal, and fruitfully personal
influence of Marcel Mauss: Claude Levi-Strauss. La Pensee sauvage ( The
Savage Mind) constituted a nodal point in the development of Levi-Strauss.
( I say more about its relation to D u rkheim's thought when I discuss the re
lation of the human sciences to epistemology.) In this extremely difficult and
professedly provisional pause in his work, Levi-Strauss broached problems
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial labor ! 03
Now, in exactly the same way that the principle of sexual division of
labor establishes a mutual dependency b e tween the sexes, compelling
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial labor I05
The Ritual Process in a sense revives the problem posed in The Division
of Labor. For Tu rner focuses on the roles of structural differentiation and
communitas as complementary and dialecti cally (or dialogically) related
aspects of the social system. C ommunitas is more diffl cult to grasp than
structure. But a study of it is vital and is related to the understanding of
structure itself.
Theory of Change
problem" only i n propagandistic pamphlets toward the end of his life. And
i f h e had wanted to i nvestigate an internal process of change from "primi
tive" cultures to Western practices and beliefs , the logical historical place
to start would h ave been pre-Socratic Greece. The Division of Labor, i n
bri ef, often subordinates real problems and historical processes t o models
at least as abstract as those of the classical economists whom D u rkheim
never tired of criticizing.
Although Durkheim's discussion in The Division ofLabor gives little
historical insight into significant cases o f change, it is noneth e l ess inter
esting fo r his general conception of social process and for what it reveals
concerning h i s u n certainties a b o u t m o d ern society. The abstract quality
of his argument derived largely fro m the fact that he was addressing him
self, not p os i tively to empirical evidence and problems in the analysis of
society, b u t predominantly to the models o f o ther theorists. D u rkheim
presented massive change in soci ety as a process in which integrated social
structures are s ubjected to conditions b eyond their control and w h i ch
results in a transitional phase o f pathological d isord e r b efo re society can
reorganize on new structural bases.
With the fre quently false and superficial rigor of m o n ocausal the
ories of the time, D urkheim selected population pressure as the cause of
the u p s e t in the functional balance o f society. His v a l i d p o i n t was that
demographic conditions are always socially relevant as well as affected
by social fo rces and that a well-ordered society requires a normatively
controlled p o p u lation p o l i cy. In fact, shi fts in pop ulati o n did have spe
cial i m p o rtance in causing unwanted change in " p ri m i tive" societies
where norms and b el i e fs generally functioned to keep p o p ulation down
to manageable proportions. The cmcial role of d e m o graphy in "devel
oping" and m o dern societies has, of course, b e co m e increasingly obvious.
But a methodologically pertinent criticism is that D u rkheim's extreme
monocau salism prevented h i m fro m devoting s u ffi cient attention to
other factors - e . g. , technology and i d e o logy - in processes of maj o r
social change.
Theoretically and ideologically, this model of change, which envisioned
a passage from "normal" structure through a period of "pathological" tran
sition to a new form of "normal" structure, had great imp ortance. For
Du rkheim as fo r earlier thinkers such as Saint-Simon, Comte, and J . S.
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial labor I 13
of evolution. And h e argued that one could not attribute the fu nctions
of social institutions to the manifest intentions of social agents. B u t
Durkheim never fully sorted o u t the interaction i n t h e historical process
of such factors as intentional agency, unintended consequence, uncon
scious motivation, ano m i e , and the structure and functioning of institu
tions. Significant ideas he developed are that social consciousness arises
in response to social disorder and that sociology, as the most advanced
consciousness of modern soci ety, has the task of informing meaningful
social action. How these ideas are related t o the over-all understanding of
the historical process or to the more limited question of the intentional
action o f social and political agents remains a blank chapter in Durkheim's
th ought.
One feature o f The Division of Labor that has puzzled many commen
tators is D u rkhei m's extensive treatm e n t of t h e relation of The Division of
Labm to happiness. Yet this question was i m p ortant for Durkheim in terms
ofboth the theories he opposed and the theories he defended. The idea that
the division oflabor as the handmaid of economic growth bri ngs happiness
and is indeed the result of a conscious pursuit of happiness constituted a
favo rite theme of utili tari ans and classical economists. Durkheim did not
investigate the possibility that the pursuit of happiness might function
ideologically as a form of false consciousness. His rejection of the corre
lation between happiness and the division of labor relied u p o n a statistical
means of testing the proposed relationship. Durkheim argued that there
was no positive index of happiness that carried methodological convicti on.
But, h e ob served, there was an obj ective index of collective unhappiness:
the suicide rate. If economic progress brought happiness, the suicide rate
should drop. But "on the con trary, true suicide, i . e . , sad suicide, is in an
endemic state among civilized peoples."Go Thus economic growt h, at least
under the extremely unstable conditions which have accompanied it in
modern history, does not bring happiness. This point would be more fully
elaborated i n Suicide, which responded to the correlation of unhappiness
and suicide i n The Division ofLabor, D urkheim related all disruptive change
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial I_abor II5
which manifest the will and spirit of the unity even if performed
by the individual; no actions which, i nsofar as they are performed
by the individual, take place on behalf of those united with h i m .
I n the Gesellschafi such actions do not e x i s t . On the contrary, here
everybody is by himself and isolated, and there exists a condition of
tension against all others. 62
vidualism. But its idea of the relation of individualism to solidarity was veiled
in darkness. At times, Durkheim stressed the importance of personal dignity
and the individual choice of a function in keeping with humane values and
one's capacities. At other times, he seemed to argue that all institutionalized
or ideologically shared individualism is the egoistic expression of a self- e f
facing conscience collective - despite his own attempt to base solidarity on
phenomena bound up with modern individualism.
Another matter left in doub t i n The Division of Labor was the rela
tionship of differentiation to stratification, class formation, gendered roles,
and structures of domination in society - and their relation, i n turn, to
reciprocity and solidarity. This was a notable omission in a purportedly
general sociology of a world in which the historical price of abundance and
"high" culture for the few had typically been the exploitation of the many.
Here Durkheim's failure to come to terms with M arx and become aware of
Weber lessened drastically the relevance of his sociology to both the under
standing of historical societies and the elaboration of his own concepts of
normality and pathology. And here more than anywhere else is a basis for
the charge that D u rkheim was a "bourgeois id ealist" whose thought d iverted
attention from the realities of historical society. Apparently, D u rkheim did
not believe that functional differentiation n ecessarily involves strati cation
and discrimination or that the nature of a function somehow entails a dif
ferential evaluation of roles or groups in terms of higher and lower. B u t he
apparently did believe that all differentiated social orders were correlated
with some typ e and measure of stratification which in modern society would
be based on merit or achievement.66
118 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
the social regulation of contract. For Spencer, the object of contract was to
ensure that the worker received the equivalent of the outlay his work cost
him. Durkheim believed that contract could never fill such a role without
contracts "being much more closely regulated than they are today." Classical
economists replied that the law of supply and demand would automatically
re-establish economic equilibrium. Durkheim countered that this view
neglected the social fact that workers living in poverty could not move
on to higher paying jobs. Even for classes with greater mobility, changes
of occupation took time. "In the meanwhile, unjust contracts which are
antisocial by definition have been executed with the complicity of society,
and, when equilibrium has been established at one point, there is no reason
for its not breaking up at another."72
In one of his veryfirst articles, Durkheim was even more explicit about
the myth of equating formal legal freedom with real contractual freedom
in society:
What can the poor worker reduced to his own resources do against
the rich and powerful boss, and is there not a palpable and cruel irony
in assimilating these two forces which are so manifestly unequal? If
they enter into combat, is it not clear that the second will always and
without difficulty crush the first? What does such a liberty amount
to, and does not the economist who contents himself with it become
guilty of taking the word for the thing?73
Thus even when society depended most fully o n The Division ofLabor,
It could not resolve itself into "a dust of j uxtaposed atoms" having only
"exterior and passing contacts" with one another. According to Durkheim,
people cannot live together "without mutual understanding and, conse
quently, without becoming bound to one another in a strong and durable
manner. All soci ety is a moral society . . . . The individual is not sufficient
unto himself."75
There is, h owever, one case where anomie can be produced even
though contiguity [among functions] i s suffl ci ent. It i s when the
necessary regulation can be established only at the price of transfor
mations of which the social structure is no longer capable: because
the plasticity of societies i s not indefl nit e. When i t is at its end, it
may make impossible even necessary changes.79
constraint based upon pure power and the reality or threat of force and vio
lence. "If the commitment which I have torn fro m someone by threatening
him with death is morally and legally null, how could it be valid if, in order
to obtain it, I have profited from a situation of which I was not the cause,
it is true, b u t which puts someone else under the necessity of yielding to
me or dying? "ss Durkheim believed that in modern society the creation of
solidarity depended upon the abolition of illegitimate constraint both i n
j o b opportunities and i n the interrelations o f groups and functions. On the
level of j o b opportunity, the democratic values of modern society enjoined a
more complete passage from inherited status to the recognition of equality
of opportunity and achievement. In an article on Albert Schaeffle written
eight years before the publication of The Division of Labor, Dur k h e i m was
quite clear about the need fo r one basic type o f individual lib erty in modern
society:
One can indeed fear that the division of labor, as i t becomes per
fected, tends in certain respects to isolate individuals and make il
lusory the interrelations formerly believed to be effective in creating
I30 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
Notes
2 8 . The Human Sciences and Philosophy, trans. Hayden V. White and Robert
Anchor (f rst p u b . 1 966; London: Cape Editions, 1 9 69), p. 3 8 .
2 9 . Ibid. , p p . 3 8 , 40.
3 0 . "Crime et sante sociale," Revue philosophique, XXX ( 1 8 95 ) , 520-5 2 1 .
3 1 . Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents (Garden City, N .Y. : Double-
day Anchor Books, 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 9 0 .
3 2 . A mu!e sociologique, I V ( 1 899- 1 90 0 ) , 6 5 - 9 5 .
3 3 . Ibid. , p. 70.
3 4 . Education morale, p. 1 5 4.
3 5 . Marcel Mauss, review of\'V: H . Rivers, The Todas, i n A n nee sociologique, XI
( 1 906- 1 90 9 ) , 3 1 4.
3 6 . Review of S.-R. Steinmetz, "Das Verhaeltniss zwischen Eltern and Kindem
bei den Naturvoelken , " in A n nee sociologique, I I I ( 1 898- 1 8 9 9 ) , 446.
37. Education morale, pp. 1 64- 1 6 5 .
3 8 . Ibid. , p. 1 6 1 .
3 9 . Division du travail social, pp. 1 49ff.
4 0 . Ibid. , p. 1 5 0.
4 1 . Ibid.
42. "Sociologie et sciences sociales , " Revue philosophique, LV ( 1 9 0 3 ) , 477-478.
43. Pragmatisme et sociologic, pp. 1 9 1 - 1 92 .
44. Marcel Mauss, The Gft, trans. Ian Cunnison (frst pub. 1 92 5 ; New York:
Norton, 1 9 67).
45. Ibid. , p. 7 1 .
4 6 . Ibid. , p. 7 0 .
47. Ibid. , p. 1 . Mauss related the study of total social phenomena to a "holistic"
methodology conceived in terms reminiscent ofHegel: "We are dealing then
with something more than a set of themes, more than institutional elements,
more than institutions, more even than systems of institutions divisible into
legal, economic, religious and other parts. We are concerned with 'wholes,'
with systems in their entirety . . . . I t is only by considering them as wholes
that we have been able to see their essence, their operation and their living
aspect, and to catch the fleeting moment when the society and its members
take emotional stock of the mselves and their situation as regards others . . . .
H i s torians believe and j ustly resent the fact that sociologists make too many
abstractions and separate unduly the various elements of society . . . . Whereas
fo rmerly sociologists were obliged to analyse and abstract rather too much,
they should now fo rce themselves to reconstitute the whole . . . . The study of
the concrete, which is the study of the whole, is made more readily, is more
interesting and furnishes more explanations in the sphere of sociology, than
the study of the abstract" (pp. 77-78 ) . Mauss's discussion of the foit social
134 Emile Du rkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
total, however, often seemed to lead more in the direction of apprehending the
complex, overdetermined, and hybridized - rather than totalized - nature
of certain "concrete" social and cultural phenomena or processes.
48. Ibid. , pp. 73-74.
49. Ibid. , p. 67.
50. La Pensr!e sauvage (Paris: Plan, 1 962 ) , pp. 3 5 2 - 3 5 3 .
51. Claude Levi-Strauss, "The Family, " i n H. Shapiro, e d . , Man, Culture, and So
ciety (frst pub. 1 9 5 6 ; New Yo rk: Oxford University Press, 1 96 0 ) , p. 277.
52. Le Totr!misme aujourd'hui (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1 96 2 ) , pp.
1 27 - 1 2 8 .
5 3 . Claude Levi-Strauss, "Ler;:on inaugurale," Jan. 5 , 1 96 0 , College d e France,
No. 3 1 , pp. 43-44.
54. Victor Turner, The Ritual Process (Chicago: Aldine, 1 96 9 ) .
5 5 . Ibid. , p. 1 27.
5 6 . Ibid. , p . 1 2 8 .
5 7 . Ibid. , p . 1 2 5 .
5 8 . Herbert Spencer, First Principles (New Yo rk: Appleton, 1 8 6 4 ) , p. 407.
59. Quo ted i n Gilbert Highet, The Art ofleaching (New York: Knopf, 1 9 54), p.
207.
60. Division du travail social, p . 226.
6 1 . Ibid. , p . 1 2 0 .
6 2 . Ferdinand Ti:innies, Co mmunity and Society, Charles Loomis, trans. and ed.
(New Yo rk: Harper Torchbooks, 1 963) , p . 64.
6 3 . Quoted in Harry Alpert, Emile Durkheim and His Sociology (f rst pub. 1 93 9 ;
New Yo rk: Russell & Russell, 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 1 8 5 .
6 4 . Review ofTi:innies, Gemeinschafi and Geseflrchafi, Revue philosophique, X). I I
( 1 8 8 9 ) , 42 1 .
6 5 . Division du travail social, p. 1 47.
66. See Durkheim's review of Celestin Bougie's Essais sur le regime des castes
(Paris: Alcan, 1 9 0 8 ) , in Annee sociologique, Xl ( I 906- 1 90 9 ) , pp. 384-387.
One of Durkheim' s basic points i n this review is that hierarchy is not due to
the division of labor itself but, in castes, to a specific sort of ritual principle.
Bougie had analyzed castes in terms of a combination of heredi tary division
of labor, hierarchical organ ization, ritual rep ulsion, and endogamy. For a more
extensive structural analysis of hierarchy, see Louis Dumont, Homo hierar
chicus (Paris: Gallim ard, 1 9 6 6 ) . See also the course given by Roger Bastide,
"Formes elementaires de Ia stratifcation sociale," Centre de Documentation
U niversitaire, Paris. Bas tide observes that even in "primitive" societies where
there is no signifcant stratifcation among groups, there is always stratif ca
tion among individuals on the basis of performance. I n terestingly enough,
Chapter 3 The Division ofSocial rabor 135
9 0 . Ibid. , p p . 3 8 3 , 3 6 3 .
9 1 . Ibid. , p . 364.
92. IV ( 1 90 1 - 1 9 02) , 1 06- 1 07 .
9 3 . Division du travail social, p p . 404-406.
4
There is ony one truly serious philosophical problem: suicide. To judge that life
is or is not worth living is to answer the fimdamental question o[philosophy.
- Albert Camus, Le Mythe de Sisyphe
In a coherent and animated society, there is from all to each and fro m each to
all a continual exchange of ideas and sentiments - something like a mutual
moral support - which makes the individual, imtead of being reduced to his
own forces alone, participate in the collective energy and find in it sustenance
for his own lifo when he is spiritual& exhausted.
- Suicide
This b o o k is one of those works which j ustify all the hopes which
enlightened ob servers of the great modern crisis place i n social sci
ence. Parties (and at times individuals as well) use social science,
b u t it can be put to the uses of none of them. Durkheim proves i t .
Socialists a n d economists are dismissed b a c k t o b a c k with a proof o f
their incompetence. What c a n remain of t h e thesis of class confl ict
considered as a fundamental law of social structure if it is proved
that the regime of unlimited competition destroys the happiness
and the existence o f the capitalist class even more than that of the
proletariat? Now, is not the thesis of class confl ict more than ever
the fo undation of so-called scientifl c socialism? On the other hand ,
how can one celebrate with the old fai thfuls of the Manchester
school the emancipation of economic forces if one sees how these
Chapter 4 Suicide and Solidarity 13 9
m expenence.
At t i m e s the main target o f D u rkheim's attack was t h e use of naive intro
spection and the psychological categories o f official gatherers of statistics to pro
vide adequate accounts o f motivation. But Jack C. D o uglas has observed:
Here there was a basis fo r convergence with the ideas of Marx - a basis
upon which D urkheim himself failed to b u i l d . Durkheim was to make a t least
an oblique reference t o capitalism in his discussion of anomie. But he did not
provide an i n tensive and direct investigation of the structural contradictions in
a capitalist economy. Nor did h e see class-consciousness as an in regrating force
that counteracted the effects of anomie in the "internal milieu" of a group.
The very focus upon suicide as the key problem for an analysis of modern
society may b e seen as diverting attention fro m this possibility and from the
revolutionary potential Marx believed it held.
At the other end of the ideological spectrum, the relation of anomie to the
rise of extreme authoritarianism was another possibility Durkheim ignored.
This matter has received extensive coverage in subsequent li terature. Karl
Mannheim, for example, observed:
anomie
egotsm altruism
fatalism
148 Emile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
Greece when the beliefs on which the old organization of the patricians
and plebeians rested were shaken, and in our modern societies when
aristocratic prejudices began to lose their sway. 1 5
of the pathology of nor malcy within certain extstmg states of soci ety. 19 It
even provided the basis for a critique of some o f his own more questionable
analyses or arguments.
We are now i n a position t o understand better D u rkhei m's idea o f the re
lation o f anomie to egoism and the more cogent elements of his conception of
the relation o f sociology to psychology. Egoism, in the sense o f atomistic in
dividualism, obviously had a large area of analytic and empirical overlapping
w i t h i ndividualistic forms o f anomie, and both might b e i n s t i t u t i onalized
o r i d e ologically j ustifi ed. But Durkhei m's neo-Ka n t i a n assumptions made
possible a d i s t i n c t i o n between anomie and egoism which, while allowing
fo r events involving both anomie and egoism, was analytically "clear and
d i s t i n c t . " In this sense, " an o m i e" referred to a p a t h o logy ( a n d pathos) of
practical reason and "egoism" t o a p a t hology of theoretical reas o n .
Thus anomie, i n this more special sense, was related to the "practical,"
a p p e titive, and active fac ulties: desire, passion, and will, especially the will
to power. Egoism was related to t h e imaginative, intellectual, cognitive, a n d
" t h e o retical" fac u l t i e s .
I n fact, the m o r e p h i l o s o p h ically s p e c i a l meani ngs o f "anomie" a n d
"egoism" were closest t o Du rkheim's c o n c e p t i o n of personality types and
psychological expressions of his sociological variables. D e s p i t e its lack of
empi rical substantiati o n ( e . g . , through the analysis of case studies), B o o k
I I , chapter v i , of Suicide is p r o o f o f t h e i n adequacy o f t h e preval e n t i d e a
t h a t Durkheim, even o n a theoretical level, ignored t h e problem o f social
psychology and the internalization of social norms and conditions. Here he
argued that anomie was expressed in anxiety and manic agitation, egoism
156 J:rnile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
for it gave rise to the type of person who was constrained to be preemptively
rapacious in his o r her dealings with others and anxiously uncertain i n his or
her every action. Through a combination of institutional change and advanced
technology, modern societies might be able to transcend the cruder forms of
economic exploitation. B u t economic exploitation, despite its importance,
was not the sole cause of restlessness and conflict in society. And affluence
alone was not a solution to the social problem of scarcity. In the absence of
consensually accepted norms which defined within fl exible limits an optimal
set of compatible alternatives i n the j u s t allocation of resources, any surplus
- however great it might be in absolute terms - would b e socially and
psychologically experienced in terms of uncooperative competition for scarce
values. And a n o m i e on t h i s level would p revent t h e s o l u t i o n of th e problem
of creating social milieus and symbolic forms which would permit people to
fe el at home in the world, at least t o some viable extent.
In some measure, Durkheim tried to provide more concrete answers to
these problems i n his corporatist proposals and his theory of morality and
religi o n . H i s underlying concern, however, was t o overcome uncontrolled
scarcity and a n o m i e b y creating appropriate institutional norms and c u l t ural
values. This overcoming required the divorce of achievement from limitless
achieving, i t s correlation with viable self-fulfillment, and i t s reconciliation
with the humanistic ideal which asserted that human b eings were equal in a
sense m o r e basic than all the senses in which they were unequal. D u rkheim
more than intimated that in a state of society marked by extreme anomie and
egoism, people were in fac t a l ready equal in a respect perhaps as fu ndamental
as all the respects in which they were unequal - i . e . , in their common anxiety
and isolation. The problem was to use this condition, which so easily lent
itself psychologically t o destructive compensatory reactions, as a motivation
for the creation of a j ust society. Only thro ugh a sense o f j us t institutional
limits could society conjoin modern achievement values with the humane
classical ideals o f personal maturation and legitimate social order as the
coordinate fo u n d a t i o n s o f s e l f-fulfi l l m e n t and s o l i d arity. I n d e e d , i n one of
his very first articles Durkheim enunciated the idea that was to serve as the
inspiration o f Suicide and o f his social philosophy of finitude i n general:
" H o w I prefer the words of the old sages who recommend b e fore all else the
full and tranquil possession o f oneself. N o d o u b t , the s p i r i t as it develops
needs to have b efore it vaster horizons; b u t for all that it does not ch ange
/ 60 J:rnile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
its nature and remains finite."2 6 One might add that, in t h i s context, the
very desire fo r transcendence might b e displaced i n the direction o f radical
transgression, which would also pose problems for a viable relation b e tween
normative limits and challenges to t h e m .
S o c i ety and personality as complemen tary int egrated wholes whose
finite fu llness was activated and agitated b y a marginal leaven o f anomie:
this was D u rkheim's essential vision throughout his life. And he increasingly
saw the healthy society as one that b o t h institutionally constrained and
spontaneously evoked the commitment o f all b u t the incorrigibly criminal
a n d the extraordinarily creative. It accomplished this feat by fo unding the
d o m i n a n t sense of solidarity and "wholeness" in a conscience collective that
represented a c u l t urally relat ive vari a n t of substantive reason t h a t A e x i b l y
disciplined t h e imagination and controlled d e s i r e a n d will.
and authori tarian b u t were often comparatively b enign in nature. More over,
for h i m , o p p ressive or repressive fe atures of m o d e r n i n s t i t u t i o n s w o u l d
b e m e t , n o t b y fatal i s t i c resignation, b u t b y m i l i t a n t , i m p a t i e n t p r o t e s t
t h a t often a t t a i n e d b y i ts d e m a n d s a n o m i e h e i g h t s c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o
t h o s e o f t h e d o m i n a n t system. T h e p e c u l iarly u n s t a b i lizing force of t h i s
c o m b i n a t i o n of factors d i d n o t e s c a p e D u r k h e i m , although he fa iled t o
relate i t to t h e p o s s i b l e genesis o f n e o f atalistic o p p ression a n d authori tar
ian regi m e n t a ti o n in s o c i ety.
For Durkheim extreme altruism was a trait of traditional, and especially
of "primitive," societies. D urkheim's discussion of the p o s s i b l e extremism
of self-sacrificial devotion t o o thers made apparent the s u p e r fi c i a l i ty of
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s that present h i m as the u n c o n d i t i o n a l advocate of solidarity
i n s o c i e ty. All forms of excess were antipathetical t o his b a s i c p h i l o s o p hy,
a t least i n s o fa r as t h e y b e c a m e generalized i n s o c i e ty.
I n extremely a l t r u i s t i c contexts, s u i c i d e m i g h t i n certain cases b e o b l i g
a t o r y ( e . g . , the practice of s u t t e e a m o n g widows in I n d i a ) , b e considered
a sup ererogatory virtuous act ( e . g . , martyrdom for a c a u s e ) , or simply b e
t h e result o f a t o t a l involve m e n t i n t h e collectivity a n d its m a n y religious
c u s t o m s . Another fo rm of suicide classified by Durkheim as altruistic was
t h e self-immolating t y p e i n w h i c h a n offense a g a i n s t a d e e p l y rooted value
created a sense o f g u i l t so strong that suicide b e c a m e a mode of expiation.
E x a m p les o f a l t r u i s t i c suicide i n o n e fo r m or another a b o u n d e d in tradi
tional societies. S i m i l a r to the obligation o f s u t t e e was the i n j u n c t i o n t h a t
retainers n o t s u rvive t h e d e a t h of t h e i r c h i e f or patron. Danish warriors
c o m m i t t e d s u i c i d e to escape the ignominy o f dying i n b e d . For the G o ths,
natural death was shamefu l ; t h e m y t h i c a l punishment fo r i t was condem
nation to eternal stagnation i n caves fi lled with venomous animals. The
Visigoths h a d a high rock, named t h e R o c k o f Ancestors, fro m which old
men threw themselves when they were t i r e d of l i fe a n d fel t themselves to
b e a burden to t h e c o m m u n i ty. Among the Spanish Celts a fut u r e life of
glory was reserved fo r s u i c i d e s , while hell a w a i t e d t h o s e who died of illness
o r old age. These might b e called suicides of strength. Altruistic suicide also
had i t s a p p e a l to the weak who had n o other viable alternatives. S u i ci d e s
expressing p r o t e s t m i g h t b e directed b y t h e o p p r e s s e d a g a i n s t a p o werful
oppressor a n d , in r i t u a l form, be conceived as i m p o s i n g u p o n the adver
sary a b urden of guilt of crushing p r o p o r t i o n s . I n a sense, r i t u a l s u i c i d e
1 62 J:rnile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
It is a g e n e r a l law t h a t r e l i g i o u s m i n o r i t i es , in o r d e r to be able t o
m a i n t a i n t h e m s elves m o r e s e c u r e l y against t h e h a t r e d s o f w h i ch
t h e y are t h e o b j e c t s , or s i m p l y t h rough a s o r t of e m u l a t i o n , m ake
an effo r t to be s u p e r i o r in knowledge t o s u r r o u n d i n g p o p ulations.
T h u s P r o t e s t a n t s t h e m s e l ves s h ow m o re taste fo r l e a r n i n g when
they are a m i n o r i ty. The Jew seeks e d u c a t i o n , not t o replace his
collective prej u d i ce s with t h o u g h t - o u t n o t i o n s , b u t s i m ply t o b e
b e t te r a r m e d i n t h e struggle. Fo r h i m t h i s i s a m e a n s o f c o m p e n
s a t i n g f o r t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s s i t u a t i o n w h i c h i s c r e a t e d fo r h i m
b y o p i n i o n a n d a t t i m e s b y t h e l a w. S i n c e l e a r n i n g i n i tself h a s
l i ttle effect on vigorous t r a d i t i o n s , h e s u p e r i m p o ses h i s i n t ellectual
l i fe o n his c u s t o m a r y activity w i t h o u t h a v i n g the fo r m e r c u t i n t o
t h e latter. H e n c e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f h i s p h y s i o g n o my. P r i m i t i v e
i n c e r t a i n w a y s , h e is i n o t h e r w a y s a c e r e b r a l a n d refi ned t y p e .
T h u s h e j oi n s t h e advantages o f l i t t l e g r o u p s o f t h e p a s t w i t h
t h e b e nefits o f t h e i n t e n s e c u l t u r e o f o u r g r e a t c o n t e m p o r a r y
s o c i e t i e s . H e has all t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f m o d e r n s w i t h o u t s h a r i n g
t h e i r d es p a i r. 5 1
fo rced d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r in h i s fi r s t m a j o r w o r k , D u r k h e i m d i d n o t refer
to t h i s p r o b l e m in t h e l a t e r b o ok. I n p a r t , t h i s was b e c a u s e the i d e a of
fat a l i s m in Suicide was not r e l a t e d t o t h e existence of e x p l o i tative s t r u c
tures alone. I t d i a l e c t i c a l l y c o m p r i s e d b o th t h e o p pressive or repressive
nature o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l n o r m s and the nature of i n d i v i d u a l or collective
r e s p o n s e t o t h e m . F a t a l i s m , in o t h e r w o r d s , i m p l i e d the kind of resig
n a t i o n t o " m o r a l or m at e r i a l d e s p o t i s m " that l e d , n o t to s p o n t a n e o u s o r
organized p r o t e s t , b u t t o s u i c i d e ( o r p e r h a p s t o c r i m e ) . 3 2 F r o m h i s t o r y
D u r k h e i m d r e w examples o f t h e s ui c i d e s of slaves. F r o m m o d e r n soci
e t y, h e cited the less i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y p e r t i n e n t instances o f wives w i t h o u t
children a n d o f h u s b a n d s t o o i m m a t u r e t o a s s u m e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
o f m arri age; h e d i d n o t r a i s e t h e q u es t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e s e cases
to the s o c i o c u l t u r a l defi nition o f t h e role o f t h e m a r r i e d w o m a n , t h e
gendering o f r o l e s i n g e n e r a l , t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e s e x e s , or t h e n a t u r e o f
t h e m o d e r n family.
D urkheim's b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f fa t a l i s t i c s ui c i d e h a s t h e m e r i t of j usti
fying t h e inclusion i n t h e d e fi n i t i o n o f s u i c i d e of a cognitive factor t h a t
i m p l i e d t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o assess t h e o b j ective s i t u a t i o n a n d
t o take a fo rm o f a c t i o n t h a t r e q u i r e d a s i g n i fi c a n t m e a s u r e o f i n i t i a t i v e .
For s u i c i d e t o b e a t y p i c a l r e a c t i o n t o o p p r e s s i o n , a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m w o u l d
have t o b e s t r o n g e n o u gh t o check m o r e effective forms o f p r o t e s t , b u t
n o t s o s t r o n g a s t o e l i m i n a t e all p o s s i b i l i t y o r h o p e o f resistance. I t h a s
been remarked that in situations approximating total oppression, the
suicide r a t e , i n s t e a d o f rising, tends t o d r o p . T h i s was, for example, true o f
Nazi c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s . 3 3 In t h e context o f e x t r e m e a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m ,
c o n d i t i o n s m i g h t i n d u ce d i s e m p o w e r m e n t , a n i n a b i l i t y t o m a k e obj ective
assessments, a loss of the sense of p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y a n d "ego b o u n d a r i e s , "
a n d e v e n w h a t Fre u d t e r m e d " i d e n ti fi cation w i t h t h e aggr e s s o r. " T h u s a
s i t u a t i o n of e x t r e m e s o c i a l p a t h o l o g y m i g h t exclude even the o p ti o n of
s u i c i d e as an e x i s t e n t i a l r e s p o n s e .
Although D u rkh e i m fai l e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e a d e q u a t e l y t h e g e n e s i s a n d
n a t u r e o f extremely a u t h o ri t a r i a n a t t e m p t s a t i n t e g r a t i o n , i t m a y b e o b
served t h a t h i s b el i e f t h a t m o d e r n Western s o c i e t i e s w o u l d give b i r t h ,
n o t t o fatalistic s u i c i d e s , b u t t o a c o m b i n a t i o n o f l i b eralized i n s t i t u t i o n al
n o r m s ( o r a t l e a s t b e n i g n a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m ) a n d fo r m s o f p r o t e s t s h o t
through with a n o m i e h a s b e e n b o r n e o ut b y a t least c e r t a i n devel o p m e n t s
Chapter 4 Suicide and Solidarity 1 65
D u r k h e i m o s c i l l a t e d b e tween a C a r t e s i a n i z e d n e o - Ka n t i a n a n d a
m o re H eg e l i a n d i al e c t i c a l c o n c e p t i o n of s c i e n c e . H i s t o ry, fo r h i m , was
t h e scene of a s t r u ggle between m e a n ingful order and a n o m i e chaos. B u t
t h e prevalence o f o r d e r was n o r m a l , a n d excessive a n o m i e w a s p a t h o
l o g i c a l . I n c o n t r a s t t o We b er, D u r k h e i m d i d n o t fi n d t h e knowledge o f
r e a l i t y t o b e i t s e l f h i g h l y p ro b le m a t i c . D u rk h e i m's e p i s t e m ology was a
v a r i a n t of t h e " c o r r e s p o n d e n c e " t h e o r y o f t r u t h . And it u l t i mately was
s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a very t r a d i t i o n a l k i n d of m et a p h y s i c . Except for a n
i r r e d u c i b l e m argin o f a n o m i e , e s s e n t i a l r e a l i t y w a s r a t i o n a l l y s t r u c t u r e d ,
a n d s c i e n c e c o u l d d i s cover i t s l a w s . D u rkheim's i d e a o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e
c l o s e l y i n t e g r a t e d c o g n i t i v e and n o r m a tive a s p e c t s . Val u e s c o u l d b e
r a t i o n ally k n ow n . A n d a v i a b l e h ar m o n y o f values was p o s s i b l e i n t h e
n o r m al s o ci e ty. F r o m D u rk h e i m's p e r s p ec t i v e , Weber was t h e o r i z i n g
f r o m w i t h i n a n a n o m i e c o n t e x t a n d p r o p o s i n g , a t b es t , a t e n u o u s b as i s
for r a t i o n al i t y w i t h i n t h e confi nes o f a n o m i e . F r o m Web e r's p e r s p ec
tive, D u r k h e i m w a s b e i n g irrelevantly t r a d i t i o n a l , h o p e l e s s ly n a i v e , a n d
b l i n d l y u t o p i a n . T h e a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x , however, i s t h a t , o n t h e b asis o f
s u c h a n t i t h e t i c a l a ss u m p t i o n s , D u rk h e i m a n d Web e r a r r i v e d a t l ar g e l y
c o m p l e m e n t a r y r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s and s p e c i fi c a n alyses i n t h e i r inves
t i g a t i o n of c u l t u r e and s o ci e ty.
D ur k h e i m c l a s s i fi ed P r o t e s t a n t i s m u n d e r e go i sm and s om ew h a t
s k e t c h i l y e x p l a i n e d i ts c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h r e l a tively h i g h s ui c i d e rates ( i n
c o n t r a s t w i t h J u d a i s m a n d C at h o l i c i s m ) b y drawing a t t e n t i o n t o t h e
a b s e n c e o f s o l i d a r i t y i n a r e l i g i o u s s o c i e t y t h a t i n s t i t u t i o nalized i n d i
v i d u a l i s t i c fre e e n q u i ry. P r o t e s t a n t i s m r e d u c e d t o a m i n i m u m t h e n e x u s
b e t w e e n s y m b o l i c c u l t and e x i s t e n t i a l c o m m u ni t y t h a t D u r k h e i m w a s
l a t e r t o p r e s e n t as t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e r e l i gi o us p h en om e n o n . Web e r m ay
n o t have s h a r e d t h e p h i l o s o p h i cally c r i t i c a l i n t e n t of D u r kh e i m , b u t h e
d i d c o n c u r i n t h e essentials o f t h e a n a l y s i s .
T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m was n o t , i t m a y be a d d e d , d e p e n d e n t
u p o n t h e p r i v a t e ownership o r even control o f t h e m e a n s o f p r o d u c t i o n ;
i t r e ferred to the issues o f h o w i n s t i t u t ions functioned a n d the n a t u r e o f
control. Web e r i d entifi ed as traditional, i n c o n trast w i t h t h e capitalistic
ethos, the a t t i t u d e based on a sense of legitimate limits in the m u t u a l
a d j u s t m e n t o f needs a n d i n s t i t u t i o n alized m e a n s o f sati sfacti o n . Web er's
perspective e n a b l e d him to emphasize t h e new "no mie" i n volved i n s o b e r
b o urgeois self- d i s c i p l i n e a n d rationality i n t h e a d j u s t m e n t of means t o
e n d s . F r o m D u rkhei m's perspective, this s i t u a t i o n would a p p e a r as o n e
case o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a pathology o f "practical" reason ( i n s t i t u t i onalized
l i m i tlessness o r anomie) and a s u b s i d i ary patho logy o f "theoretical" reason
(funct i o n a l rationality directed to l i m i tless e n d s ) .
T h u s Weber b e l i eved h e had fo u n d a g e n e t i c l i n k b e t w e e n religious a n d
e c o n o m i c p h e n o m e n a w h i c h i n t h e e p o c h o f classical l i b e r a l i s m t e n d e d
t o separate i n t o d iscrete i n s t i t u t i o n a l s p h e r e s . i n s t e a d o f e l a b o r a t i n g a
refo r m i s t project in t h e manner of D u r k h e i m , Web er d i s p assionately and
i r o n i cally observed o f the fu ture:
The primary intention of D urkheim was t o grasp the over-all nature of the
social system, both in its dominant institutions and the reactions evoked by
them. Only on this basis could a rational conception of reform be elaborated.
Moral issues were uppermost i n D u rkheim's idea of refo r m , but his under
standing of m o rality was a special one related to the reconstruction o f society.
There is no more accurate introduction to h i s conception of reform and i t s
relation t o morality t h a n his own words i n the conclusion t o Suicide.
Notes
that the suicide rate tends to drop with prosperity was further supported by
the statisti cal evidence and its i nterpretation in Andrew F. Henry and James
F. Short, Suicide and Homicide (Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press, 1 954) . The
key question was of course whether prosperity was related to uprootedness
and frustration. If there was no positive correlation between suicide rates
and peaks of a business cycle, there might still be one between suicide and
long-term upward changes in a group's position related to basic processes of
economic transformation. Neither Halbwachs nor Henry and Short addressed
themselves to this broader historical question. The analysis of Henry and
Short, however, had the merit of bringing to the center of analytic attention
the role of stratification, the concept of relative deprivation, and the relation
of the choice of an object of aggression (self o r other) to the situation of the
relevant group. Suicide was generally fo und to b e a response to frustration
among high-status groups, fo r whom a depression had greater impact in
terms of relative loss. lv1oreover, a low-status group might become increasingly
frustrated in the face of prosperity that it did not share. Aggression bred by
frustration in low-status groups, however, fo und an outlet in homicide rather
than sui cide, because the more integrated nature of these groups provided
"love objects" upon whom anxiety and frustration might be projected. I n
Durkheim's terms, anomie led to suicide only when i t was conjoined with
eg01sm.
1 5 . Le Suicide, p. 279. Since the original publication of m y study, much attention
has been devoted to the important problem of Durkheim's questionable
treatment of gender and the way in which it was symptomatic of male anxi
eties about femi nism and "devirilization . " See, for example, Gender and the
Politics ofSocial Reform in France, 1870- 1914, ed. Elinor A. Accampo et al.
(Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1 99 5 ) ; Jennifer lv1. Lehm
ann, Durkheim and Women (Lincoln: University o f Nebraska Press, 1 994);
a n d Janet Hinson Shope, "Separate but Equal: Durkheim's Response t o the
Woman Question," Sociological Inquiry 64 ( 1 994), pp. 23-36. See also the
Cornell University dissertation of Judith Surkis, "Secularization and Sexuality
in Third Republic France , " chap. 3. For a discussion of related problems in
the German context, see the Cornell University dissertation ofTracie l\1atysik,
" Ethics, femi ninity, and Psychoanalysis in Early Twentieth-Century German
Cultures."
1 6 . Ibid., p. 324. In his Education morale (first pub. 1 9 2 5 ; Paris: Presses Univer
sitaires de France, 1 9 6 3 ) , Durkheim continued his attack upon "this dissolv
ing sensation of the infinite" (p. 3 5 ) . Nowhere more than i n his correlation
of anomie and the quest fo r infinity was Durkheim closer to an important
dimension of Greek philosophy.
176 J:rnile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
1 7. Le Suicide, p p . 283-284.
1 8 . Ibid. , pp. 284-287. In psychoanalytic terms, i t may be observed that one case
of anomie involved limitless ego ideals, while fatalism resulted from rigid and
repressive superego demands. One form of anomie suicide may be fruitfully
compared to what Herbert Hendin, in his Suicide and Scandinavia (New
Yo rk: Doubleday Anchor, 1 96 5 ) terms "performance suicide." Of one of his
cases Hendin writes: "His dreams under hypnosis were o f the most elemental
kind. In one instance they revealed him running to catch a boat and j u s t
m i s s i n g it. I n h i s associations 'missing the boat' symbolized the low opinion
which he had o f his entire career. His legal ambitions were excessive and he
fo und i t impossible to compromise with h i s grandiose s u ccess fantasies. The
aggressiveness which stemmed fro m this grandiosity i nterfered with his actual
performance, a constellation frequently observed in patients with extremely
high and rigid standards for themselves. What is seen as fai lure causes an
enormous amount o f self-hatred, and suicide amounts to a self-inflicted
p unishment fo r having failed" ( p . 2 6 ) . Hendin suggestively but somewhat
simplistically attempts to explain the Scandinavian suicide phenomenon of
Sweden and Denmark with high rates but Norway with a low rate by patterns
i n child-rearing and their socio psychological concomitants. His conclusions
may readily be translated into Durkheimian terms. In Sweden, Hendin fo und
a combination of anomie and egoism. L i mitless ends in performance and
achieving were combined with isolation and coldness i n i n terpersonal rela
tions. An expression in Swedish literally means "to kill with silence." I n
Denmark, h e fo und a strongly integrated a n d excessively altruistic family
structure that, with separation upon the children's reaching adulthood, gave
way to uprootedness and feelings of dependency loss. I n No rway, a greater
balance was established, and the verbal expression of emotion functioned as
a sort of safety valve.
1 9. In his classical article "Social Structure and Anomie," Robert K. Merton posed
the problem in terms of a contradiction between limitless cultural values and
limited institutional means of attaining them. This was exemplified for him
in the conflict in the United States between the pursuit of wealth and the
available oppo rtunities open to members of society fo r making "big money."
After being subjected to criticism on the grounds that he was identifYing
normative conflict and anomie, Merton in a rejoinder admitted confusion
in his earlier fo rmulation and argued that structural conflicts might lead to
anomie in the delimi ted sense of normlessness. The original article and the
rejoinder may be found in Social Theory and Social Structure (rev. ed.; Glencoe,
Ill.: Free Press of Glencoe, 1 964), pp. 1 3 1 - 1 94 . Whatever the semantic gain in
this revision, it served to divert attention from the problem of institutional-
Chapter 4 Suicide and Solidarity 177
ized and ideological anomie which t-.1erton seemed to perceive earlier in the
American desire for "just a little bit more" of the good things i n life regardless
of how much o n e already had. In terms o f Durkheim's fo rmulation, the cases
of normlessness, normative contradiction, and normatively constrained o r
praised limitlessness shared t h e irrational quality of an absence of an institu
tionally grounded sense of !egitimate limits that was essential fo r reciprocity
and solidarity. I t would be interesting to trace the relations between anomie,
egoism, and the stress on aporia and double binds in deconstruction. For
a discussion relevant to this topic, see my History and Reading: Tocqueville,
Foucault, French Studies (Toronto: University o f Toronto Press, 2 0 0 0 ) , esp.
chap. 4. I t would also be o f interest to investigate the relations between
anomie, egoism, and trauma. On this issue, see my Writing History, Writing
Trauma (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2 00 1 ) .
20. Le Suicide, p . 324. Compare Nietzsche o n the relation o f infinite desire to
egoism: "From an infinite horizon he withdraws i n to himself, back into the
small egoistic circle, where he must become dry and withered; he may pos
sibly attain to cleverness but never to wisdom . . . . He i s never enthusiastic,
but blinks his eyes and understands how to look for his own profit or his
party's in the profit o r loss of somebody else" (Friedrich Nietzsche, The [lse
and Abuse ofHistory, Indianapolis and New York: Library of the Liberal Arts,
1 9 57 , p . 6 4 ) .
21. Le Suicide, p . 2 3 0 .
22. P. 4 2 .
23. Le Suicide, p . 3 2 5 . Although Durkheim referred to Chateaubriand, it may b e
observed that a magnificent anatomy o f anomie - indeed a myth o f the times
- was provided by Balzac in Le Peau de chagrin. See also Education morale,
p . 3 5 , where Durkheim refers to Goethe's Faust as the literary personage
who may be viewed as "the i ncarnation par excellence of the sentiment of
the infinite."
2 4 . Le Suicide, p. 326. Here one may refer to the protagonist in Dostoevsky's
Notes From Underground. See my discussion in History, Politics, and the Novel
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1 98 7 ) , chap. 2 .
2 5 . Ibid. , p p . 278-279.
26. "La Science positive de Ia morale en Allemagne," Revue philosophique, X X I V
( 1 8 8 7 ) , p. 4 1 . O f major french writers fo llowing Durkhe i m , the one with
basic assumptions closest to his own was probably Albert Camus. A highly
illuminating essay could be written com paring these two figures who are
rarely discussed together. From the initial insight into modern society as one
characterized by anomie and anxiety, through a consideration of the problem
of suicide, to the ultimate affirmation of a normative sense of l i m i t s , these
178 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
two thinkers defended the type of conventional wisdom which they believed
had become highly unconventional in the modern world. On Camus, see
my History and Memory after A uschwitz (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
1 99 8 ) , chap. 3 .
27. Le Suicide, p . 2 3 3 . Compare t h e early Nietzsche o n the need for limiting
horizons: "A living thing can only be healthy, strong and productive within a
certain horizon; if it is i n capable of drawing one around itself, or too selfish
to lose its own view in another's, it will come to an untimely end" ( The Use
and Abuse ofHistory, p. 7 ) .
28. L e Suicide, p . 3 1 1 .
29. Ibid. , pp. 2 5 9 - 2 6 0 .
30. Ibid., p . 2 2 2 .
31. Ibid. , pp. 1 6 9- 1 7 0 .
32. Ibid. , p. 3 1 1 .
33. Elie Cohen, Human Behavior in the Concentratz'on Camp (New York: Norton,
1 9 5 3 ) , p. 1 5 8 .
34. Childhood and Society (New York: Norton, 1 9 5 0 ) , p . 2 3 9 .
35. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit oJCapitalz'sm (New York: Scribner's , 1 9 5 8 ) ,
p p . 1 04- 1 0 5 .
36. Ibid., p . 2 2 1 , n . 1 6 .
37. Ibid. , p. 36.
38. Ibid. , p. 1 7 .
39. Ibid., p . 1 8 2 .
40. L e Suicide, p . 424.
41 . Ibid. , pp. 444-44 5 .
42 . For an acute analysis o f nihilistic social criticism i n pre-Nazi Germany, see
Fritz Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair (first pub. 1 9 6 1 ; Garden City.
N.Y.: Doubleday, 1 96 5 ) .
5
It is not goodfor man to live on a war footing in the midst ofhis immediate com
panions. This sensation ofgeneral hostility, the mutual defiance which resultsfrom
it, the tension which it necessitates are deplorable states when they are chro nic. If
we love war, we alro love the joys ofpeace. And the latter have all the more value
for men to the extent that they are more profoundly socialized, that is to say (for
the two words are equivalent) more profoundly civilized.
- Preface to t h e second edition of
The Division ofLabor in Society
Economic fmctions are not ends in themselves. They are only means toward an
end and organs ofsocial l(e. Social life is above all a harmonious commu nity of
(forts, a communion ofmindr and wills with a common end. Society has no raison
d' etre (it does not bring men a little peace - peace in their hearts and peace in
their commerce with each other. If industry can be productive only by troubling
this peace and causing war, it is not worth the trouble it costs.
- Professional Ethics and Civic Morals
Whatever Pascal may have said - and Comte mistakenly took u p his
celebrated fo rmula - mankind cannot b e compared to a man w h o ,
having lived through all p a s t centuries, still s u b sists. Rather, humanity
resembles an immense family whose d i fferent branches, which have
increasi ngly diverged fro m o n e ano ther, have b e c o m e l ittle by little
/86 J:rnile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
detached fro m the common trunk to live their own lives. Besides,
what assurance i s there that this common t r u n k ever existed?20
History can be a science only to the extent that i t explains, and expla
nation cannot proceed except through comparison. Otherwise, even
simple description is hardly possible; one cannot adequately describe
a unique fact, o r a fact of which one has only rare instances, because
o n e does not see i t adequately . . . . Fustel de Coulanges was fo n d of
repeating that true sociology i s history: nothing is more incon testable,
provided t h a t history is carried o n sociologi cal ly.30
the vague i d e a that they somehow emerged fro m the "collective substratum"
before attaining a relative autonomy i n entering into combinations with one
another. 3 5 This i d e a amounted at best t o a r e fo r m u l a t i o n of the n o t i o n that
social existence preceded social consciousness - a reformulation which was
vaguer than the 1arxist variant, since it d i d n o t contain even a rudimen
t a r y theory of the fo r m a t i o n o f ideologies. D u rkheim would have gained
much fro m closer attention to the c o n t e m p orary German con troversy over
methods (Methodenstreit) , fro m which Max Weber benefi ted so greatly.
D urkhei m's d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n was well expressed in an exchange
with the historian Charles Seignobos. Seignobos himself took an extreme
Rankean p o s i t i o n o n the i m p o rtance o f individual will in history a n d of
eyew i t n ess reports i n h i stori ograp hy. D u r k h e i m asserted:
A two-fold need gave rise to it: the need to b e extricated from the
past and the need to organize the present. The Revolution met only
the first of these needs. I t succeeded in striking the final blows at the
194 Emile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
Cmporatism
S p e c i a l i z e d r e g u l a t i o n s can b e m a d e o n l y b y elected a s s e m b l i e s
charged w i t h representing t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . I n the p r e s e n t s t a t e
o f i n d ustry, these a s s e m b l i e s , a s well as t h e t r i b u n a l s w h i c h a p p l y
Chapter 5 Theory and Practice 207
s o l i d a r i t y i n m o d e r n s o c i e ty. In e s s e n c e , t h e goal D u r k h e i m i n d i c a t e d
i n h i s i d e a o f t h e c o r p o r ative g r o u p w a s t h a t o f r a i s i n g s o c i e t y above t h e
m u n d a n e level o f t h e m e r e l y e c o n o m i c .
I f w e j u dge t h e m [ i . e . , c o r p o r ative g r o u p s ] t o b e i n d i s p e n s a b l e , i t i s
n o t b e c a u s e of t h e e co n om i c services t h e y c o u l d r e n d e r b u t b e cause
o f the moral infl uence they might have. What we s e e ab ove all i n the
professional group i s a moral power able to restrain i n d i v i d u a l ego
ism, m a i n t a i n i n t h e hearts o f workers a livelier s e n t i m e n t o f t h e i r
comm o n s o l i d a r i ty, a n d prevent t h e law o f t h e strongest fro m b e i n g
a p p l i e d so b r u t al l y in i n d ustrial a n d c o m m e r c i a l relations.69
I f e a c h s t a t e a d o p t e d as i t s e s s e n t i a l t a s k n o t t o grow or t o extend
i t s fro n tiers but to deal with i ts own autonomy as best it c o u l d ,
t o c a l l to an ever greater m o ral l i fe t h e vast rn a j o r i t y o f i t s own
m e m b e rs , then all c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e tween n a t i o n a l and h u m a n
m o r a l i t y w o u l d d i s a p p e ar. I f the state h a d n o fu r t h e r goal than
t o make its citizens men i n t h e fu l l s e n s e o f the word, t h e n civic
duties would be only a parti cular fo r m o f the general d u t i e s of
h u m a n i t y . . . . This patriotism does not exclude all national p r i d e .
Collective p e rsonalities, like individual personalities, c a n n o t exist
w i t h o u t having a certain sentiment a b o u t themselves and what they
are. And this s e n t i m e n t always has s o m e t h i n g p ersonal a b o u t i t . As
long as states exist, there w i l l b e s o c i a l s e l f-esteem, and n o t h i n g i s
m o r e legitimate. B u t societies c a n s e e t h e i r self-esteem, n o t i n b e i n g
greater o r wealthier, b u t i n b e i n g m o r e j us t , b e t t e r organized, and
in h a v i n g a b e t t e r m o ral c o n s t i t ut i o n . Needl ess to say, w e h ave not
yet reached the time when this p a t r i o t i s m reigns s u p r e m e , if ever
such a time can comeJ3
Durkhei m's mature thought itself provided the t h e o retical tools to situate
and transcend the controversy t h a t earlier had divided Gabriel Tarde and
himself. Earli er, Durkheim seemed t o champion p u r e constraint and formal
obligation. Wo rking within the same over-all frame of reference, Tarde i n
equally one-sided fash i o n espoused t h e cause o f inner s p o n taneity a n d the
exceptional individual. Durkheim seemed to be the official advocate o f the
fo rmal, p u b l i c , external, "false" self, a n d Tarde the devil's advocate of the
nonconformist, private, inner, daring s e l f, which in modern French cultural
Chapter 5 Theory and Practice 2 17
history h a d usually b e e n taken as the "real" self and the untouchable core
of the personality. Both, i n effect, had seized upon one dissociated element
of society and t h e personality in one type of social pathology. This context
did seem t o posit a total antipathy between society and t h e individual in
the fo rm of an o p p o s i t i o n between mass conformity a n d i n d i v i d u a l affir
mation i f not transgress i o n . But, in Durkheim's later conception o f social
normality, this d i c h o t o m y would be e l i m i n a t e d . G e n u i n e c o m m i t m e n t
would replace m a s s conformi ty. And, except i n the case of certain truly
exceptional individuals, t h e antagonism between self and society would b e
reduced t o marginal p r o p o rtions and perhaps assume more creative mean
ing for all concerned.
I t has already been observed that D u rkheim's concepts of social normality
and pathology did not go far beyond the p o i n t of tentative formulation. H i s
notion of social p athology especially suffered from inadequate theoretical
elaboration. A closer examination of Marx's thought - and o f Marx's own
use of Saint-Simon - would have been most informative. For example, some
distinction between pre-revolution ary, revolutionaty, and post-revolutionary
periods seemed necessaty. Durk heim himself seemed to believe t h a t revo
l u t i o n might b e inevitable when society found itself in a certain sort o f
structural b i n d . Revolution itself, he thought, was effective in i t s elimination
of certain vestiges of an old order, valuable i n the genesis of social ideals, and
generally unsuccessful i n the realization of i d e als in a new institutional order.
Revo lution appeared to b e on the b o rderline b etween social patho logy and
normali ty. Modern society - and especially his own France - seemed for
Durkheim to represent a post-revolutionary context that suffe red from an
afterbirth of disorientation and runaway change. Its pathology was in some
ways post-revolutionary. And this seemed to imply that i n modern society
violence would generally be self-defeating and that a different type o f social
action was mandatory. But precisely how these i d eas related to his conception
of normality and pathology and to other aspects of modern society - e.g.,
i ndustrialization - remained u n clear.
Let us return to Durkhei m's i d e a of the r e l a t i o n of t h e individual to
socie ty. At times D u rkheim was led b y b o th mechanistic dualism and an
emergent s o c i a l mystique to present a dissociated n o t i o n of the "whole
man" as a mere c o m p o s i t e of the organic and the social self. This tendency
was apparent in such i m p o r t a n t articles a s "Representations individu elles
218 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
notion of social pathology was more d i fli cult to define. This difficulty, as
well as i d e ological reasons, m a y explain the ill r e p u t e o f the concept among
social scientists in contrast with the b e t t e r fo rtune of psychopathology. Ye t
from a philosophical viewpoint, Durkheim's concept of social pathology had
a stronger critical basis and was, in a sense, logically prior. From Durkheim's
perspective, it w o u l d seem that the normal person would have to b e con
ceived normatively with reference to the normal society. He or she would
b e the person who lived i n accordance with m e a n i ngfu l, legitimate norms,
applying them with the requisite flexibility and harboring w i t h i n him- or
herself a marginal leaven of anomie. He or she would b e a "conformist" in
a very special sense of the term. And even in the normal state o f society,
t h e ideo logical "deviant" would n o t b e unequivocally in the wrong. I n fact,
Durkheim seemed to attribute a greater causal importance to the exceptional
individual in the normal state of soci ety, fo r in this context individual hybris
w o u l d correspond to the element of possibly creative a n o m i e i n experience.
And it would bear a more positive relation to society as a whole: it would
evoke a shared sense of the possible or, conceivably, t h e tragic which ritual
a n d other symbolic fo rms would simultaneously heighten and m i tigate. T h e
right kind o f social integration would itself help save the creative exception
from extreme psychopathology.
In the pathological state o f soci ety, the unquestioning conformist might
retain some semblance o f mental balance at the price of f urthering disin
tegrating fo rces i n society a t large. The person w i t h a psychopathological
adaptation might be more o r less off course than the conforming sociopath:
h e o r she might experience i n exaggerated fo rm the causes of anxiety in
society or reveal i n o b l i q u e and distorted fashion the symbolic bases o f
social normality missing i n t h e status q u o . (Thus o n e might suggest that
the schizophrenic lived in limiting fo rm the dualism b etween inner self
a n d outer reality; the comp ulsive neurotic performed rituals which had lost
their way.) Durkheim never gave t o his own conception o f social psychol
ogy and its relation t o the individual a truly c o n v i n c i n g fo rm u l a t i o n , a n d
I have extended h i s thought i n a certain direction. Despite t h e dangers o f
over-interpretation, i t m i g h t n o t b e stretching h i s thought t o o far t o see i t
a s tending toward a cultural conception o f psychopathology t h a t provided
the basis fo r a critique of the very concept of "mental illness." For within
the framework o f h i s thought, the very category o f mental illness might well
Chapter 5 Theory and Practice 225
tion of the relationship b e tween faith and reason. For Durkheim, moreover,
the basic nexus existed, not b e tween religion, the radically transcendent,
and the categorical imperative, b u t b e tween religion, i deal yet this-worldly
practices (including ritual), and communal spon taneity. The sacred did n o t
serve primarily t o enforce t h e strictness o f obligations; i t seemed t o enable
one to overcome a sense of compulsion by making social norms desirable and
even giving people a feeling of being at home in t h e world. " I t is far fro m
t r u e t h a t t h e notion of t h e imp erative i s t h e t r u e characteristic of t h e religious
side of morality. O n the con trary, one could show that the more a morality
i s essentially religious, the more the idea o f obligation i s effaced . " 1 02 Here
Durkheim did relate religion to the overcomi ng, o r a t least the mitigation,
of tragic antipathies in human existence.
With the idea o f t h e potential of community and the sacred in modern
socie ty, D u rkheim at least partially re-evaluated the nature o f myth and its
relation to reas on. H e seemed to imply that, insofar as myth d i d not c o n
t r a d i c t t h e substantive r a t i o n a l i t y o f the conscience collective, i t m i g h t well
serve to convey fo rms of understanding which complemented or s u p p l e
mented literal truth.
Notes
pp. 22-23. Durkheim traced one line of French social thought leading
fro m Montesquieu and Ro usseau through Saint-Simon and Comte to
himself and his school. It is interesting to contrast this tradition with the
less optimistic strand leading fro m Montesquieu through To cqueville and
Comte to thinkers like Raymond Aro n . On To cqueville see my History
and Reading: Tocquevifle, Foucault, French Studies (Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 2000), chap. 2 .
68. Le Suicide, p . 449.
69. Division du travail social, pp. xi-xii.
70. Le Suicide, p . 43 8 .
71. Socialism, p p . 6 1 , 6 2 , 247.
72. George Simpson, lntrod. to Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in
Society, trans. George Simpson (New Yo rk: Macmillan, 1 93 3 ) , p . xxvi i. See
also the interpretation of George Catlin, In trod. to Emile Durkheim, The
Rules of Sociological Method, trans. Sarah A . Solovay and John H . Mueller
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1 9 3 8 ) .
73. Lerons de sociofogie, pp. 90-9 1 .
74. An nie sociofogique, X ( 1 90 5 - 1 906) , 3 5 4 .
75. Quoted i n Montesquieu and Rousseau, p . 8 8 .
76. Education morale, p . 3 6 .
77. Regfes de fa methode sociofogique, pp. xx-xx i, n . 2.
78. Education morale, p . 4 4 .
79. Ibid. , p . 5 8 .
80. Sociologie et phifosophie, p. 5 2 .
81. Lerons de sociologie, p . 3 6 .
82. Regfes de fa methode sociofogique, p . 1 2 3 .
83. Education morale, p . 8 3 .
84. Division du travail social, p . 1 8 0 .
85. Sociologie etphilosophie, p . 5 1 . Durkheim did not see how dignity was a goal
of social action that could neither be simply assumed as a given nor postu
lated in an unqualified manner. Events such as the First Wo rld War, not to
mention later events such as the Holocaust, as well as "everyday" occurrences
in the treatment of others, like child abuse and wife battering, make the
simple assumption of dignity open to question. And the exclusionary use
of dignity with respect to women and people of color, along with its role
in denigrating nonhuman animals, render suspect any unqualified or abso
lute affirmation of dignity. Moreover, one would have to inquire critically
into the idealist functions of dignity to construe as inferior or even abject
certain activities (such as sex) or parts of the body (what Mikhail Bakhtin
referred to as "the lower body stratum") . And dignity would legitimately
232 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
individual, and if t h e same methods are emp loyed in both, would not the
diagnosis be justified that many systems of civil i zation - o r epochs of i t
- possibly even the whole o f humanity have become 'neurotic' under the
pressure of the civilizing trends? To analytic dissection of these neuroses,
therapeutic recommendations might fo llow which would claim a great
practical i n terest . . . . The diagnosis of collective neurosis, moreover, will be
confronted by a special difficulty. In the neurosis of an individual we can
use as a starting point the contrast presented to us between the patient and
his environment which we assume to be 'normal. ' No such backgro und as
this would b e available for any society similarly affected; i t would have to be
supplied in some other way. And with regard to any therapeutic application
of our knowledge, what would b e the use of the most acute analysis of social
neuroses, since no one possesses the power to compel t h e community to
adopt the therapy? In spite of all these difficulties, we may expect that one
day someone will venture upon this research into the pathology of civilized
communities." The " b ackgro und" fo r the analysis of social pathology was,
according to Durkheim, to be fo und in comparative studies and the inves
tigation of the relation of conditions, institutional structures, and cultural
values. One of the "uses" of this type of d i agnosis would be in furthering
legitimate critique and practice, including the critical understanding of
"mental illness" and of the role of those who do have the power or influence
to enforce conformity in a significantly patho logical sociocul tural context.
On the "therapeutic" level of social reform, Durkheim was less adequate
and only intimated the potential and dangers of various forms of political
action. For a sometimes simplistic development in a direction comparable
to that of Durkheim but within the Freudian tradition, see the works of
Erich Fromm, especially The Sane Society.
99. A similar in terpretation is applied to the tho ught o f Marcel Mauss by
Claude Levi-Strauss in his very im portant i n troduction to Mauss's Sociologie
et anthropologie (first pub. 1 9 5 0 ; Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,
1 9 6 8 ) , pp. xviii-xxii. Even Michel Foucault, in his early, excellent Maladie
mentale et psychologie (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1 9 5 4 ) , com
mits the error of identifying Durkhei m's concept of social pathology with
psych opathology and mental i l lness ( p . 7 5 ) . Within the Amzee school, the
problem of the relationship between social patho logy and psychopathology
was explored by Maurice Halbwachs in les causes du suicide (Paris: Alcan,
1 9 3 0 ) . And the problem was a central concern in the work of Charles
Blonde!.
1 00 . Education morale, p . 3 4 .
1 0 1 . Ibid. , p p . 9 5 - 9 6 .
234 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
A seeking, a searching.
To seek w h i t h e r ?
To s e a r c h t h e l a n d , t o s e e k t h e origin,
To seek out t h e base, to s e a r c h out t h e unknown,
To s e e k out t h e atua [spiri t ] .
May i t b e effe c t u a l .
- A M a o r i diviner's s p e l l
W h i l e o s t e n s i b l y s t u d y i n g o n l y a narrowly t e c h n i c a l e m p irical
material which might be t h o u g h t t o b e of l i t t l e general i n terest, he
manages to make it the vehicle fo r u n u s u ally far-reaching theoretical
reasoning. S o , while Les formes elr!mentaires de la vie religieuse is i n
o n e aspect a technical monograph o n Aust ralian t o t e m i s m , i t i s at
the same time o n e of the few m o s t i m p o rtant works on sociological
t h e ory . . . . In fac t only w h e n a monograph i s a t t h e same t i m e an es
say in theory can it be the highest type of e m p i r i cal s t u dy. D u r k h e i m
had the faculty of c o m b i n i n g the t w o aspects in a way that provided
236 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
D u rk h e i m c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e fee l i n g of s u p e r n atural m y s t e r y h a d
c o n s iderable i m p o rtance i n certain religi o n s , n o t a b l y C h ri s t i a n i ty. B u t i t
c o u l d n o t b e conceived a s a b as i c element o f Christianity i t s e l f since i t was
s u b j e c t to significant variations and even total eclipse in Western h i s t o ry.
A fo r t i o r i , i t c o u l d n o t b e seen as the essence of all religion.
This c o n c e p t i o n o f the s u pernatural and transcendental mystery was
highly significant. Durkhei m's thought was a fo rerunner o f m o dern "death
of G o d " t h eo l o gi e s , i n s o fa r as t h ey use " G o d " to refer to t h e r a d i c a l l y
transcendental o r t o tally o t h e r divinity o f Christianity who m a y e v e n be
recognized as a b s e n t . I n a d d i t i o n , he seemed to i n d i c a t e t h e p o s s i b i l i ty of
overcoming p o s i ti v i s t i c conceptions of science t h r o u g h a p h i l o s o p h y that
integrated m o d e r n rationalism i n t o a more c o m p rehensive v i s i o n of valid
experience. And he shifted the center o f gravity i n religious i n terpretation
from the s u p e r n a t u r a l t o a noti o n o f Le mervei/Leux intimately b o u nd u p
w i t h the sacred a n d co m m u n ity.
Durkheim deflned r e l i g i o n thus:
would b e lent to the claim that Durkheim had at least discovered a permanent
o r transhistorical aspect of human nature in society. In one fo rm o r another,
the b o n d between the sacred and community would m ake its relevance fel t
i n a l l social contexts.
Like his definition of religion, Durkhei m's attempt to distinguish religion
from magic had both substantive and functional comp onents. And it too
seemed most problematic o n the sociofunctional level which received the
bulk o f his attention.
Substantively, Durkheim held that both religion and magic depended
upon the distinction b e tween the sacred and the profane. They differed,
however, in their orientations to the sacred. Religion presented a "ritual at
titude" toward t h e sacred experienced in purely sy m b o l i c terms. If religion
involved an experience of the sacred as, so to speak, an end i n itself, magic
took the sacred as a means. It placed "sacred fo rces" in a causal circuit geared
to the achievement of practical, utilitarian effects. In extreme forms, this
manipulation of the sacred b r o ught a b o u t its profanation. I t may be paren
thetically noted that this p o i n t o f view was applied b y H u b ert and Mauss,
i n their ''Theorie generale de I a magie," to the relatio n s h i p between m agic
and technology. 8 From this point of view, technology secularized magic as
a means of controlling seemi ngly desacralized or disenchanated objects i n
the world.
D urkheim's distinction b e tween religion and magic paralleled the o p p o
s i t i o n , i n his m o r a l p h i l o s o p hy, b etween the normative and the u t i l i t arian.
Magic, fo r him, almost seemed t o imply a misappropriation of the p u b l i c
fu nd of sacred values for private and particularistic interests. T h i s aspect
of his argu m e n t was especially pronounced i n the more sociofu n c t i o n a l
e l e m e n t o f h i s d i s t i n c t i o n . H e r e , however, he p r o p osed d i fferential charac
teristics that were not universal in incidence and which, fu rth ermore, har
bored internal contradictions in their application to d i fferentiated types.
In considering social functions, Durkheim argued that religion was incon
ceiva b l e w i t h o u t a church but t h a t "there was n o c h u rch of magic."
Between the magician and the individuals who consult him, as between
these individuals themselves, there are no lasting bonds which make
them m e m bers of t h e same m o ral c o m m u n i ty, comparable to t h a t
fo rmed b y b elievers i n the s a m e god or t h e observers o f t h e s a m e cult.
242 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
The magician has a clientele and not a church, and it is very possible
that his clients have n o relations with one another, even to the point
of not knowing one another; even the relations which they have with
him are generally accidental and transient; they are like those of a sick
man with his d o ctor.9
Thus the magician might provide services for individuals whose per
sonal problems were n o t adequ ately resolved in the dominant system. Yet
Durkheim's argument harbored a number of difficulties. These related both
to the natur e of symbolic systems and to their social fu nctions in a "church"
of beli evers. In the context of The Elementary Forms as a whole, a church
obviously meant a solidaristic corporative group that especially emphasized
the existence o f moral community among its members. But Durkheim did
not attempt to relate this notion t o the problem of highly bu reaucratized
churches or h i ghly i n dividualistic sects.
In order to appreciate Durkheim's conception of religion and i t s relation to
magic, it is useful to distinguish b etween ( 1 ) sym b o l i c systems that integrate
religion and magic as elements of a more inclusive paradigm, (2) symbolic
systems that dissociate religion from some forms of magic, a n d (3) sym b o l i c
systems t h a t dissociate religion from all fo rms o f magic. T h e s e three types
of symbolic systems may then be related to the existence and strength of a
church, in the limited sense of a solidaristic corporative group.
I n "primitive" societies, magic and religion were, typically, integrated
elements of the same over-all p aradigm. Durkheim a t times seemed to rec
ognize this. But h e did not see the ways in which b o t h religion and magic
served to integrate the same corporate group (or "church" ) . A rain ritual
which insured a good crop fo r the group as a whole did not work invidiously
for the beneflt of special or private interests. And i t was in "primi tive" soci
eties, where the integration of the meaningful content and social function
of religion and magic was strongest, that the element of moral community
was most marked .
T h e history of Christianity in the West, which was often Durkheim's
implicit frame of reference, revealed different developments. As i t became
increasingly b u reaucratized and less communal, Catholicism did dissoci
ate religion and certain forms of magic. "White" o r beneficent magic was
assimilated into the dominant symbolic system as miracle. " B l ack" o r ma-
Chapter 6 The Sacred and Society 243
b o t h naturism and animism were identical: these theories either ignored the
sacred or reduced i t to a groundless i l l u s i o n . " N o t only would the s ym b o l s
through w h i c h religious powers a r e conceived m a s k i n p a r t t h e i r t r u e nature,
b u t , furthermore, b e h i n d these i mages and figures there would be only the
nightmares of uncultivated minds. Religion would in the last analysis b e
only a systematized a n d lived dream w i t h o u t any fou ndation in reality. " 1 3
Despite i t s partial validi ty, D urkheim's elaborate and somewhat tedious
critique of naturism and animism had all the qualities of a refutation o f
heresies. H e d i d n o t a s k w h a t the r o l e o f the relationship between humans
and nature might be in religious systems o r w h a t part metaphor (which is n o t
always "mere" m e t a p h o r ) might have in articulating this relationship. And,
although the Australians referred to the mythical past as "dream time," he did
not i n q u i r e into the p l a c e of the "night s i d e " of life in religious experience.
I n fact, h e seemed to conceive dreams in a n arrowly Cartesian manner that
denied them all cognitive value. Nor did h e rej ect reductionism as a m o d e
of interpretation. Prefacing h i s own reductionistic interpretation of totem
ism, h e simply denied the validity o f competing forms o f reductionism in
naturism and a n i m i s m . The refutation of h e resies i n s h o r t was a prerequisite
of apologetics. T h e style o f argument became i n c reasingly theological.
Certain aspects o f D u rkheim's treatment o f totemism were analytically
independent of his social metaphysic. B u t the growing i n terpenetration of
his theory of totemism and his social m e taphysic certainly contributed to his
i m p ermeability to mounting evidence that falsified some o f his elementary
assumptions. Durkheim believed that totemism was a global institution that
combined kinship and religion. In other words, he assumed that the same
gro up (the clan) shared both kinship and religion and that the same object
(the totem) was the family name or emblem and the object o f religious sym
bolism.
The primary source for facts on the Australian tribes, which were the
presumed object o f Durkheim's crucial experiment, was the exemplary mono
graph by Sir Baldwin Spencer and Francis James Gillen, The Native Tribes of
Central Australia. 14 The Arunta ( o r Aranda) tribe received extensive treatment
b y Spencer and Gillen and by Durkheim. What were the foits cruciaux? There
was no identity among the patrilocal territorial group, the partilineal exogamic
gro u p , and the totemic group with a territorial base. Religion was dispersed
through various elements of cultural life, including religious confraternities not
Chapter 6 The Sacred and Society 247
identical with the fo rmer groupings. The totemic groups, moreover, were n o t
stro ngly constituted as corporate entities. The central r o l e of t h e intichiuma
ceremony o f the totemic groups, which Durkheim attempted to interpret i n
predominantly religious terms a s a "primitive" sacrifice involving oblation and
communion, d i d appear to be predominantly magico-economic in nature.
To Durkheim's dismay, Sir James Frazer had already made this point. Indeed,
Mauss himself had argued i n the Amzee sociologi q ue that the seeming act of
"communion" i n the "totemic sacrifice" was performed b y the totemic group
i n order t o consume the sacred element of the totem and thereby free i t for
profane consumption by other groups. 1 5 This consumption created a meta
phoric link b e tween the intichiuma ritual and the ordinary economic life of
soci ety. The m a n i fest purpose of th e ritual was to assure the reproduction of
the animal species. M oreover, exogamic marriage rules applied to patrilineal
moieties (or phratries) and to marriage classes within them determined by
generati on. The totemic affiliation, in contrast, did not regulate exogamy and
was determined b y the ancestral totemic spirit mythologically associated with
the s p o t at which the mother believed herself to have conceived the child.
In the face of s i m i lar evidence which c o u l d n o t be i n tegrated into the
paradigm o f a global totemic institution, Durkheim resorted to ingenious
and factually gratuitous evolutionary arguments. Indeed his general response
to hostile evidence for which h e could n o t otherwise account was to argue
gratuitously that i t corresponded to a later ( o r earlier) state of society than
the one he was addressing. Indeed evolutionary ideas were more important
in D urkheim's attempt to relate the "original" totemic institution to known
facts about certain societies than in his attempt to relate these to other types
of societies. In such Annee articles as "La Prohibition de l'inceste et ses origi
nes" ( 1 8 9 6 ) , " S u r le totemisme" ( I 900), and " S u r I' organisation des societes
australiennes" ( I 9 0 3 ) , h e had laid the groundwork fo r The Elementary Fo rms
by attempting to explain away counterevidence by imaginative accounts of
the "original" totemic institution and how it had evolved into one known
form or another. T h e primary impression left by these efforts is comparable
to that left by Ptolemaic astronomy when it was compelled to resort to in
creasingly intricate epi cycles in order to account in some way fo r i ncreasingly
unmanageable evidence.
It m i g h t b e maintained that even if one concedes that D urkheim failed
to provide a n adequate general theory o f t o t e m i s m , t h i s fai l u r e did not
248 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
to In regrate society.
Thus, fo r Dur kheim, the center of religion as an o perative o r perfor
mative fo rce was the cult. And central to the cult was the nexus between
symbolic m a n i festation and solidarity, especially in i t s intensely communal
forms. People experienced the strongest b o n ds w i t h one another when they
demonstrated that they held the same thi ngs sacred.
For the most part, D u rkheim's socio logical epi stemo logy was a corollary
of his social metaphysic. But, as in the case of h i s theory of religi o n , one may
attempt to extricate other elements of the argument and situate them in the
context of his thought as a whole.
The sociology of religion had, in Durkheim's mind, an i n tegral relation
to epistemo logical problems, since h e believed that the first "collective repre
sentations" were religious in nature.
crisis which leaves h i m disconcerted and dis abled. If, for example, i n
a d u l t h o o d h e suddenly realizes t h a t his religious beliefs l a c k s o l i d i ty,
he may collapse m o rally. His intellectual and emotional life is par
alyzed . . . . Thus it is far from the case that truth i s a l ways attractive
and s e d u ctive. Quite of ten, i t resists u s , o p p oses o u r d esires, and has
a hard quality about i t . 2 4
The catego ry, in other words, was neither a p u rely nominalistic l a b e l nor
the natural scaffolding o f the m i n d . I t was s i m ultaneously a sociocultural
given and the product of human activi t y - an historical monument b ui l t t o
withstand t h e erosive pressure of a n o m i e . On t h e whole, however, D urkheim
remained closer t o the apriorist side o f the classical antagonism, and h i s
social metaphysic revealed the extent to which h e was unable t o transcend
dualism through a more dialectical or dialogic m o de o f t h o u g h t . H e was
possessed o f an inordinate sense o f the conceptual presence o f categories.
Chapter 6 The Sacred and Society 259
This was i n d i cated i n his specific interpretation of structural analysis and the
i m p o rtance o f the concept. 'To conceive a thing is simultaneously to grasp
more adequately its essential elements and to situate it within a whole; for
each civilization has i t s organized system of concepts which characterize i t .
Before this system o f notions, the individual m i n d is i n t h e s a m e situation
as t h e N o u s of Plato before the world of ldeas."32
In The Elementary Forms, the problem of determining the essential con
stituents o f religion joined that o f comparing science to symbolic systems
prevalent i n "primi tive" societies. Ye t in this respect Durkheim's argument
was almost entirely s u b o rdinated to his social metaphysic. As a preface to
t h e discussion of the m e taphysical chapter of Durkheimism, it is interest
ing t o c o m p are t h e a t t e m p t o f Claude Levi-Strauss to address h i mself to
problems similar to those of Durkheim.
Although Levi-Strauss refuses to admit a philosophical intention, his
book La Pensee sau vage ( Th e Savage Mind) might well b e taken as a study
i n epistemology. In this work, Levi-Strauss sought out a structure of the
mind that was pre-eminently characteristic of certain societies b ut which
represented a p e r m a n e n t given, o r at least an ever-present possibi l i ty, i n
human experience. T h u s t h e object o f i n vestigation was n o t t h e thought
of the savages but savage thought as a symbolic form o r archetypical m o d e
of articulating experience. T h e English t e r m "savage thought" ( a n d even
more so, "the savage m i n d , " with its resurrection of Lucien Levy-Bruhl and
his penchant fo r unbridgeable antipathies b e tween the primitive and the
modern) obviously fails t o capture the relevance and symbolic weight of
the French express i o n . La pensee sauvage refers ambiguously to culture (a
structure of the human mind) and to nature (to a species of fl ower, the wild
pansy). Thus it not only l i terally denotes, but metaphori cally expresses, the
t y p e of comprehensive paradigm that correlates culture and nature.
Within Ia pensee sau vage, one may distinguish two dialectically related
levels, or (in the Hegelian sense) "moments." La pensee sauvage constitutes
une theorie du sensible o r a structure of percep t i o n , b u t it o p e rates s i m u l ta
neously on two levels: the literal and t h e metaphoric. Often its meticulous
classifl.cations of natural phenomena can b e correlated w i t h those o f positive
sciences like b o tany, which approach reality o n the same strategic level of
perception. In all cases, it manifests a close and sustained attention to natural
phenomena and processes that are o p e n to sensory perception. Moreover,
260 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
If i t can i n a sense b e s a i d t h a t r e l i g i o n c o n s i s t s o f a h u m a n i z a t i o n
of n a t u r a l laws and m a g i c o f a n a t u r a l i z a t i o n o f h u m a n a c t i o n s
- t h e t r e a t m e n t o f c e r t a i n h u m a n a c t i o n s as if t h e y w e r e a n i n
tegral p a r t of physical d e t e r m i n i s m - t h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t these
are alternatives o r stages i n an e v o l u ti o n . T h e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m
o f n a t u r e (of w h i c h religion consists) an d t h e p h ys i o m o r p h i s m
Chapter 6 The Sacred and Society 261
Social Afetaphysic
T h e l a s t i n g a c h i e v e m e n t o f L e v i - S t r a u s s i n a n t h r o p o l ogy w a s t h e
awareness t h a t s y m b o l i c systems, e s p e c i a l l y i n certain s o c i e t i e s , engaged
p r o b l e m s o f m e a n i n g and coherence; t h a t t h e i r r e d u c t i o n to social factors
(or u t i l i t a r i a n n e e d s , economics, b i o l o gy, and so fo r t h ) might i t s e l f be a
reB ection of m o d e r n e t h n o c e n t r i s m ; a n d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m was, rather, the
r e l a t i o n s h i p s among vari o u s levels o f experience and signifying p ractices.
But sociologism, social fu nctionalism, and radical social constructivism are
t h e o p e ra t i o n a l " r a t i o n a l ization" ( i n t h e Web e r i a n sense) of D u r k h e i m's
thought, w h i c h at times c o n s c i o u s ly e m p loy t h e language o f p e r s pectives,
interests, and arbitrary i n i t i a l definitions. D u rkheim's sociologism was p a r t
a n d p a r c e l o f a genuinely m e t aphysical v i e w. D u r k h e i m n o t o n l y r e t a i n e d
t h e classical c o m m i t m e n t to truth a n d realistic defi n i t i o n , b u t h i s search
fo r the reality o f things was c o nveyed in a n i n creasingly mystiq u e - l a d e n
fo rm o f d i s c o u rs e w h i c h h e used to reco u n t a n e l a b o r a t e myth of origins
and an i d eology o f modern so ciety which had a d i s t i n ctive r o l e i n his
own Third R e p u b l i c .
26 4 Emile Du rkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
In The Elementary Forms ofthe Religious Life, the argument that religion
was the origin o f culture culminated i n the idea that society was the origin
a n d essence of religion. Since the fi rst ideas of humans were representations
of religious reali ty, soci ety was consequently also the origin of the catego
ries. InThe Elementary Forms, the piece of argument directly addressed to
the identity o f G o d and society was little more than a fo rm of pars pro toto
legerdemain fo llowed by a string of rhetorical questions:
Everything leads u s back to the same idea: i t is that rituals are above
all else the means by which the social group reaffi rms itself peri
odi cally. F r o m t h i s , we m a y perhaps arrive a t a hypothetical recon
struction of the manner in which the totemic cult must primi tively
have been born. Men who feel themselves united in part through
bonds o f b l o o d b ut still more through a community o f interests and
traditions assemble and b e c o m e conscious o f their moral unity . . . .
T h e moral effi cacy o f ritual, which is real, led men to believe i n
i t s physical effi cacy, which is i m aginary . . . . T h e truly useful effects
which ceremonies produce are like the experimental j ustification of
the elementary practices of which they are c o m posed.40
Chapter 6 The Sacred and Society 265
T h e full sweep and nature of the argu m e n t in The Elementary Fo rms are
better understood if one sees it i n the light o f D urkhei m's preparatory articles
o n related p r o b l e m s , especially his study of the i n c e s t t a b o o .4 1 Durkheim
began with the root assumption that social solidarity and social structure
were u l t i m a t e realities and explanatory p r i n c i p l e s . Continuity with his
earlier thought was embodied in the belief that community was prior to
the structural differentiations which stemmed fro m it. Beginning with the
idea of a group o f people who had some sense of their m o r a l and social
c o m m u n i ty, Durkheim introduced the idea o f "collective effervescence" as
a transitional force that led to the genesis of religious cults. Collective ef
fervescence was in this sense a sacralizing, mana-like elan, which intensified
the sense o f c o m m u n i ty until i t attained religious proportions and p r o p e l l e d
humans from the s t a t e of n a t u r e i n t o t h a t of c u l t u r e and soci ety.
I n h i s article on the incest t a b o o , Dur kheim was even m o r e specifi c
in his elaboration o f a sociologistic myth of origins. Seized by a n inten
sifi ed sense of their own solidarity, the group selected a totem to serve as
its e m b l e m . Its unity was s o l i d i fi e d b y the myth o f a common t o t e m i c
an cestor w h o s e blood w a s im agined to Row i n t h e v e i n s o f t h e c l a n . T h e
asso c i a t i o n b etween t h e imaginary m ythical b l o o d o f t h e c o m m u n a l clan
and the very real menstrual b l o o d of its fem ale members presumably p r o
v o k e d horror at t h e idea o f c l a n endogamy. T h u s , although totemism was
i n fact a restricted p h e n o m e n o n and the p r o h i b i t i o n of i n c e s t a universal
p h e n o m e n o n , the myth of origins, which led fro m s o c i a l solidarity to
t o t e m i s m , caused Durkheim to b e lieve that incest derived fro m a s p e c i fi c
totemic taboo. Evolutionary i d e a s , i n t h i s way, t o o k on a fully mythical
cast. I n d e e d D u r k h e i m's d i fficulty with p r o b l e m s of gender and sexuality
was here m a n i fest in a particu larly bewildering, question-b egging form .
H e relied on a logic ( o r non-logic) of association t o l i n k the m e t a p h o r i c
blood mythically s h a r e d by the c l a n and the r e a l menstrual blood o f i t s
women m e m b e r s i n o r d e r to provide a p s e udo-explanation fo r t h e p r o
h i b i t i o n of incest. W o m e n , w h o m D u r kheim d e s c r i b e d a s "a t h e a t e r o f
bloody manifes t a t i o n s , " were singled o u t , even scapegoated, as a point o f
spreading contagion that provoked ritual anxiety o r p h o b i a in the m e n o f
t h e clan - a sacred horror w h i c h somehow p r o d u c e d t h e incest t a b o o .
T h e profound i l l o g i c o f t h i s seeming l o g i c o f association n o t only derived
the universal (the incest taboo) fro m the particular or at best the typical
266 J:rnile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
his s o u l . We have the same reasons to fee l this sentiment for the
collectivi tyY
What constitutes the authority which colors ro readily the word of the
priest is the elevated idea h e has of his mission; for he speaks i n the name
of a god i n which he be lieves and toward which h e feels closer than the
crowd of the profane. The lay teacher can and must have something
o f t h i s s e n t i m e n t . He too is the organ of a great moral person which
transcends him; this is society. J u s t as t h e priest is the interpreter of
his god, so the teacher is the interpreter of the great moral ideas of his
time and country.43
In short, society has "all that it takes [tout ce qu'i l fout]" to inspire the
idea of the sacre d , " b ecause i t i s to its members what a god is to b elievers."44
Durkheim perceived social metaphysics as the symbolic groundwork fo r a
conception of social ethics that allowed fo r sentiment and emotion. Indeed the
much-heralded "death of G od " was b u t a prelude to t h e b i rt h of Society.
One will notice the analogy be tween this line of reasoning and that by
which Kant demonstrates God. Kant postulates God because, without
this hypothesis, m orality is unintelligible. We postulate a society spe
cifi cally distinct from individuals b ecause otherwise morality i s without
an object and duty without an anchor point . . . . Between God and
society one must choose . . I may add that, from my point of view,
. .
guide to humanity. Once these hours have been experienced, men will
spontaneously fe d the need to keep their memory alive through feasts
which periodically reproduce their creations. We have already seen how
the French Revo l u t i o n established a w h o l e cycle of holi days to keep
the principles with which it was inspired in a state of perpetual youth.
If this institution q u i ckly fell away, i t was because the revolutionary
fai t h lasted b u t a moment, and disappointment and discouragement
rapidly succeeded the first moments of enthusiasm. Although the work
miscarried, i t enables us to imagine what might have happened in other
conditions; and everything leads us to believe t h a t it will be taken up
again sooner or later.46
Notes
1. Robert Lowie, Primitive Religion (f rst pub. 1 924; New York: Universal Press,
1 9 5 2 ) , p. 1 57 .
2. Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (first pub. 1 93 7 ; Glencoe,
I l l . : Free Press , 1 94 9 ) , p. 4 1 1 . Later Parsons made a similar evaluation: "An
thropological research has enormously enriched our knowledge in this field,
though Durkheim's codification and analysis of Australian totemism remains
perhaps the most eminent single monographic contribution, because it is
both a great monograph and much more than that" (In trod. to Max Weber's
The Sociology ofReligion [Boston: Beacon Press, 1 96 3 ] , p . xxvii). See also On
Durkheim's Elementary Forms of the Religious L{(e, ed. N . J . Allen, W. S. F.
Pickering, and W. Watts Miller (London: Routledge, 1 9 9 8 ) .
3 . I I ( 1 897- 1 8 9 8 ) ; i n Kurt Woolf, e d . , Essays o n Sociology and Philosophy (first
pub. 1 9 6 0 ; New York: Harper & Row, 1 964), pp. 3 5 0 -3 5 1 .
4 . Les Formes elimentaires de la vie religieuse (4th ed.; Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France, 1 9 6 0), p. 1 1 .
5 . " D e L a Definition d u phenomene religi eux," Annie sociologique, I I ( 1 897-
1 8 98 ) , 1 3 .
G. Formes ilimentaires de la vie religieuse, p p . 3 5 - 3 6 .
7. Ibid. , p . 6 5 .
8 . Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss, "Esquisse d'une theorie generale d e Ia
magi e," Annie sociologique, VII ( 1 9 0 1 - 1 902) ; reprinted in Marcel Mauss,
Sociologie et anthropologie (first pub. 1 9 5 0 ; Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France, 1 98 8 ) , pp. 3- 1 4 1 .
9 . Formes ilimentaires de !a vie religieuse, p p . 6 1 - 6 2.
10. Lerons de sociologie (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1 95 0 ) , p . 222.
1 1 . Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss, "Essai sur I a nature et la fo nction du sac
rif ce," Annie sociologique, II ( 1 897 - 1 8 9 8 ) ; in Mauss, Oeuvres, I: Les Fonctions
sociales du sacri, ed. Victor Karady (Paris: Les Editions du Minuit, 1 96 8 ) ,
p p . 1 93 - 3 0 1 . S e e also Roger Caillois, L'Homme e t le sacri (Paris: Gallimard,
1 9 5 0 ) , and Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane (frst pub. 1 9 5 7 ; New
York: Harper & Row, 1 9 6 1 ) . Eliade's other works, especially his Cosmos and
History (first pub. 1 9 5 4 ; New York: Harper & Row, 1 9 5 9 ) , are important i n
this respect. Equally relevant are the works o f Rene Girard, especially Violence
and the Sacred, trans. Patrick Gregory (frst pub. 1 97 2 ; Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1 979) and Things Hiddm Since the Foundation
of the World, trans. Stephen Bann and Michael Metteer (first pub. 1 97 8 ;
Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1 9 89) .
274 Emile Durkheim: Sociologist and Philosopher
theory o f religion in these terms: " I n every human society there inevitably
exist two different and in a certain sense conflicting conceptions of nature.
One o f them, the naturalistic, is implicit everywhere in technology, and i n
o u r twentieth century European culture, with its great development o f con
trol over natural phenomena, has become explicit and preponderant in o u r
thought. T h e other, which might be called the mythological o r spiritualistic
co nception, is implicit in myth and in religion, and often becomes explicit
in philosophy" (Structure and Function in Primitive Society [London: Cohen
& West, I 9 5 2 ] , p. I 30 ) . As indicated earlier, radical social constructivism
of various sorts (including discursive constructivism) has recently become
important, and its relation to Durkheim's social metaphysic (or sociologism
in general) is typically not noticed. One finds it at times i n the influential
work of Frank Ankersmit, Judith Butler, Joan Scott, and Hayden White. It
has the value o f critically reversing conventional essentialism and bringing to
the fo regro und factors (such as performativity or gendered presuppositions)
obscured in conservative epistemologies (including Durkheim's) . But to the
extent it remains within a framework of reversal, it does not provide the
basis for a more thoroughgoing critique and rearticulation of assumptions.
O n these issues, see my Writing HistorY> Writing Trauma (Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 2 00 I ) .
3 9 . Formes elbnentaires de Ia vie religieuse, p . 2 3 6 .
4 0 . Ibid. , p p . 5 5 3 , 5 I 3 .
4 I . "La Prohibition de l'inceste et ses origines," A nnee sociologique, I ( I 896- I 897),
I -7 0 ; trans. Edward Sagarin, Incest: The Origins and the Development of the
Incest Taboo (New Yo rk: Lyle Stuart, I 96 3 ) . Judith Surkis discusses this article
and its implications in her Cornell University dissertation, "Secularization and
Sexuality in Third Republic France, " chap. 4. I am indebted to her analysis
fo r certain ideas expressed in the next two paragraph s .
4 2 . Sociologie etphilosophie (first p u b . I 924; Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,
I 9 63 ) , p. I 08 .
4 3 . !;Education morale (first p u b . 1 934; Pari s : Presses Universitaires de France,
I 9 63) , pp. 7 8 , 72-73.
44. Formes elbnentaires de Ia vie religieuse, p . 2 4 5 .
4 5 . Sociologie et philosophie, p p . 74-75.
4 6 . Formes elbnentaires de Ia vie religieuse, p . 6 I I .
47. Bu!leth2 de Ia Societe Fran'lise de Philosophie, sessions of Feb. I I , March 2 2 ,
1 9 06 (Paris: A l can, p . 1 70 ) .
280 J:rnile Durkheirn: Sociologist and Philosopher
Epilogue
I h ave written, oft e n as a critical foil, and because the emphasis of the pres
ent work is primarily on social thought in France. I refer only scantily to
the work o f the A m zee school, although I devote s o m e attention to Marcel
Mauss. And I try t o indicate t h e ways i n which Claude Levi-Strauss, t h e
"inconstant disciple , " b u i l t , often in highly critical o r p r o b l e m a t i c ways,
u p o n the D u rk h e i m i a n heritage. B u t i m p o r t a n t t h i n kers like M a u r i c e
H albwachs, M a r c e l G r a n e t , a n d G e orges Davy are shortchanged, because
I believe that the work of the An n ee school can be better treated in a broader,
more synthetic study o f m o d e r n French social thought.
T h i s b o o k , then, concentrates on t h e thought of D u rk h e i m and at
tempts t o r e c o n s t i t u t e his ideas i n a way that is fai thful to his presentation
o f them, i n dicates his c o n c e r n fo r i m p o r t a n t problems i n s o c i a l l i fe , a n d
responds t o h i s thinking i n ways that m a y a t t i m e s help t o carry i t fo rward
c r i t i cally and c o n s t r u ctively. What may o n e c o n c l u d e a b o u t D ur k h e i m ' s
t h o u g h t i tself?
On a practical level, Durkheim attempted a reconciliation, o r at least an
articulation, of liberal, conservative, and radical traditions. The dominant
fo rce in h i s t h o u g h t was w h a t I h ave t e r m e d h is p h i l o s o p h i cal conservatism,
a n d this served as the capstone of his critical and constructive attempt at
articulation. Above all, D u r k h e i m w a n t e d the emergence o f a s o c i e t y t h a t
viably related legitimate order and progress, reason and s e n t i m e n t , structure
and creativity. With increasing insistence, h e saw m o dern society as passing
through a transitional period that confronted people with the problem of
anomie. Anomie was especially pronounced in the economy. And the corpo
rative gro up was D urkheim's specific means of overcoming social "pathology"
a n d instituting "normality" i n m o d ern life . In general, h e tried to w o r k o u t
a s e l e ctive a n d discriminating critical p erspective o n m o d e r n s o c i e ty. Given
his view o f social n o r m ality, he asked what deserved t o b e preserved and
what ought to be changed in modern s o c i a l life. But often Durkheim was
not penetrating enough i n his investigation of existing social realities and not
t h oroughgoing e n o ugh in his c o n c e p t i o n o f n e e d e d reforms. His t e n de n cy
t o avoid the hard problem of s p e c i fi c processes and agents of change was
abetted by his inclination to envision ideals abstractly and t o project their
approximate realizatio n i n t o an indeterminate fu ture.
D u rkhei m's thought vacillated b e tw e e n a n analytic d i s s o c i a t i o n o f
reality and a m o r e o r less open dialectical v i s i o n . At times there s u r faced
Fpilogue 283