What is maintenance?

i. Maintenance: refers to work undertaken in order to keep or restore a facility/property to an

acceptable standard.

To keep: means to maintain to the same or nearly the same physical and functioning level as
original.

To restore: means to put back to the same or nearly the same original physical and functioning
level

Acceptable standard: means that physical and functioning level which sustains the utility and
value of the utility/property. This is because there is no absolute standard which is satisfactory in all
cases all the time.

ii. Maintenance management: refers to activities undertaken to make sure that capital investments
are protected as well as ensuring acceptable working environment for users, depending on the
quality of investment and costs in use.
iii. Asset management: refers to the process of creating register of assets, and conserving the assets for
the operations of the organization. Thus creation of data base and property maintenance are
components of asset management.
iv. Property management: refers to process directed at maintaining the value of property as a
resource and includes:

Overseeing physical maintenance

Rental assessment and collection

Enforcement of lease covenants

Advise on whether to maintain, rehabilitate or redevelop

v. Conservation: refers to the preservation of facilities including their maintenance so that they may
continue serving their useful purpose as well as retaining their historical and cultural features for
posterity.

Nature and types of maintenance

1. Purpose of maintenance: primary purpose of maintenance is to preserve, keep or restore a

facility/property to its initial state to the extent practicable or to an acceptable standard so that:

i. It remains in a state that is neither dangerous nor injurious to the health of the occupants
i.e. it must maintain health and safety standards for public health

ii. It continues to provide functional utility for which it was intended: as a factory, mosque,
hospital, state house, etc)

iii. It retains the value of investment as a capital asset thus continuing to provide adequate
return on investment
 iv. It presents good appearance: preserving the character of the neighbourhood and enhancing
the self-esteem of both owner and occupants, i.e. the way we look is not very different from
what we are.

2. Maintenance activities

There are basically three activities that constitute maintenance works namely:

i. Servicing: day to day routine chores that maintain cleanliness and order

ii. Rectification: making good faults arising from design, unsuitable materials or poor
construction

iii. Replacement: restoring some worn out materials or components due to wear and tear or
incorrect use

iv. A fourth type of activity often confused with maintenance are any works of a capital nature
carried out to improve on the original design or as major overhaul to the original design and
specification such as modifications, alterations, renovations, which are improvements to a
facility rather than maintenance Such works add more than retain the original design.

3. Types of maintenance

The three maintenance activities usually categorised by the manner in which the works are executed
namely:

i. Planned preventive maintenance: work organised and carried out with forethought and intended
to reduce the probability of failure or performance degradation namely:

Scheduled maintenance at pre-determined intervals

Condition-based maintenance based on continuous monitoring

Running maintenance carried out when machine is in service

Preventive shut-down maintenance, when factory closes down for maintenance

ii. Planned corrective maintenance: work organised and carried out after a failure has occurred i.e.
advance provision is made in form of labour and spares so that work is carried out through:

Corrective shut-down maintenance carried out after failure but for which expenditure provision had
been made

Emergency corrective maintenance to avoid serious consequences.

iii. Unplanned/emergency/breakdown maintenance: ad-hoc maintenance as a result of unseen or

damage due to external sources. It may also described as wait and see maintenance

2. Economic of maintenance

2.1. Determinants of maintenance

 While there may be no absolute standard for all facilities all the time largely on account of
economic and social considerations, there, however, some standards are universally
applicable such as structural stability or public health concerns. Thus what is injurious or
dangerous to the safety and health of occupants/users of a building or facility should not be
in doubt.

However, considerations for upholding investment value, preserving character of the

neighbourhood or enhancing esteem of owners and occupants, could perhaps be subject to
varying interpretations.

Therefore the determinants of maintenance standards or factors which influence decisions

on how to maintain a facility, are complex and sometimes conflicting, and in particular they
include the following:

i. Design factors(acts of omission/commission during design and construction)

ii. Statutory requirements

iii. User requirements /Type of user

iv. Value considerations

v. Budgetary constraints

2.1.2. Influence of design on maintenance

Any building/facility is designed to satisfy the functional requirements for utility, aesthetics,
and user-friendliness.

However, the need for maintenance arises either from normal wear and tear or defects of
omissions/commissions during design, choice of construction materials/components,
construction phase, and the use/abuse during occupation.

Informed design should draw a balance between functional requirements and the overall
financial commitments (initial and maintenance costs) throughout the life cycle of the
building/facility.

There exists an inverse relationship between initial costs (purchase/construction) and future
maintenance costs, so that a reduction in future maintenance costs may be obtained by
increasing initial costs and vice-versa.

The problem is to determine the optimal model for the inter-relationship of initial and future
costs of a development project at the design stage. A technique often used in this
determination is called life-cyle costing.

2.1.3. Value considerations

Properties that are tradable in the market require some minimum level of maintenance for
them to attract market value.
 The optimum level of expenditure on maintenance should be that which gives maximum
return, i.e. point at which marginal increase in maintenance expenditure equals marginal
value ( dv/dm=1).

For properties which do not trade in the market the marginal value is synonymous with
utility/functional value. The appearance of a building must be acceptable in terms of culture,
religion, defence or status.

The way things look is not irrelevant to the way things work: how they look is how they
should look.

The concept of obsolescence.

A building or other facility has three types of life: the physical life; the functional life; and
the economic life that need to be preserved so as to avoid negative/reducing effect called
depreciation.

Depreciation on physical life of a building arising from wear and tear or physical impact is
called physical depreciation

Depreciation on the functional life of a building, arising from errors/omissions in design

(room sizes, ceiling heights, facilities/amenities) is called functional obsolescence and is
regrade as curable obsolescence. Works carried out to achieve desired standards are called
improvements or rehabilitation.

The depreciation/loss in value arising from conditions external to facility that affect its
character/degree of utilisation, hence less demand (presence of a nuisance, outmigration,
economic downturn)is called economic obsolesence, and regarded as incurable
obsolescence. It cannot be corrected through maintenance, except by demolition or change
of user.

Obsolescence sometimes in depreciation when it precipitates physical deterioration

because when demand falls property gets neglected and suffers severe physical
deterioration leading to demolition

The present value concept:

Economic obsolescence is incurable, but physical and functional obsolescence can be cured
through maintenance and rehabilitation, respectively. Rehabilitation involves conversion and
modernisation beyond the routine maintenance.

However, with time it may be necessary to consider whether to continue to maintain,

rehabilitate or demolish a building or facility. The decision is normally made in favour of
higher present value of proposed development.

The comparison is made between modernisation and replacement with a new facility on the
same site, with both values being discounted to the present value.
 Present Value, Y is denoted by Y=1/(1+i)^n, where I represents the interest/discount rate,
and n represents period by which the rehabilitation/redevelopment will be realized
/mature.

2.1.5. Budgetary constraints

In industry, the responsibility of maintenance is to ensure that the facilities/equipment used

in production are operating at the required level of productive efficiency and are available
when required.

Thus inadequate maintenance would not only lead to costly repairs but to lost production as
well.

Optimum equipment availability is achieved when the total sum of maintenance costs
(preventive + corrective) is at minimum.

When less preventive maintenance is applied breakdown maintenance increases and

equipment availability reduces. It is therefore possible to reduce breakdown costs and
increase equipment availability by increasing preventive maintenance upto a point when the
sum of the two is at minimum, and that becomes the optimal point.

Thus equipment availability (operating level of efficiency when required) may determine how much
maintenance is necessary and what to spend on the same, this being where the total sum of the two
is at minimum.

2.2. Life cycle costing

Life cycle costing is a tool to be used in the decision-making process, the objective being to
ensure the best value for money over the economic lifespan of the asset with the time value
of money being taken into account.

It is comparative evaluation of time-phased costs (total/whole life costs) and revenues

attributable to a project/asset/component over a specified project life. The total /whole life
cycle cost of the asset is the sum of initial acquisition costs and subsequent running costs of
an asset over its operating life.

It is also known as whole life-cycle costing, cost-in use, engineering economics, cost-benefit
study or terotechnology.

The process contains parallel and inter-related phases namely:

i. Establish the objective and justification for the project

ii. Identify the life-cycle/total/whole costs likely to occur in the life of the project

iii. Formulate assumptions to be employed in the analysis(lifespan, discount rates,

frequency/incidence of life costs, etc

iv. Rank the alternative cost scenario using any comparative methods of analysis including
NPV, IRR, Annual Equivalent (AE), Payback period, etc.
 v. Subject the results to further sensitivity analysis to the various cost factors so as to
rationalise acceptable alternative.

2.3. Service life prediction

2.3.1. Need for service life prediction

The need for Sustainable Construction necessarily imposes inherent requirements for
specified levels of durability of building materials and components and it is understood that
these can only be entrenched within the construction sector through standardization.

Standards for service life prediction are needed to support application of the performance
approach: an organised procedure within which it is possible to state the desired attributes of
a material, component or system in order to satisfy the requirements of the user without
regard to the specific means employed in achieving the results.

Standards, including practices and guidelines for predicting service life would support the
performance approach by facilitating evaluation of long-term performance(durability
performance) of both new and traditional materials and components in their intended service
environments.

Facilities management: .A new concept in property industry that embraces a wide range of
property and user-related functions. It is the active management and co-ordination of non-core
building services (buildings, fittings and furniture, plant and equipment, IT, etc) together with
associated human resources necessary to assist an organization achieve its strategic objectives.

Facilities management:
Facility management is an interdisciplinary field primarily devoted to the maintenance and care of
commercial or institutional buildings, such as hotels, resorts, schools, office complexes, sports
arenas or convention centers. Duties may include the care of air conditioning, electric power,
plumbing and lighting systems; cleaning; decoration; groundskeeping and security. Some or all of
these duties can be assisted by computer programs. These duties can be thought of as non-core or
support services, because they are not the primary business (taken in the broadest sense of the word)
of the owner organization
The term facility management is similar to property management although not exactly the same.
While both manage the day to day operations of a facility/property such as cleaning, maintenance
and security, similar to Janitors, one must not confuse it with such a title.
i) The property manager has an expanded role which includes leasing and marketing activities
whereas the facility manager role focuses on existing tenants who usually are owner occupants.
ii) An important feature of facility management is that it takes account of human needs of its
tenants in the use of buildings and other constructed facilities. These softer factors complement
the harder factors associated with the maintenance and care of engineering services installations.
The term "end-user satisfaction" is often used both as a goal and a measure of performance in
facilities management.
The discipline of facility management and the role of facility managers in particular are
evolving to the extent that many managers have to operate at two levels: strategic-tactical and
operational. In the former case, owners need to be informed about the potential impact of their
decisions on the provision of space and services. In the latter, it is the role of a facility manager
to ensure proper operation of all aspects of a building to create an optimal environment for the
occupants to function.

This is accomplished by managing some of the following activities.

i) Environmental Health and Safety: Building Cleanliness; Waste Removal; Occupational Health
and Safety; Hazardous Material compliance, etc.
ii) Mechanical Systems: Maintenance including preventive and predictive maintenance of:
HVAC/R (Heating, Ventilating, Air conditioning and Refrigeration) to regulate Indoor Air
Quality and Temperature Control; and Elevator Maintenance

Power Systems maintenance including

Normal power such as Electrical Substations and Switchgear
Emergency power systems such as Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, and Standby
generators

Building Systems:
includes Building Automation Systems (BAS), Building Monitoring systems (monitoring
capabilities only) and Security and Locks.

Life/Safety Systems:
that includes Sprinkler systems, Smoke/fire detection systems, Fire Extinguishers; Signage and
Evacuation Plans.

Space Management:
includes Office Space Layout and Furniture Placement and Systems
In summary typical functions of Facilities Management which can either be outsourced or
carried out by a combination can of in-house and outsourcing can be summed up as
a) Facility acquisition whether through development, purchase or lease
b) Strategic facility space planning, particularly space allocation for people and equipment
c) Support services such a office administration
d) Facility operations and maintenance, in particular to achieve equipment availability as well as,
health and safety of users. Thus maintenance though would seem as merely one of the activities
of facilities management, it is indeed a major and critical activity performed during the
operational phase of a buildings life cycle, which normally extends over many decades.

Statutory requirements
Some legislation may prescribe standards of safety or hygiene to achieved in the management of
assets notably, lifts and fire equipment, preservation of monuments or structural safety of
buildings. For example:
Antiquities and Monuments Act (1983) prescribe that no person is allowed to destroy, alter or
deface monuments or do any work that would impair the preservation of monuments, nor extend
or modify the external of the monument.
Public Health Act requires that buildings are constructed and maintained in such a manner that
they are neither injurious nor dangerous to health of dwellers; nor dilapidated/ defective as to
be unsafe.
Registered Lands Act(1963)(section55), states that to keep a building in repair,shall in the
absence of express provision to the contrary mean in such a state of repairs in which a prudent
owner might reasonably be expected to keep his property due allowance being made for age,
character and locality of the building at the commencement of the lease
Other pieces of legislation that make reference to property maintenance include Occupational
Safety and Health Act(2007),Local Government Act(Revised 1998),Sectional Properties
Act(1987),laws relating to landlords and tenants, etc .

Basic user requirements

 These include the provision of shelter from weather and provision of acceptable indoor
environmental conditions. These may be realized through the three levels of care: basic level,
intermediate, and intensive/highest level of care.
However, sometimes user requirements go beyond what was originally designed, in which case
they call for improvements rather than maintenance, as for instance, new facilities are added.
User requirements will also depend on the type of facility and status symbol, such that
maintaining a classroom is relatively less demanding than maintaining a hospital ward, a
presidential suite in a hotel or the state house grounds. Similarly, maintenance level of a life
support equipment is certainly higher than any other equipment in a hospital.

The concept of duty of care:
Like a hospital patient a building or other facility requires varying levels of attention
throughout its economic life, notably
i. basic care: cleaning/servicing,
ii. intermediate level of care: inspections and repairs, and
iii. intensive care: replacements/renewals of components.
The needs can be determined at the design stage, then subsequently monitored and re-appraised
regularly when the building is in use, and appropriate level of attention given so that the
building can continue to fulfill its functions.
The concept of duty of care marries in well with planned preventive maintenance
See figure on Levels of maintenance in the context of duty of care
Environmental Building design and management:
In recent years the number of green buildings being constructed has steadily grown. Using
environmentally sustainable design principles, these buildings have the potential to lessen their
impact on the environment. However, practising sustainable site management and ensuring that
green buildings actually operate as efficiently as their design intended, is vital for a complete
project success.

Poor construction management, an ill-informed handover process, lack of effective and timely
maintenance and lack of understanding of building services can lead to disappointing results.
Higher than expected energy and water consumption and unforseen construction waste generation
can add to a buildings environmental footprint.

In essence, environmental building design will only lead to a truly sustainable building if the project
includes a sensible and well conceived construction management approach and an ongoing building
management allowance, including:

an early commitment to environmental targets

a demolition and construction waste minimisation strategy

an operation waste separation strategy

regular tuning of building services

sensible use of building services, such as heating and cooling devices

preparation of a Building Users Guide.

Benefits:

Thorough construction and building management may initially appear as a costly add on, but in
reality, it will lead to major benefits for many stakeholders involved. Sensible construction
management may lead to the following benefits:
construction cost savings and financial security

compliance assurance in regard to relevant regulations

occupational health & safety (OHS) risk minimisation

effective cooperation between trades

overall process efficiency.

Effective and long term building management strategies may lead to the following benefits:

security that building services perform in accordance with design specifications (building
commissioning)
 assurance that buildings maintain performance throughout different seasons and occupancy changes
(building tuning)

maximised occupant amenity

reduced utility costs

minimised environmental footprint.

Impact:

Construction and demolition can lead to significant impacts on neighbours and the environment.
These arise from construction waste, energy and water use, traffic flow, air pollution and noise
disturbance. In order to minimise these impacts, practice best environmental construction standards
as early as possible.
Its worth noting that not only large-scale projects can lesson their environmental impact during the
construction process, but smaller ones as well. Adopt a recycling target for demolition and
construction waste. A best practice target should be a minimum of 70% (by mass).

Another important consideration during the construction phase is the prevention of stormwater
pollution from construction sites which can cause significant harm to our lakes, rivers and ocean.

Building Users Guide

As is the case with any technical product, a users guide or instruction manual should be provided
with it. A building is no different. A Building Users Guide (BUG) should be provided, especially
in large commercial and residential developments. It can be provided in the form of a booklet, even
in combination with up to date information on a website, or on digital screens in a buildings
entrance area. The provision of a BUG can substantially improve the buildings environmental
performance. It will assist:
property managers in operating the building asset efficiently

contractors to understand how to service and maintain particular building systems

occupants to understand their ability to influence a buildings internal amenities without minimising its
overall environmental performance.

A BUG should be written in a non-technical style and outline a developments:

key environmental strategies and targets

concept and implementation of passive design strategies (e.g. use of flexible shading and night
ventilation)

building services controls (e.g. heating, cooling and hot water systems)

potable and non-potable water supply

onsite energy generation

sustainable material choices

pro-active maintenance regime

fine-tuning strategy, especially for complex HVAC systems

 sustainable transport opportunities (including bicycle parking provisions, end of trip facilities and
availability of public transport)

waste minimisation and separation policies

provision of sub-metering and the interpretation of the metering data

environmental monitoring or participation in environmental reporting schemes

building management and other building supply contacts.

Smaller developments should consider operational needs when including building services such as
solar hot water or photo-voltaic panels and flexible shading elements or automated windows. While
these installations will drastically improve the performance of a building, only regular maintenance
will ensure long and efficient service.

Ongoing Building Management:

Ongoing Building Management, including regular maintenance and tuning of building services, and
providing a Building Users Guide is just like regularly servicing a car and driving it in accordance
with road regulations. In both cases, the car and the building will deliver their best performance.
For developments that include considerable amounts of mechanical, electrical and hydraulic
building services this is particularly the case. It is recommended to consider building tuning
requirements and commitments at the early design stage of such a building.

Its important to note that inefficiently performing services, such as HVAC plants, may not only
impact on indoor environment qualities but may also increase running costs, greenhouse gas
emissions and disturb neighbouring properties.

NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL IN BUILDINGS:

The energy consumption in the building sector can reach up to 40% of the total energy demand of
an industrial country. For this reason, green building strategies can be extremely effective as far as
fossil fuels savings and greenhouse gases reduction. Sustainable materials can play an important
role, since less energy is generally required for their production than the one needed for
conventional materials. There are only three basic ways to attenuate or reduce sound, whether at the
source, at the listeners location, or along the path it travels from the source to the receiver:
1. Replace the sound source with a quieter one.
2. Block the sound with a solid, heavy material that resists the transmission of sound waves.
3. Absorb the sound with a light, porous material that soaks up sound waves.
Many new materials for noise control as alternatives to the traditional ones have been proposed in
recent years. These materials can be divided into two main categories:
- natural materials;
- recycled materials.

There is a great variety of natural fibres proposed for thermal and acoustical applications; most of
them are commercially available such as coconut, kenaf, hemp, mineralized wood. As for natural
materials, the less treated they are, the higher they perform in energy saving; native materials have
to be preferred to reduce transport energy. It is well known that natural fibres have negative impact
as far as climate change due to CO2 absorption during the growth of the plant. Nevertheless other
performance have to be considered: vegetal fibres are more subject to fungal and parasites attack
and are less resistant to fire than mineral fibres. The non-toxicity of the chemical products used for
cultivation must be taken into account too. Many recycled materials, such as waste rubber, metal
shavings, plastic, textile agglomerates can be used to prepare acoustic materials. It can be useful to
mix various recycled materials of different granulometries to obtain the desired performance; in
these cases a binder or glue have to be added in a proper proportion.

SOUND ABSORPTION
Natural fibres are generally good absorbers. The extremely wide variety of natural fibres allows to
find a suitable material for almost every absorbing need. Many natural materials as kenaf, flax,
sisal, hemp, cork, sheep wool, bamboo or coconut fibres show good absorbing performance and can
therefore be used as sound absorbers in room acoustics and noise barriers.

In particular, bamboo and sisal fibres show an absorption coefficient at 1000 Hz and more very
close to the one of glass fibres (more than 90). Kenaf panels show an absorption coefficient higher
than 0.80 above 500 Hz. Coconut fibres panels have an absorption peak of about 80 at 1000 Hz, for
flax panels the peak reaches 90 at 800 Hz while for sheep wool panels the peak is 90 at 3000 Hz.
Vegetable wastes such as grass, pine or gorse leaves, corn cobs, used in sandwich panels, have an
absorption coefficient similar to polyurethane foam or mineral wool. Reed matting has been
recently proposed for absorption applications, with excellent performance at medium-high
frequencies. Not all natural materials, of course, have satisfying absorption performance: wood and
cork, for example, due to their structure, show poor absorption properties.
Among alternative materials from a mineral origin, expanded clay, expanded perlite, expanded
vermiculite, pumice can be quoted. Expanded clay shows good sound absorption performance in a
wide frequency range (higher than 0.80 in the range 500-5000 Hz), though it requires quite a high
amount of energy for its production.
The recycled material mostly used to correct the sound environment in enclosed spaces is cellulose
obtained from used newspapers, added with flame retardants and biocides. Wet cellulose fibres are
generally sprayed directly on walls or ceilings and their sound absorption properties are even better
than those of mineral wool: absorption coefficient is over 0.70 in a significant frequency range
(500-1000 Hz). Other promising materials are metal shavings and textile agglomerates. Rubber
crumbs are good acoustic materials with a broadband absorption spectrum and are particularly
suitable for traffic noise barriers, also due to their durability.

Cold extrusion processes have been recently proposed to obtain porous materials from recycled
carpet waste; the results show absorption coefficients very close to the ones of a standard
commercial glass wool . Also Polyester fibrous materials, made from recycled plastic bottles (PET),
have been recently investigated.
Environmental control operates at the interface between a buildings physical and technical systems
and its human occupants, or, less visibly, automatically and often under the supervision of
computer-controlled building management systems. Perhaps seduced by the promise of technology
rather than its delivered performance, designers assign more functions to automatic control than are
usually warranted and, knowingly or not, make the interfaces obscure. They then often do not seem
to make clear to the client the management implications of the technology, and whether these are
acceptable to them. Simpler and more robust systems are required, with greater opportunities for
users to intervene - especially for opportunities to override existing settings, better feedback on
what is supposed to be happening and whether or not the system is actually working. This point is
picked up in more detail later under design intent. Building design is split into architectural and
building services tasks, often with surprisingly little integration between them. Poor attention to
detail in building controls is a common symptom of an incomplete design and specification process
with gaps between areas of professional responsibility. As well as lack of recognition of the
problems here, there is also an absence of tools for specification and briefing, and absence of
suitable standard componentry and systems. Manufacturers find it difficult to invest in suitable new
or modified products to meet such requirements, owing to a diffuse market with no well-articulated
demand. Those who have tried have found success elusive. For example, the promising
environmentally advanced Colt window system was taken off the market as a complete package.

AIRBORNE SOUND INSULATION

Several natural materials are commonly used as thermal and acoustical insulation in multilayered
walls: among these flax, coconut, cotton, sheep wool and kenaf mats are the most present on the
market. Their sound and thermal insulation performance are in many cases as good as those of
traditional materials. Many studies have demonstrated that the sound insulation of double-leaf walls
with low density animal wool (sheep wool) or heavy vegetal wool (latex-coco) is equal or better
than the one of walls with mineral wool or polystyrene of the same thickness (about 69 dB in heavy
double walls). Loose-fill cellulose fibres and batts made of cellulose or flax fibres in timber frame
walls showed the same airborne insulation of glass wool. Also mineralized wood panels with
magnesite or Portland concrete are used for sound insulation applications, as well as cork panels,
with satisfying properties. Dry loose cellulose fibres are already commonly used for thermal and
acoustical insulation by filling the cavities in walls and roofs, especially in the United States. When
it is obtained fromrecycled newspapers, it appears to match energy and raw materials savings and
health issues. As for the acoustical properties, they are as good as traditional material ones.

IMPACT SOUND INSULATION

This is probably the most common use for many natural materials (cork, coconut fibres, wood,
wool) and also for many recycled materials. Resilient layers made of natural materials can be very
good for floating floors to increase impact sound insulation: when the panels are accurately
designed and installed, their performances are as good as other traditional materials.
Recycled rubber layers made of waste tyres granules are an interesting alternative to traditional
materials, especially now that tyres are banned from landfills. Because of the large amount of used
tyres available worldwide, new applications have to be found and their use as impact sound
insulating layers is very promising . Also recycled carpet wastes are interesting materials as far as
impact sound insulation, especially if made of a mixture of fibrous and granular waste. The acoustic
properties of these underlay materials compare favourably with those of commercially available
ones. Rw (dB) of heavy double walls (each 7 cm of concrete) with different materials used as
insulation in the gap Another proposed material is EVA (Ethylene-vinyl Acetate Copolymers)
residues employed in the manufacturing of shoes soles; thanks to its elastic properties, the
performance is comparable to traditional materials, with a reduced cost [29]. Finally, wood tailings
and cork shavings have been recently investigated, as well as natural wool; the main peculiarity of
these materials is the aptitude to keep acoustical performance nearly constant in time.
INSUFFICIENT MAINTENANCE OF BUILDINGS:

Maintenance problems in buildings could be prevented or minimized by optimizing processes of

design, using certain tested components which give maintenance strength to buildings. By properly
resolving these components as design inputs at the planning stage, the architects can fully arm the
buildings against future maintenance problems.

It is known that maintenance objective is primarily to preserve buildings in their initial functional,
structural and aesthetic states. This is to ensure that they continue to remain in such state and retain
their investment value over a long period of existence.

Poor functioning of facilities in most of buildings is a consequence of inadequate maintenance

management. While this may be true on one hand, it only addresses maintenance as a repair service
that only comes up when a building grinds to a halt or when the facilities have partially or totally
broken down.
This can however be argued whether the exact nature of maintenance problems in some buildings
could never be traceable to certain factors or conditions that are inherent in the design and
production of the building.

Maintenance problems, in most cases could have originated from inappropriate planning for such
failures even from the architects drawing board. From inception, high maintenance strength could
be implanted into the building to avert such future breakdowns.

By putting more emphasis at the design stage, the design process could be optimized in such a way
that adequate planning on choosing the right materials, structural strength, good workmanship,
plants and equipment, skilled labor etc. are made. This will make maintenance problems totally
reduced later in the buildings life.

Most buildings are left un-maintained largely due to:

1. No replaceable building materials for the foreign ones used.
2. No enough skilled technical personnel to carry out such maintenance.
3. The technology used was foreign to the generality of people.
4. The designs were done outside the country
5. Economic recession was harsh and did not support foreign exchange
6. The local building materials industry is not developed to produce such materials.
7. No serous research into building materials for local production.

LACK OF INTEGRATION OF CONSTRUCTION PROCESSES

One major hindrance in making maintenance-free buildings achievable is however the fact that
our construction processes are still sequential in nature. They are only linked at the terminal tail end
of each other rather than overlapping and benefiting from one another.
If the design process is to be enhanced, the building team (i.e. architects, planners, engineers,
contractors and including the clients, maintenance officers and all major actors in the construction
industry) need to come together and contribute towards the buildings maintainability at the project
inception rather than leaving it for the maintenance personnel at the end of construction to battle
with the curative measures or emergency maintenance.

CAUSES OF MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS:

Building services rarely perform as well as desired. The causes emanate from deficiencies in design,
construction, commissioning, tenancy work and maintenance. Many researchers have also observed
that the generators or causes of maintenance problems could be looked at under three main
divisions:
1. Causes initiated during the design stage.
2. Causes initiated during the construction stage.
3. Causes initiated during the usage stage or the users carefree attitudes (Bad maintenance culture.)
All these could be planned for during the design stage. However, unfortunately, by the provision of
the normal contract system, designers of buildings rarely have a long span interest in the buildings
they produced; hence, they become divorced from the maintenance problems that follow from their
bad designs.

Design and construction faults that affect Maintenance of buildings:

They could be controlled or minimized during the design stage:
1. Defects in civil design: These include inadequate provisions for structural movement, ignoring the
effects of aggressive environments and weather conditions, ignoring biological effects, inadequate
structural design of foundations, ignoring variations in soils conditions, ignoring load impact on
structural stability e.t.c.
2. Architectural defects in Design: These include among various defects, Narrow. Stairs, passages and
doors, not considering local climatic conditions for exterior shapes and materials, inadequate joints
between finishes, specifying wrong finishes etc
3. Defects due to consultant firm Administration and staff: These include lack of quality Assurance and
Quality control during design
4. Defects due to construction Drawings: These include lack of references, conflicting details and lack of
details
5. Defect due to construction inspection, unqualified inspectors, lack of inspection.
6. Defects due to Civil Construction: Inaccurate measurement, damaged form- work, inadequate water
proofing, premature formwork removal, poor soil compaction etc.
7. Defects due to contractual administration: Lack of compliance with specifications, inability to read
drawings, insufficient site supervision, poor communication between the design team, contractor and
the client.
8. Defects due to construction materials: These include differential thermal movements in dissimilar
materials, selection of inappropriate or non-durable materials e.t.c
9. Defects due to construction equipment, improper use of equipment, inadequate performance of
equipment and lack of required equipment.
10. Defects due to specification: These involve unclear specifications, inadequate materials; not
specifying allowable load limits etc.
11. Design Defects in Maintenance practicability and adequacy (Utility): These include not considering
space or exit equipment for Maintenance workers, not designing permanent fixtures which could be
removed for Maintenance, etc.

Provisions for proper and efficient maintenance of building are:

Structural Strength: Inadequate structural strength in buildings automatically leads to failures and
breakdown of its fabrics and an eventual maintainability problem.

Specified Materials: The durability, appropriateness, replace-ability and cost of the specified materials
and components can determine the maintainability of the building. The designers must therefore ask
themselves if the materials they are specifying will satisfy the above conditions. This is because while
some materials may be more durable, weatherproof, aesthetically pleasing, and cheap, some others may
be costly, unavailable for replacement and not easily re-fixable. The more the number of irreplaceable
components on a building, the higher the maintainability problem of the building.

Maintenance Manual:
If every electronic item bought always come with operating manual, a building which is more costly,
durable and complex needs more than production blueprint (Working Drawings) which most clients do
not even know how to read. Architects need to provide a maintenance manual together with the working
drawings. Such manuals on the dos and donts of how to use the facility should be part of the design
documents right from the design stage. This is why the facility managers (i.e. maintenance managers)
need to be members of the design team as advisers to the architect. The architect should therefore as a
matter of duty give the client adequate instruction on how to maintain the building after the
construction.

Safety Measures: Unforeseen problems like natural disasters, fire accident, earthquake, tsunamis etc.
need to be planned for. This means that the design team needs to look beyond the immediate to
safeguard properties. If additional strength is injected as extra into the design, this goes a very long way
to protect buildings at such critical periods. Are there facilities to prevent such occurrences e.g. sprinkler
system, smoke and fire detectors against fire, are there adequate underground and elevated water
reserves, is the damp proof course (DPC) level high enough against flood, is the buildings structural
strength adequate to withstand certain level of tremors, hurricane, bomb explosions, Also the building
intelligent is enough to automatically protect itself when necessary.

Skilled Maintenance Personnel: Another reason why many buildings suffer serious maintenance
problem is the incompetence of those who are to maintain such buildings or unavailability of such
personnel. An extra thought on the availability of skilled personnel to manage a proposed building
before the designs are finalized will go a long way either in removing such problematic part of the
design or not. If a skilled personnel to maintain such aspects of the building or its component part is not
available in the country, there is no need specifying such component part. The design team therefore
needs to critically plan this ahead of the time before such becomes a problem during the facility
management. The rule should be Use only the available skill, avoid the imported.
Maintenance Plants and Equipment:
The level of preparation for these items during the design stage in most cases determines the level of the
buildings maintainability.
Just like the skilled personnel above, there is no need to add any part of the building of which the
equipment to maintain has to be imported. The mere fact that the equipment is not available within the
country is an indicator of a future maintenance problem especially if you know that the country is not
industrialized enough to manufacture such equipment. The architects would therefore do their clients
good favor by designing buildings of which maintenance equipment are cheap, easily operated and
locally available.

Maintenance Utility: When all other factors that lead to an effective maintenance of a building have
been taken care of, but such conditions like the spaces, facilities, and the wherewithal to make such
maintenance activities easy, fast and possible are not provided, the main problem remains. Many
buildings do not have adequate spaces or other necessities through and with which maintenance works
are carried out. Maintenance personnel at times cannot freely perform their tasks as there are no
entrances or passageways to some of the facilities. Questions on this need to be asked and thoroughly
answered by the designers before the designs are finalized.

Usage: Unplanned control of use in buildings has constituted one of the few greatest maintenance
problems in buildings. In this part of the world, buildings are generally misused, overused and at times
maliciously damaged. When this is well planned for, certain situations and programmes can be inputted
into the building to guide against wrong usage. This can be in form of warning, alarm, refusal to work,
or switching off (e.g. lift system) or signals as preventive measures. Lift system should not work if more
passengers than necessary are on board. Materials that can be overused should be highly reinforced for
maximal use.

Post Construction Preventive maintenance management: In most cases, clients are not aware that
there is a need for a maintenance management of their properties. Building maintenance has to be
managed. Planning for such should not be taken lightly as a lot is involved in such management
activities. However, if such management activities are not adequately planned for, there is every
likelihood that a lot is neglected. The best solution for this is again to make a maintenance officer a
member of the design team, so that the maintenance manual prepared for the building during the design
stage has his input as an adviser to the architects. By the time the building is completed, the
maintenance officer just continues to function doing his job.

Building maintenance
It is the combination of technical and administrative actions to ensure the items and elements of a
building in an acceptable standard to perform its required function.

Classification of Maintenance:

1. Condition-based Maintenance: is maintenance when need arises

 2. Corrective maintenance: is required when an item has failed or worn out

3. Planned maintenance: is a scheduled service visit carried out by a competent agent

4. Predictive maintenance: prediction when maintenance should be performed

5. Preventive maintenance: performed specifically to prevent faults from occurring

6. Proactive maintenance: is a maintenance strategy for stabilizing the reliability of equipment

7. Reliability centered maintenance: is a process to ensure that assets continue to do what their users
require

8. Value driven maintenance: is a maintenance management methodology

Objectives of maintenance:

1. To extend the useful life of the buildings and prevent premature capital outlay for replacement

2. To satisfy Lender / Insurer requirement, to provide a safe, secure and efficient working & living
environment and to avoid deterioration of physical assets

3. To maximize the aesthetic and economic values of a building as well as increase the health and
safety of the occupants

Benefits of maintenance:

The benefits can be short term or long term and can be reflected in the areas of physical, financial or
human resources.

A. Maintenance will preserve the physical characteristics of a building and its services. There will
be fewer breakdowns and lower future maintenance costs, higher productivity, less wastage of
materials and improve organization sales revenue.

B. The improved condition of the building gives positive effect to the users resulting in lower staff
turnover, better customer relation and public image.

Maintenance Planning

1. Maintenance planning should start at the design stage of any building project and should continue
throughout the life of that building

2. Many buildings are destroyed not by outside forces such as weathering factors like heavy rains or
drought but by insufficient/improper design during the design stage, through bad housekeeping,
inadequate maintenance and neglect during its full operation.

3. Minor problem which can grow into a major one through neglect, and which can be multiplied in
many buildings

4. All new buildings, as a matter of course, should be provided with a maintenance manual

Importance of building maintenance:

1. It was important that buildings continue to be properly maintained to ensure that they can
function as efficiently and effectively as possible
2. the deterioration of buildings due to the lack of maintenance could lead to future financial
burdens, pose legal and other industrial relations issues and affect the delivery of services

3. Identifying building problems and understanding of building materials and its mechanical and
electrical systems are aspects of the process of preserving and conserving building quality and to
ensure the efficiencies of the facilities

Categories of building maintenance:

Building maintenance can also be categorised according to who carries out the maintenance work:

A. Housekeeping maintenance: carried out by property managers or

B. Second line maintenance: carried out by specialist building trades people.

Maintenance plan:

The main reason for a maintenance plan is that it is the most cost-effective way to maintain the
value of an asset.

The advantages of a plan are:

1. the property is organised and maintained in a systematic rather than ad-hoc way;

2. building services can be monitored to assist their efficient use

3. the standard and presentation of the property can be maintained

4. Objective decision making

Periodic inspection survey

1. All properties should be inspected at regular intervals to identify any deterioration and required
maintenance work, including cleaning

2. Maintenance was inappropriate or if there is design or material defects

3. All records should maintained for reference

4. Advantageous to record the long-term performance of repair materials and procedures in order to
assess their suitability for future maintenance work

Maintenance review:

The effectiveness of the maintenance work shall be reviewed regularly. An important part of the
maintenance planning for a building is to improve the previous decisions to maintain the asset so
that subsequent maintenance expenditure will be more effective

Issues considered when reviewing the work include:

was it necessary or appropriate

the timing and standard
time frame of the planned
 maintenance work
Preparing a budget:

The aim of a maintenance budget is to reduce managed expenditure over time as far as possible and
replace it with variable expenditure. Regular inspections can help by identifying how components
are performing and when they might fail. Annual budgeted expenditure on maintenance can be of
three kinds:

1. committed expenditure, which includes tasks that occur every year as part of planned
maintenance, such as maintenance contracts;

2. variable expenditure, which includes regular tasks within an overall program of planned
maintenance that may not occur every year. The building manager exercises some discretion and
decides on priorities for these tasks;

3. managed expenditure, which relates to unplanned maintenance works carried out entirely at the
building managers discretion

Preparing a maintenance program:

Two levels of programming are required.

1. long term maintenance cycle, which can extend to 50 100 years of a building life

2. annual maintenance: annual inspection survey, day log book or diary and work carried over from
the previous year. The daily response system for carrying out urgent maintenance should be
upgraded annually.

Priority for maintenance work:

This implies setting priorities for different works. Some of the factors affecting priorities are:

1. occupational health and safety

2. security of premises

3. statutory requirements

4. vandalism

5. increased operating costs

6. loss of revenue

7. disruption to business operations

8. likely failure of critical building fabric

9. policy decisions.

Maintenance Factor:

During Design Stage Common Faults by Engineers are:

most designers claimed to have knowledge and experience on building maintenance aspects but
only few are aware of the importance to consider maintenance factors during design stage

main problems that the maintenance firms are currently facing are caused by building design
deficiencies, poor construction quality and poor performance of building which is directly related
to functional layout, choice of building material and choice of building equipment

a) Lack of communication between designer firms and maintenance firms as well as building users
or owners resulted in designer firms not fully aware of the maintenance-related problems
frequently reported by building owners

b) Neglecting the benefits of designing for ease of maintenance that can prolong the building
lifespan, reduce defects rate and therefore reduce maintenance costs.

c) To develop awareness and policy from the very early start of project to ensure the concept for
ease of maintenance can be understood and implemented successfully

Concept of design for ease of maintenance

Importance to consider maintenance of building aspects during design stage for the future
performance of the building

Critical factors for designers to take into account during design stage

i. A design shall be executed perfectly well within the Code of Practice

ii. To practice total building performance audit, benchmarking and quality management procedures
in guiding developments towards improved maintainability

iii. Adopt Ease of maintenance concept

iv. To reduce the number of design defects, thus amount of maintenance expenditure can be reduced

v. Consultation with users, Property / maintenance managers / maintenance consultants in design

stage

vi. Consultation with the system manufacturer to provide information relevant to the education and
training required for the proper operation and maintenance of the systems being considered

Durability and Maintenance

The design shall ensure, by means of the appropriate choice of structural forms, details and
materials, that the structure and building shall remain in a serviceable condition over its life

a) Only materials and details having a proven record of durability in similar conditions shall be
used

b) Access shall be provided for inspection and maintenance to all elements of the structure

c) Maintenance requirements shall be minimised by appropriate detailing and the selection of

suitable materials
d) Structures and Buildings shall be detailed so as to shed surface water in such a way that ponding
and streaking do not occur and details which encourage the accumulation of debris shall be avoided

e) Details shall be designed for ease of maintenance

Access for Inspection and Maintenance

The design shall incorporate suitable access provisions for the inspection and maintenance of all
structures and equipment

Building Maintenance Problems Associated with Building Defects

Understanding the common cause of building defects and learn to develop a framework for the
management of maintenance required to provide a consistent approach to the planning,
management and reporting of building maintenance

A. Defects Due to Design Failures:

Defects within new buildings are areas of non-compliance with the Building Code of Practice,
Prevailing Design Codes and published acceptable tolerances and standards. Older buildings, or
buildings out of warranty period, may not comply with these standards but must be judged against
the standard at the time of construction or refurbishment

Different design failures:

Settlements
cracked
damaged or deteriorated brick walls
Leaking showers
dampness to a building
excessive sagging to a roof or ceiling
Drainage blockage / backflow
Sewerage blockage / backflow
Clients incur huge maintenance & repair costs due to professional negligence. If a building
collapses due to structural failures, Civil or Structural Engineer is the primarily responsible for it.
But then it is necessary to investigate the construction quality wheither it was constructed as per
design and specifications. Professionals are liable and most likely to shoulder repair costs due to
professional negligence

1. Fundamental errors in concept

The project may have been located in an unusual environment where the prediction of
environmental effects was unreliable

2. Site selection and site development errors

Certain sites are more vulnerable than others to failure. Recognition of the characteristics of
particular site conditions through appropriate geotechnical studies can lead to decisions about site
selection and site development that reduce the risk of failure

3. Programming deficiencies
The project does not perform as expected

4. Design errors

Errors in design concept

Lack of structural redundancy

Failure to consider a load or a combination of loads

Deficient connection details

Calculation errors

Misuse of computer softwares

Detailing problems, including selection of incompatible materials or assemblies that are not
constructible

B. Defects Due to Construction Failures

Construction Failure is inability to construct a building structure in accordance to drawings &

specifications, prevailing Standards and sound engineering practice. It leads to unnecessary building
maintenance, Technical & Financial burdens, Lost of investment & profits / debts

Causes of construction failure:

1. Construction errors

Improper construction sequencing

Inadequate temporary support

Excessive construction load

Premature removal of shoring or formwork

Non-conformance to design intent

Either a design flaw or lack of proper maintenance.

2. Material deficiencies

Manufacturing or fabrication defects may exist in the most reliable structural materials

3. Operational errors

A building, product or application can become defective through age and lack of Maintenance

on-compliance with termite systems allow termites to access a building and cause substantial
damage including structural damage to timbers

4. Others

Act of God (Fire / Flood / Strong wind / Earthquake

Deterioration

C. Defects Due to Material Failures

1. Plastic Pipe Manufacturing Defect Failure

Plastic Pipe manufacturing defects such as this void at the pipe bell made this section of water
transmission pipeline fail prematurely. To prevent this structural damageapply a simple
waterproofing re-coat

2. Stainless Steel Band Clamp Failure:

Stainless Steel Band Clamp fails because the screw fitting is made from a lower grade alloy SS than
that of the band material. Lower grades of SS can suffer accelerated corrosion when placed
underground

3. Welding - Typical defect due to less penetration:

Due to the high degree of N alloying in both the plate and the filler material there is a potential risk
of getting porosity in the weld due to either too thick or too thin weld beads, wrong joint
preparation and also if the arc is not properly protected. Therefore provide cathodic Protection using
methods like:

coating
composite
Rust scaling/ greasing
Structural maintenance:

It restores the structural life of the building thereby protecting the asset. The use of the building and
exposure to atmosphere increase wear and tear and heightened the need to monitor condition and
prioritise treatments at suitable intervention points.

Mechanical impact: (use damper, guardrails, stopper)

Chemical / atmospheric attack: (use anti-corrosion, heat shields)

Humidity: (use ventilation, insulation)

Atmosphere (external): (use fungicidal treatment, cladding)

Fire: (use smoke detector)

INFRASTRUCTURE DETERIORATION PHENOMENA AND MAINTENANCE

CONCEPT

Maintenance-free or self-sustaining infrastructure is highly desirable but not feasible.

Infrastructures deteriorates with time due to;

1. wear and tear effect on the component,

2. users and occupiers activity,

3. inherent defects in design and construction

4. effects of environmental role

5. hence left to themselves,

6. acilities will eventually become inefficient

CRITICAL SUSTAINABILITY FACTORS IN ENGINEERING INFRASTRUCTURAL

MAINTENANCE

1. Previous users action (Vandalism): Among the factors responsible for act of vandalism are wrong
choice of materials, poor space layout, poor lighting arrangements and lack of security among
others. Vandalism impairs the aesthetic of building, and reduces its life span and cost intensive.

2. Environmental stress effects on infrastructure: Climatic conditions impact stress building and
occupants. Acts base on orientation of the structure and on external elements of the structure. The
resultant effect on the building is referred to as sick building syndrome.

3. Deficiency in design construction and interdependency of building components: The nature in

which some elements in building were designed often hinders their maintainability. The most
effective maintenance strategy should be one that minimizes the incidence of maintenance works
through appropriate design. To be able to sustain a design or concept, it should be maintainable, and
maintainability in the real sense

SICK BUILDING SYNDROME

The Definition:

The term "sick building syndrome" (SBS) is described in a situation where building occupants
experience the following:
Acute health and comfort upsets due to the time spent in a building, but no specific illness or
disease can be identified.
This condition is usually temporary but some buildings have long-term problems due to design
constraints.
The intensity of this problem tends to magnify or repeat when the building maintenance is
inconsistent or deviated from its stipulated operating procedures or original design.
 Indoor air problems can not only be caused due to poor building design but also due to the nature
of activities by the occupants.
Sick Building Syndrome Indicators

Building occupants complain of typical symptoms like general physical discomfort, headache, eye,
nose, or throat irritation, dry cough, dry or itchy skin, dizziness and nausea, difficulty to
concentrate, fatigue, chest tightness, fever, chills, muscle aches and re-actions to odors.
While most people report relief soon after leaving the building, such illness caused due to
prolonged occupation requires long recovery period, even after leaving the building. Discomforts
may result from other causes also and include an illness contracted outside the building, high
allergies level, job stress, dissatisfied work environment and other psychosocial factors.
All these symptoms are medically defined and the causes can be identified for a therapy or cure.
However, studies show that all symptoms may be caused or aggravated by the indoor air quality
problem that percolates in the human system.
Sick Building Syndrome Primary Causes

1. Inadequate Ventilation
2. Chemical Contamination from Indoor sources
3. Chemical Contamination from Outdoor sources
4. Biological Contaminants
IAQ - Inadequate Ventilation

Inadequate ventilation may occur if heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems do
not effectively distribute air to people in the building. An important factor in SBS.
Till about mid 1900's, building ventilation standards defined approx. 15 cubic feet per minute (cfm)
of outside air per building occupant, primarily to dilute & remove body odors.
As a result of the 1973 oil embargo, national energy conservation measures called for a reduction
in the amount of outdoor air provided for ventilation to 5 cfm / occupant.
Up to 60 cfm/person may be required in some spaces (smoking lounges, etc) depending on the
activities that normally occur in that space.
Chemical Contamination - Indoor sources

Most indoor air pollution comes from sources inside the building. They are 2 to 5 times higher than
out door sources.
For example, adhesives, carpeting, upholstery, manufactured wood products, copy machines,
pesticides, and cleaning agents may emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Combustion products such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide can come from unvented
kerosene and gas heaters, woodstoves, fireplaces and gas stoves.
Even environmental tobacco smoke contributes to high levels of VOCs and other toxic compounds
that we breathe in every day.
Research shows that some VOCs can cause chronic and acute health effects at high concentrations
and are known Carcinogens.
Chemical Contamination - Outdoor Sources

The outdoor air that enters a building can be a source of indoor air pollution.
For example, pollutants from motor vehicle exhausts, plumbing vents and building exhausts (e.g.,
bathrooms and kitchens) can enter the building through poorly located air intake vents, windows,
and other openings.
In addition, combustion products can enter a building from a nearby garage.
IAQ Biological Contaminants
 Bacteria, molds, pollen, and viruses are types of biological contaminants. They breed in stagnant
accumulated water in ducts, humidifiers, drain pans, ceiling tiles, carpets or AC insulation.
Sometimes insects or bird droppings can be a source of biological contaminants.
Sickness through bio contamination. For e.g. cough, chest tightness, fever, chills, muscle aches,
and allergic responses such as mucous membrane irritation and upper respiratory congestion.
These elements may act in combination, and may supplement other complaints such as
inadequate temperature, humidity or lighting.
Commissioning vs. testing of building services
It is important for the project manager to understand the differences between the terms testing,
commissioning and performance testing, and to ensure that the programme has sufficient time
within it to enable these activities to be undertaken. Unfortunately, with this stage of the project
being so close to handover, there is often pressure to gain time by shortening the testing,
commissioning and performance/environmental testing programme. This should be strongly
resisted. Rarely, if ever, after the project will such an opportunity exist to fully test the services to
ensure that they work individually, as a system, and, that they work under part-load and full-load
conditions. Many problems with respect to the under-performance of services within an occupied
building can be related back to either insufficient quality in the testing and commissioning, or,
insufficient time to test and commission.
It should also be borne in mind that various statutory services will need to be demonstrated to site
inspectors, and insurers. Time should be allowed for within the programme since these activities are
often taken as separate tests after the main commissioning has been undertaken.

Testing
During services installation various tests will be undertaken known as static testing. This testing
is normally undertaken to prove the quality and workmanship of the installation. Such work is
undertaken before a certificate is issued to enliven (i.e. to make live) services whether electrically
or otherwise. Examples of this sort of testing are:
Pressure testing ductwork and pipework.
Undertaking resistance checks on cabling.

Commissioning
Upon completion of static testing, dynamic testing can be undertaken, this is 'commissioning'.
Commissioning is carried out to prove that the systems operate and perform to the design intent and
specification. This work is extensive and normally commences by issuing a certificate permitting
the installation to be made live, i.e. electrical power on. After initial tests of phase rotation on the
electrical installation and checking fan/pump rotation (in the correct direction), the more recognised
commissioning activities of balancing, volume testing, load bank testing, etc. begin.

Performance testing
Upon completion of the commissioning, performance testing can begin. Some may not distinguish
between commissioning and performance testing. However, for programming purposes it is worth
distinguishing between commissioning plant as individual systems and undertaking tests of all plant
systems together, known as performance testing, (and including environmental testing). Sometimes
this performance testing is undertaken once the client has occupied the facility, e.g. for the first year
because systems are dependent upon different weather conditions. In such cases, arrangements for
contractor access after handover to fine-tune the services in response to changing demands must be
made. However, for some facilities it may be necessary to simulate the various conditions expected
to prove that the plant systems and controls operate prior to handover, e.g. computer rooms..
Commissioning building systems
Commissioning refers to the process of bringing an item into operation and ensuring that it is in
good working order. On building projects, this refers primarily to building services. Commissioning
is also defined as:
The advancement of a fixed building service after all or part of the system has been installed,
replaced or altered. The system is taken from a state of static completion to working order. Testing
and adjusting, as necessary, ensure that the whole system uses no more fuel and power than is
reasonable in the circumstances, without compromising the need to comply with health and safety
requirements. For each system, commissioning includes the following: setting-to-work; regulation
to achieve the specified performance; calibration, setting up and testing of the associated automatic
control systems; and recording of the system settings and the performance test results that have
been accepted as satisfactory.
Building services requiring commissioning may include:
Heating, cooling and ventilation systems.
Generators.
Switchboards.
Water supply and sanitation.
Pumps.
Motors.
Fire detection and protection systems.
Information and communications technology (ICT) systems.
Security systems.
Facilities management systems.
Process plant.
Lifting equipment and escalators.
Acoustic and vibration appraisals.
The contract documents should set out:
Who will be responsible for commissioning different building services.
What methods, standards and codes of practice are to be used.
What should happen to test results.
Whether commissioning is to be witnessed and if so, whom.
The documentation that is required.
Commissioning can benefit from the preparation of a commissioning plan. Model Commissioning
Plan should:
Provide general information about the project.
Identify the commissioning team members for each stage of the commissioning process.
Define roles and responsibilities for each commissioning team member.
Identify the systems to be commissioned.
Create a schedule of commissioning activities for each stage of the process.
Establish documentation requirements associated with the commissioning process.
A commissioning manager may be appointed to give advice during design, construction planning
and installation and then to manage commissioning, testing and handover.
Commissioning activities may include:
Ensuring client access and providing client training and demonstrations.
Completing operating and maintenance manuals, record drawings, software and test
certification.
Obtaining statutory approvals and insurance approvals.
Manufacturers work testing.
Component testing.
Pre-commissioning tests.
Set to work: this is the process of switching on (i.e. setting to work) items such as fans and
motors to ensure that they are operating as specified (for example checking that fans are
turning the right way).
Balancing: this follows setting to work and involves looking at whole systems (rather than
individual components) to ensure that they are properly balanced (ie water is coming out of
all the taps at the correct pressure, air is coming out of the correct diffusers etc).
Commissioning checks and performance testing.
Post commissioning checks and fine tuning during occupancy.
NB The building regulations require that a commissioning notice is given to the relevant building
control body (BCB) confirming that commissioning has been carried out according to a procedure
approved by the Secretary of State. See Commissioning notice for more information.
FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS
A fire fighting system is probably the most important of the building services, as its aim is to
protect human life and property, strictly in that order.

Roof Sprinklers:
A sprinkler is a nozzle attached to a network of pipes, and installed just below the ceiling of a
room. Every sprinkler has a small glass bulb with a liquid in it. This bulb normally blocks the
flow of water. In a fire, the liquid in the bulb will become hot. It will then expand, and shatter the
glass bulb, removing the obstacle and causing water to spray from the sprinkler. The main
difference between a hydrant and a sprinkler is that a sprinkler will come on automatically in a
fire. A fire hydrant has to be operated manually by trained firefighters - it cannot be operated
by laymen. A sprinkler will usually be activated very quickly in a fire - possibly before the fire
station has been informed of the fire - and therefore is very effective at putting out a fire in the
early stages, before it grows into a large fire. For this reason, a sprinkler system is considered
very good at putting out fires before they spread and become unmanageable.

Fire Alarm Systems

A fire alarm system is distinct from a firefighting system in that it has no connection to the
firefighting system; its purpose is to inform all humans in the building that there is a fire via an
audible alarm, so that they may evacuate the building. To phrase this differently, the firefighting
system is not switched on by the fire alarm system; the two are independent. It is mandatory for
every building other than small residences to have a firefighting system; a fire alarm system is
required only in important and public buildings (as per Indian Codes in 2008). However it is
better to provide it. A fire alarm system consists of fire sensors, such as smoke and heat
detectors, located throughout the building, connected to a main alarm panel by special
cables. The panel is in turn connected to a set of hooters or speakers that give an audible alarm
throughout the building and its surrounding areas.

In most areas smoke detectors are used to sense fires; they cannot be used in areas like kitchens
where smoke is usually present. In such areas heat detectors (which actually detect a sudden
increase in heat) are used. Devices such as a manual call point (a small button placed near exits
that can be pressed by anyone who realizes that there is a fire) and a response indicator (a small
red light that is placed outside a door; this lights if the smoke detector inside has been activated
in order to tell the firefighters the location of the fire) are also used.
The main alarm panel should ideally be placed in a 24-hour control room or security room. The
panel will indicate the location of the fire to the persons manning it so that they can coordinate
the evacuation process. In case the main panel is kept elsewhere, a repeater panel can be placed
in a security room.
HVAC SYSTEMS:

A HVAC system is a heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system. A system that does
anyone (or more) of those tasks is called a HVAC system. The objective of an HVAC system is
to ensure that an indoor environment is both safe and comfortable for humans. Safety here
mainly concerns the Indoor Air Quality or IAQ, meaning that the indoor air should have enough
oxygen and be free of noxious gases. Comfort of course is based on human perception, which
can vary within bounds. Air conditioning system has 3 components: a central plant, a distribution
system, and a rejection unit. The central plant, also called a chiller plant, contains the core of the
system. This is the part that actually compresses the fluid (called a refridgerant) in order to make
it give off its heat. The distribution system serves to distribute the coolth (the opposite of
heat) generated by the chillers throughout the building, which must be transferred to the air
inside the building. Since it is difficult to move all the air in the building to the central plant, an
AC designer will usually transfer the coolth to another fluid, such as water, which is then
circulated to a unit on every floor that in turn cools the air. Such a device is called an Air
Handling Unit or AHU. It takes cold water from the chiller plant and cools the air coming into
it. It essentially consists of a large fan and a heat exchanger, through which the cold water
passes on its coolth to the air. Cold water is pumped to AHUs throughout the building through a
well-insulated pipe. The distribution system therefore either distributes coolth or collects heat
from throughout the buildingtwo different ways of phrasing the same thingand passes the
heat on to the chiller. The chiller must then reject, or pass on this heat to the external
atmosphere. This work is done by the rejection unit. These are of two types, air-cooled and
water-cooled systems. Air-cooled systems pass the heat directly to the air; the chillers must
therefore be located on the terrace or in a place where a large quantity of air can be passed
through to extract all the heat. In a water-cooled system, the heat from the chiller is transferred
to a quantity of water, which then is taken to the roof of the building, where a cooling tower
transfers the heat to the atmosphere. An air-cooled system consumes more energy but no water;
a water-cooled consumes a fair quantity of water, but less energy, and is also quieter. Therefore
use a water-cooled system wherever possible. It is also possible to use the water from a sewage
treatment plant in a water-cooled system.
Design criteria for HVAC system:

All AHU rooms must have a floor drain, as condensation from the air will collect in the unit.
One should provide fresh air to every AHU.
Split Units do not provide any fresh air; they must be used only when one is certain that the
doors to the space will be opened frequently.
All AHU rooms and fan rooms will be at negative pressure, so the doors leading to them
must open outwards and be airtight.
Any rooms with foul air should be provided with extraction, so that they remain at negative
pressure. This will prevent the foul air from drifting out to any other space. Kitchens and
toilets are an example.
In an office it is a good idea to provide standalone AC units for conference rooms and
executive cabins. These can be used by people working late or on weekends, when the main
AC system is off.

HOME SECURITY SYSTEMS

Home security systems are basically one of two types: CCTV systems and intruder alert systems.
Closed circuit TV systems (CCTV): consist of cameras, connected by cables to a digital video
recorder, a device that automatically records the pictures from the cameras.
An intruder alert system can be any device that sounds an alarm or reacts in some other way
when an unwanted intruder tries to enter the home. There are many types of intruder alert
systems, from complex burglar alarm systems with sensor connected to doors and windows,
motion sensors, and the like, to simple outdoor lights that switch on when someone passes in
front of them. Types CCTV system cameras:

1. bullet cameras: A bullet camera is a camera that is fixed at a particular angle and only covers
one view. It gets its name from its shape, which is usually a cylinder mounted on a bracket. It
was the first type of security camera that came on the market, and its use is now decreasing. It is
usually wall mounted.

2.dome cameras: A dome camera is a camera that is concealed inside a plastic dome and is
mounted on the ceiling. One advantage of this camera is that its direction is not always evident,
so thieves cannot tell whether they are in the picture or not without staring at the camera and
giving themselves away.
3. IP cameras: An IP or Internet Protocol camera, is one that can be connected directly to an
internet cable. Anyone who has the IP address and the password can view the pictures from the
camera from anywhere in the world. These cameras do not need a separate power connection and
can transmit the images over long distances, which make them one of the best solutions on the
market.

3. Infrared or night vision cameras: These cameras give you the ability to see in pitch black
conditions. They pick up the body heat of living things (or other hot objects like car engines) and
are excellent for outdoor areas that are not lit, or even main corridors in office buildings that are
not lit at night.

4. PTZ cameras - pan tilt zoom cameras: These cameras allow an operator in the control room to
pan (move left or right), tilt (move up or down), or zoom in or out the image, which is a great
bonus. Some of them can move back and forth automatically when there is no operator
controlling them.

COMMISSIONING AND OPERATION

Although the building may appear to be complete, commissioning is the true test of whether it
functions as a system. Commissioning is best described as the process of ensuring that a building
performs according to its design intent and to suit the needs of its owners and occupants. Proper
commissioning of the hotels mechanical, electrical and plumbing installations is essential to
achieve optimum energy efficiency once the building commences full operation. If the water and
air systems are not balanced, the equipment will have to run longer and harder to maintain
comfort conditions, which increases operating costs and environmentally harmful emissions.
Guests may have to wait longer until hot water flows from the tap or for the air-conditioning to
respond.
Commissioning is important for any building project, although its role differs according to the
size of the individual building and its location. In some countries there is a commissioning
leader or dedicated engineer responsible for commissioning, in others it is the responsibility of
the designers and contractors. The earlier in the development process it can be started, the more
effective it will be, as it is commissioning that generally reveals any weaknesses in the design
and construction. Benefits include fewer defects at handover, timely completion and fewer
complaints during the buildings operational life.
The performance of each system and item of equipment item must be documented in the
commissioning report. As buildings and their systems become more complex, so the requirement
for commissioning has developed. The process not only ensures that all systems are in good
working order, but also confirms that all specified capacities are being achieved. This data can
also be used as part of the company environmental management system such as ISO 14001 and
in corporate environmental performance reporting.

Planning and design:

1. Appoint the commissioning engineer at the earliest opportunity. It is preferable to have

one person
2. with overall responsibility for commissioning and ensuring that the building objectives
and schedules are met.
3. Keep systems as simple as possible but ensure that adequate time provision is built in for
accurate and efficient testing and regulation.
4. Ensure there is adequate provision of the following:
Flushing facilities to flush and clean water systems thoroughly.
Venting and draining facilities.
Facilities for water treatment and analysis.
Requirements for access and maintenance.
5. Review fabric requirements particularly with regard to air leakage and infiltration.
6. Ensure personnel and plant safety during operation.
7. Review clarity of cause and effect in fire detection mode and power failure mode.
8. Determine the need for plant or equipment testing by manufacturers at their own works.
For example, a full load test of a chiller may be difficult to perform on site. A
requirements document should be produced in relation to this and included in the design
brief.
9. Establish start-up and operating procedures.
10. The commissioning manager should produce a logic network66 for the testing and
commissioning
11. (T&C) showing the logical sequence of events and also how it interfaces with the
construction work.
12. The network should include all the various systems and items of equipment and how they
interface with each other, culminating in the final integrated systems test (IST).
13. Ensure that all parties to be involved in the T&C process have a chance to influence the
time scale
 14. required for their activities and agree that they can complete on schedule. The
Construction Manager can then determine the critical path necessary to achieve the
completion date.

Installation monitoring:
1. Ensure that installation teams observe good housekeeping principles to prevent
unnecessary entry of dirt into ductwork and pipe systems.
2. Review correct installation of plant and equipment. Ensure that there is adequate
provision for all air to be vented.
3. Review ductwork and pipework modifications which result from co-ordination clashes
with other services and the building fabric, since such changes may result in high
pressure drop sections and reduce plant efficiency.
4. Monitor and witness system pressure tests and when proved satisfactory, ensure any
sectional caps or membranes are removed.
5. Ensure that record drawings are updated and that they accurately reflect the installation,
particularly ofnservices that will be hidden once the building is complete.
6. Following installation and pressure testing, ensure that pipework is flushed out and,
where necessary,nchemically cleaned. This work may need to be carried out by a water
treatment specialist but should be witnessed at all stages by the Construction Manager.
After flushing and cleaning, the system must be quickly treated with appropriate levels of
inhibitor to prevent corrosion and contamination, and regular checks of inhibitor levels
made to ensure adequate concentrations are maintained.

Pre-commissioning:

After installation and prior to commissioning, ensure that the system is complete and in a
satisfactory and safe condition prior to start-up.
Conduct static and electrical checks of the main plant.
Prepare documentation in advance in the form of pro forma check and test sheets

Testing and commissioning:

Ensure that test instrumentation is not damaged, carries a current calibration certificate
and is reasonably easy to use in the environment in question.
Always select an instrument with an operating range greater than expected results.
Be aware that for the test undertaken there may be a correction factor that needs to be
applied to compensate for reading error.
Observe plant start-up and shut-down to ensure correct operation.
Monitor conditions within the building to ensure required conditions are achieved and the
system is stable.
Witness cause and effect tests to ensure the services operate as intended in fire detection
and power failure modes.
 Liaise with local authorities, fire officers, building control officers, building insurers and
the design team to ensure compliance with all legal and statutory requirements.

Operator training and hand-over:

Co-ordinate the training of the building users operations team, for example, the chief engineer
and department member to ensure that first-hand operational knowledge is transferred.
At the point of hand over to the owner or operator, it is important that documentation for all
systems and materials is presented to the operations team. These include:
o Specifications and design documents.
o As-built drawings.
o Operation and maintenance (O&M) manuals
Commissioning reports (testing and commissioning records) showing all the set points and
data relating to the building management system and control systems.
o Warranties.
o Material specifications.
o Spare parts and materials.

Operation, maintenance and continuous commissioning:

Continuous commissioning is the last phase of the commissioning process and takes place after
handover to the owner or operator. The process enables the function of the equipment to be
checked and optimised for energy efficiency and, when changes are made, enables the as-built
documents to be updated. In these respects, the continuous commissioning process complements
the energy management process of a building.
Since the building will use most energy during its operational lifetime, continuous
commissioning ensures that existing systems can:
Handle changes in activities in the building.
Adjust equipment to new standards and regulations.
Monitor equipment deterioration.
Minimise energy consumption.
Typical problems that are identified at this stage include negative pressurisation of the building,
blocked reheat coils, air volume systems (VAV) temperatures set too low, broken thermostats
and high exhaust pressures.
All systems must be regularly inspected and serviced. Regular testing should be carried out on
large energy consumers such as chillers, boilers and air-conditioning systems, to verify actual
performance versus the original conditions. In this way, the building will be able to operate to
optimum efficiency and ensure the highest level of comfort for guests and staff.
Post occupancy evaluation:
Post occupancy evaluation (POE) involves the systematic evaluation of opinion about buildings
in use, the perspective of the people who use them. It assesses how well buildings match their
users needs, and identifies ways to improve building design, performance and fitness for
purpose. POE can be used for many purposes, including fine-tuning new buildings, developing
new facilities and managing problem buildings. It is also valuable when establishing
maintenance, replacement, purchasing or supply policies; preparing for refurbishment; or
selecting accommodation for purchase or rent.

Intelligent Buildings:
The benefits of an intelligent building potentially include energy savings, reducing the cost of
changing occupancy and configuration (churn), maintaining a comfortable, safe and secure
environment, and improving user productivity.

What is an intelligent building?

Intelligent building as one where the combination of technologies and interconnected systems
supports the use of the accommodation by the buildings users, enables the efficient operation of
the building and enables reconfiguration of the space in response to changing use. Intelligent
buildings may also be referred to as smart buildings.

Advantages:
From an IT perspective it is this integrated use of systems and technologies which delivers the
commercial advantage. For example, the convergence of the network infrastructure enables the
flexible use of accommodation, and operational efficiencies arise from the integration of systems
which support or manage the building environment, space, and operational systems.
The infrastructure convergence is typically achieved through the use of a common cabling and/or
wireless infrastructure, supporting IP-based networks within the building. Thus the building
management systems (BMS) will typically use an open protocol running over an IP-based
network for all data acquisition and control functions; and CCTV systems are increasingly IP-
based irrespective of the physical and data transport layers.
The advantages of employing a converged infrastructure include:
1. a workplace that can be used more efficiently and effectively, by making the use of space
more flexible and reducing the cost of churn;
2. the ability to reconfigure access control and security systems to reflect changing use or to
enable multiple occupancy;
3. self-service access to facilities management tools by the building occupants from their
office computers.

The integration of systems may occur on two levels:

1. the integration of building systems and ICT systems; or
2. the integration of both building systems and ICT systems with business systems.

The advantages that are realised will depend on the level of integration. An example in an office
environment is the use of smart building passes to manage access to printer and photocopying
services. Similarly, when a user logs on to a desktop computer, it may trigger the automatic
association of an adjacent desktop telephone with the users extension number. This integrated
approach can lead to a reduction of workspace reconfiguration costs as the users are no longer
tied to specific workstations, i.e. any desk becomes a hot desk.
To improve the energy efficiency, systems may be integrated to internal monitoring of the smart
building passes to determine when an area is no longer occupied. The BMS may then be
configured to allow energy-saving measures to be automatically implemented, e.g. reducing
lighting and air conditioning.

Risks are associated with intelligent buildings:

The introduction of a converged infrastructure and integration of building and business systems
potentially creates a range of new risks associated with aspects of the personnel, technology and
operations.
The human elements of the building operations are potentially the greatest risk. Whether
deliberately or accidentally, individuals may seek to bypass security controls or incorrectly
operate systems. The integration of systems can magnify the impact of errors or omissions.
Systems integration will bring together IT and facilities management teams who may have
different priorities, cultures and reporting chains. All of these can inhibit an effective response to
incidents or faults.
From a technology perspective, integration may introduce new failure modes, where building
systems can interfere with business systems and vice versa.
For example, it is normal for office computers to run the latest antivirus software and be
regularly patched.
This may not be true for the BMS or computers used for safety-critical systems, thus leading to
potential vulnerabilities from malware introduced over the network or from infected media.
The use of IP-based technologies creates opportunities for operational savings through the
centralising and outsourcing of control and monitoring stations. But this can lead to a loss of
local knowledge and control. The problem is exacerbated if the support personnel are only
deployed in response to incidents as they may not be familiar with the layout and operation of
individual buildings.

Is cyber security an issue?

From a security perspective the key issues are protecting the security and privacy of a buildings
owners and users, maintaining the integrity of the building and operations within it, and ensuring
the continuing availability of the accommodation for its owners and users.
The security and privacy of the buildings occupants and owners may be compromised when the
convergence of the technical infrastructures and integration of systems creates unplanned or
unauthorised pathways, allowing unauthorised access to systems or data loss. For example,
unauthorised access to the building access control and room-booking systems may reveal
personal data such as when a person is away from home or the presence of a visiting VIP.
The integrity of the building may be compromised if third parties gain access to or control of
critical building systems. If a third party were able to disable or take control of building systems
it might no longer be safe to continue to occupy the building. This could be due to physical
damage (e.g. fire or flooding) or due to threats to the health and lives of occupants.
Disabling security and access control could put lives at risk and necessitate personnel being
redeployed to implement manual checks in place of the automated systems. For energy-efficient
buildings, integrity might be compromised if the operation of the energy management functions
were degraded or disrupted by the actions of a third party, whether by direct manual interference
or the deployment of malware.
The availability of the building may be seriously affected when building systems are disrupted,
thus preventing the building from delivering the required functionality.
The nature of the availability risk will depend on the type of building and the criticality of the
affected building service. As an example, where a BMS became inoperable and allowed the
temperature to stray outside acceptable limits, the building could become inhospitable to the
occupants, damage equipment through excessive temperatures, or cause damage to stored
materials. In tall buildings disruption to vertical transport systems (lifts and escalators) could
seriously affect the availability of upper areas if occupants are unable or unwilling to use the
stairs.

Risks mitigation:
Intelligent buildings are potentially mission-critical environments. As such the risks associated
with people, systems and operations need to be appropriately managed and mitigated.

The people risks will arise from four constituencies:

1. the designers who need to be aware of, and have mitigated the potential consequences
of, actions by third parties, whether they are support contractors with legitimate remote
access to systems, or unconnected parties with a malicious or hostile intent;
2. the building owners who need to consider what degree of systems integration is
required and/or desirable during the specification, design, construction and
commissioning of the building;
3. the building operators the daily tasks and responsibilities of the intelligent building
facilities manager and technicians need to be clearly defined, and include a clear
understanding of the complexity of integrated systems;
4. the building occupants and visitors who may need to be informed about the correct and
safe operation of building systems.

The mitigation of these risks needs to include an assessment of which features of the building
and its use are critical and therefore in need of the greatest protection. The design and
implementation of a building black box to capture information may be considered important to
support the investigation of incidents.
It may also be necessary to consider frequent remote back-ups of building occupancy
information for use in the event of a building evacuation. The mitigation of system risks must
also take account of the appropriate use of technology; for example, Wi-Fi is susceptible to
interference and jamming and should be avoided in safety-critical and security systems.
The operational risks need to be assessed and understood from both business and technical
perspectives. The training and knowledge of the facilities management team should be
commensurate with the sophistication of the systems integration and the impact that system
failure will have on building occupants. There should be cross-training of some IT and building
support staff to facilitate collaboration during incidents and fault diagnosis. The operations team
needs to collect feedback from building users to understand whether the building is supporting or
hindering them. This is important as users will often seek to bypass controls if they feel they
hinder rather than support the user.
A number of legal issues also arise from these risks, and require an assessment of the legal
process and legislation available and applicable when things go wrong. The legal remedies
available will depend on who is deemed liable for any failures, whether they were caused by
accident or deliberately.
The risks and their mitigation should be addressed in a holistic fashion for all implementations,
but are essential for multi-occupancy and multiple-use buildings where the needs and priorities
of the users will vary.

MAINTENANCE RECORDS
Routine service records and condition reports
Systematic records are required to be kept of all maintenance procedures carried out in a building in order to ensure
that every prescribed fire safety element has been identified, inspected and, where appropriate, any defects have
been remedied.
Service records are required to be kept of all maintenance and testing of essential safety provisions undertaken in
accordance with AS 1851. To adequately indicate ongoing compliance with this specification, the performance
benchmarks that are to be assessed when undertaking maintenance need to be permanently recorded and be readily
available at the premises. AS 1851 also requires that any critical defects identified during maintenance procedures
are to be reported in writing to the building owner or his/her agent within 24 hours of being identified, and non-
critical defects and non-conformities are to be reported within one week of being identified.

Records kept must indicate the pass/fail criteria and may be in the form of a hard copy logbook, electronic log, or
tags and labels with hard copy summary records as per the requirements of AS 1851. A site specific logbook is
required that incorporates the baseline data required by AS 1851 to establish the benchmarks of the systems or
equipment and should include (but not be limited to)-
Baseline data information
Layout Plans for each fire safety item required to be maintained, eg portable fire extinguishers, fire hose reels,
smoke spill fans etc.
A Maintenance Log Sheet appropriate to each fire safety item required to be maintained.

Layout Plans should be clear, simple, diagrammatic plans that identify the fire safety items to be inspected and
maintained. It is recommended that Layout Plans-
be A4 or A3 size scaled (or non-scaled but proportioned) sketch plans of each floor of the building, or part floor
plans showing separate segregated areas or zones as appropriate.
include separate plans for each different type of fire safety item, eg portable fire extinguishers, fire hose reels,
smoke spill fans etc.
use consistent, recognised symbols on plans that indicate the location and type of fire safety item.
allocate an identification number/code to each fire safety item that can also be used on Defect Report Sheets to
identify a particular item and its location. In multi-storeyed buildings the identification code should therefore also
indicate on what floor the item is located.

AS/NZS 2293.1 requires the provision of an operating and maintenance manual for each emergency lighting
installation that contains relevant maintenance data, together with either 'as-installed' plans showing location of all
emergency lighting equipment, or a detailed schedule listing the required information.

Note that Fire sprinkler heads need not be specifically shown on Layout Plans, as the Sprinkler Code requires
identification of sprinklered areas and their design hazard to be included at the control valve.
Fire detection systems need not specifically be shown on Layout Plans as the documentation required at the fire
indicator panel includes block plans that show the location and identification number of equipment installed.

Logbooks - Hard copies of all maintenance and service records carried out in accordance with this specification,
including summary sheets for items that are tagged or labelled, should be kept in a single on-site maintenance
logbook.
Safety provisions
Service record sheets prepared and kept in the logbook for essential safety It must contain the
following information and this information can also be used to form the basis of maintenance
record sheets prepared for essential safety items not covered by those standards-
identification and location of the building;
the date and frequency of the maintenance/service routine undertaken;
the essential safety provision serviced and/or checked and its location;
the maintenance routine performed and its pass or fail status;
details of any non-conformance or defect, including its classification, location and any
rectification completed;
the name of the building owner or person responsible for maintaining the essential safety
provisions; and
the name of the person who carried out the maintenance.

Yearly condition reports, which summarise the service records for the years maintenance
activities, are also required to be provided by maintenance service providers to building owners
each year. Yearly condition reports must contain the information, which includes details of all
outstanding defects and non-conformances, and building owners must be notified if any fire
system or equipment is no longer operational due to outstanding defects.

Building Energy Audit:

Many sites have maintenance practices that encourage the provision of breakdown repairs and
replacements, rather than the prevention of breakdowns through good-quality methods. The
financial controller of the business may view the annual maintenance budget as expendable,
through a lack of understanding about engineering equipment. This is understandable. The
maintenance engineer has only to ask the finance director whether it is preferable for a company
car to be taken for regular servicing or to wait for the car to break down on a motorway during
inclement weather, because the engine has run out of oil, the engine cooling system has boiled
dry and the brake pads have worn down to the metal! This is how the maintenance budget of
some sites is managed, that is, breakdown maintenance only. Many building services are critical
to the life safety of the users. These life safety systems are not just the emergency exit lighting,
smoke spill ventilation fans, stairway air pressurization fans and electrical earth leakage circuit
breakers, but also include the air conditioning to hospital operating theatres, lifts, outside air
ventilation dampers, domestic hot water and cooling tower bacteria controls. Proficient
maintenance practice helps to prevent breakdowns by:

1. monitoring the condition of the plant;

2. optimizing the maintenance activity to replace items only when they are needed;
3. keeping the maintenance team well motivated;
4. planning expenditure;
5. comprehensive maintenance record keeping;
6. enabling a quick response to problems, such as in the case of the failure of a fan motor, before
the tenants complain of experiencing poor quality air conditions.
(The building maintenance manager usually has about half an hour from when an air-
conditioning fan ceases to function to when the tenants start complaining on the telephone. If the
plant failure has been monitored through the building management system computer with audible
and visual alarms, and an automatic message sent to the engineers pager or mobile phone, the
corrective response can be made within 5 min and the tenants provided with a briefing.)

The energy audit engineer assesses the practical and financial viability of energy saving
measures for each site, as is appropriate. The purpose of the energy-saving analysis is to identify
suitable investments in capital equipment that will reduce the use of energy and labour, so that
the savings will provide a payback on the investment in a reasonable period. This period will
vary from 1 year, for those only interested in this years profits, to 3 years for those who rely
upon their bank for capital funding, to
5 years for those who can source capital funds from an equity performance contracting partner,
to longer terms of 1025 years when the user is a government department and is to retain
ownership of the public buildings indefinitely. The retrofit energy-saving measures that are
usually considered include the following:

1. thermal insulation of the building;

2. solar shading;
3. changing the fuel source for heating and cooling;
4. heat pumps;
5. heat reclaim;
6. cogeneration of electricity with heating or cooling;
7. computer-based building management system;
8. digital control refrigerant circuit of the water chiller;
9. hot-water, chilled-water or ice thermal storage;
10. load shedding large electrical loads at critical times for short periods;
11. energy tariff change;
12. reducing the lighting system power usage;
13. variable speed drives of fan and pump motors;
14. reducing the usage of water by taps and in toilets;
15. economy air recycling ductwork and motorized damper controls;
16. air-to-air heat exchange between exhaust and incoming outside air ducts;
17. occupancy-sensing with infrared, acoustic or carbon dioxide sensing to control lighting and
the supply of outside air;
18. air curtains at doorways;
19. oxygen sensing in the boiler flue gas to modulate the combustion air supplied to the burner;
20. replacement of old inefficient boilers and heating systems;
21. distribution of domestic hot water at 45 C with a mixing valve and temperature control;
22. replacement of steam-to-water heat exchangers and calorifiers with local gas-fired heating
and domestic hot-water systems;
23. thermal insulation of heating, cooling and steam pipework and heat exchangers;
24. recovery of the maximum quantity of condensate in a steam distribution system;
25. replacement and overhaul of steam traps and condensate pumping.
An energy audit of an existing building or a new development is carried out in a similar manner
to a financial audit but it is not only money that is accounted. All energy use is monitored and
regular statements are prepared showing final uses, costs and energy quantities consumed per
unit of production or per square metre of floor area as appropriate. Weather data are used to
assess the performance of heating systems.
Monthly intervals between audits are most practical for building use, and in addition an annual
statement can be incorporated into a companys accounts. Payne (1978) and the booklets on fuel
and energy efficiency published by the Department of Energy (1983, 1988) are useful further
reading. An initial energy audit has certain basic aims. To:

1. establish total costs of energy purchased;

2. locate the principal energy-consuming areas;
3. notice any obvious losses or inefficient uses of heat, fuel and electricity;
4. take overall data to gain initial results quickly, which can be refined later and broken down
into greater detail;
5. find where additional metering is needed;
6. take priority action to correct wastage;
7. survey buildings and plant use at night and weekends as well as during normal working hours;
8. initiate formal records monitored by the energy manager;
9. compare all energy used on a common basis (kilowatt-hours, therms or megajoules);
10. list energy inputs and outputs to particular buildings or departments.

A vital part of auditing is enlisting the cooperation of all employee groups, and explaining the
problem not just in financial terms but also in quantities of energy. A joint effort by all staff is
needed. Posters, stickers and prizes for ideas can be used to stimulate interest.

An overall energy audit will list each fuel, the annual quantity used and the cost for the year,
including standing charges and maintenance; then a comparison is made with other fuels by
converting to a common unit of measurement.

Energy use performance factors (EUPF) enable comparisons to be made between similar
buildings or items of equipment. These can be litres of heating oil per degree day, kilowatt-hours
of electricity consumption per square metre of floor area, megajoules of energy per person per
hour of building use, or other accounting ratios as appropriate. For example, car manufacturers
may analyse energy used per car. As experience is gained in auditing a particular building, data
can be refined to monthly energy use in conjunction with degree day figures for this period.

This detailed analysis can be made for each building or department of a large site, each large
room or factory area, each type of heating, air-conditioning or power-using system, each
industrial process and each item of plant. The most serious deficiency in the acquisition of data is
likely to be the lack of sufficient metering stations. Electricity, gas and other fuels are metered by
the supply authority at the point of entry to the building or site; further metering is the
responsibility of the site user. Frequently, no further meters are installed and capital expenditure
is needed to obtain data. A careful costbenefit approach is required to assess the viability of this
equipment (Moss, 1997).
Benchmarks
Building energy consumption benchmarks are representative values for common building types
against which a buildings actual performance can be compared.
The two main purposes of benchmarks are:
_ To identify if a buildings energy performance is good, average or poor with respect to other
buildings of its type;
_ To identify potential savings, shown by the variance between the actual data and the
benchmarks: the worse the performance against a benchmark, the greater the opportunity for
improving performance, and making cost savings.
Benchmarks can be categorized into two typesmodeled benchmarks and empirical
benchmarks.
Modeled benchmarks are obtained by using a simulation model to determine the performance of
a building, usually at the design or refurbishment stage. The model calculates the delivered
energy needed based on the use of the building, the indoor environment, the external climate and
the properties of the building. Empirical benchmarks are obtained from statistical data from
detailed studies of 20-100 buildings per sector. The minimum information required for
benchmarking is how much energy has been used over the last year, which is best obtained from
meter readings and energy bills and the floor area. Ideally the studies involve energy audits and
in some cases sub-metering (metering the different energy end uses individually), but in most
cases only bulk data on the buildings energy use is collected. This data sets the good practice
and typical standards for each energy use in the building.

Energy use indicators

The calculation of energy use in buildings is based on the characteristics of the building and its
installed equipment. It is structured in three levels as illustrated below and the calculation is
performed from the bottom up.
1. Step One is the calculation of the buildings net energy requirements, i.e. the amount of energy
required to provide the indoor climate requirements9 as specified by the building code. The
calculation is used to determine the net energy required based on the outdoor climate and indoor
climate requirements while considering the contributions from internal gains, solar gains and
natural lighting and losses due to building properties, i.e. heat transmission and airflows (air
infiltration and exfiltration). This calculation is used to determine the intrinsic energy
performance of the building.
2. Step Two is the determination of the buildings delivered energy, i.e. the energy performance
of the building in actual use. This is the amount of energy used for heating, cooling, hot water,
lighting, ventilation systems, inclusive of controls and building automation, and includes the
auxiliary energy needed for fans, pumps, etc. Energy used for different purposes and by different
fuels is recorded.
3. Step Three is the determination of the overall energy performance indicators:
It combines the results from Step 2 above for different purposes and from different fuels to
obtain the overall energy use and associated performance indicators.
Since a building can use more than one fuel (e.g. gas and electricity), the different energy
sources have to be converted and combined in terms of primary energy to provide the optional
end result of the calculation of energy performance. Commonly used energy indicators for
buildings are kWh/m2 (energy consumption in kilowatt hours per metre square of floor area) or
CO2 emissions
For purposes of this calculation, buildings are classified into categories depending on whether
they are residential or non-residential, the type of building design and the building size and use.
In addition to calculating the performance of existing buildings, energy performance calculations
are also undertaken at the design stage for new buildings and refurbished buildings to simulate
their energy performance.
It is the governments responsibility to provide, at national or local level, calculation guidelines
and methodologies for determining energy performance. In most instances, software is
developed for these calculations.

Certifying energy efficiency

An energy efficiency certificate is a summary of the building energy audit. It is meant to give
information on the buildings energy consumption and its energy efficiency rating.
The purpose of energy efficiency certificates is to:
_ Inform tenants and prospective buyers of the expected running costs;
_ Create public awareness;
_ Act as a prerequisite of measures to improve its energy efficiency;
_ To effect incentives, penalties or legal proceedings.

Inform tenants and prospective buyers of the expected running costs With buyers and
prospective tenants better informed, builders and landlords will have greater incentive to
incorporate energy-efficient technologies and designs into their buildings, in return for lower
running costs.

Create public awareness In large buildings, regularly visited by the public, display of energy
performance certificates will raise awareness among citizens of the issue of energy efficiency in
their local community.

Act as a prerequisite of measures to improve its energy efficiency In the final analysis,
knowledge of a buildings energy efficiency is also the prerequisite of measures to improve its
energy efficiency. The energy efficiency certificate is therefore essentially accompanied by
modernization recommendations for low cost improvement of the buildings energy efficiency.

To affect incentives, penalties or legal proceedings Any effects of these certificates in terms
of incentives, penalties or any form of legal proceedings are subject to national legislation. Some
countries, e.g. Bulgaria, offer 5-10 year exemptions on building tax to buildings that have high-
energy efficiency ratings.

In addition to information on the buildings energy performance, a range of recommended and

current indoor temperatures and, when appropriate, other relevant climatic factors may also be
displayed on the certificates.

What information should be displayed on energy performance certificates, and how that
information should be interpreted is a key issue. In order to facilitate comparisons between
buildings, the energy performance certificate should include reference values such as current
legal standards and benchmarks and recommendations for cost effective investments which can
be undertaken in the building to improve its energy performance.
The empirical and modeled benchmarks mentioned above are used to indicate how a particular
building compares to the rest of the stock. These benchmarks are used for two ratings normally
displayed on the energy performance certificates the asset rating and the operational rating.

Modeled benchmarks are typically used to rate the intrinsic performance potential of the building
and contribute to the buildings asset rating. This is a rating of the standard of the building
fabric and building services equipment and is based on theoretical values.

Empirical benchmarks are typically used to rate the in-use performance of the buildingthe
operational rating. This will be influenced by the quality of the building (as measured by the
asset rating), but also by the way the building is maintained and operated. The operational rating
is based on actual metered energy consumption, normalized in some way to account for the
effects of building size, pattern of use, weather, etc.

To supplement certification, in some European countries regular inspection of heating and air-
conditioning systems to assess their efficiency and sizing compared to the heating and cooling
requirements is carried out.

Benchmarking
Benchmarking is a valuable tool used for identifying and then implementing best practice in a
process of continuous improvement. The process involves addressing the questions:
Who does better?
Why are they better?
How do we improve our performance?
Through benchmarking, an organisation measures performance in an activity and compares it
with other operators, internal or external to the organisation, so as to normreference itself. The
objective then set is to effect a series of measures to improve performance so as to achieve or
exceed the same level as the best in the class. Some of the nuances are rather misunderstood as it
is often criticised on the grounds that not everyone can achieve best in class. However, it should
be understood that as a measure for driving up overall standards it can be very effective if
organisations recognise this and embrace it.
Its use in the delivery of public services is widespread as it allows reliable comparison of
services delivered in house with those contracted out, and by setting objectives in relation to
these the belief is that the quality of public services will be driven up.
Four distinct types of benchmarking can be identified and they all have their relevance and
potential for application to performance monitoring of FM services in general and maintenance
in particular.
(1) Internal
This compares performance amongst units within an organisation by identifying common
criteria. Examples could be individual retail units within a chain of shops, individual sites for a
contractor or individual branches of a bank.
Research shows this to be an effective way of improving performance as each unit seeks to
become the best in the organisation, leading to an overall levelling up.
(2) External or competitive
This compares performance with an identified competitor and often follows on from internal
benchmarking when the organisation judges that it has gone as far as it can internally. This is
obviously more complex and difficult, particularly in terms of persuading a competitor to
provide commercially sensitive data.
(3) Functional
This is a comparison of functions/activities amongst a selected group of companies operating in
the same industry. There are again clear difficulties in obtaining data from what may be direct
competitors. Provided data may be obtained, it is a highly effective improvement tool.
(4) Generic
This benchmarks activities amongst a selected group of businesses in unrelated industries.
For example, the health service may wish to benchmark its catering services functionally
amongst a range of trusts or hospitals, but also generically amongst other organisations in
different industries. This type of benchmarking may be less problematical in terms of data
acquisition as it need not require co-operation of direct competitors.
To be successful, benchmarking requires:
understanding of existing processes and a clear identification of those to be benchmarked
a shared understanding in the organisation of what the objectives are in relation to overall
organisational aims
thoughtful choice of the internal units or external organisations to benchmark against having
regard to compatibility/suitability of characteristics
a robust method of measurement i.e. clearly defined metrics/performance indicators
an effective way of collecting the data
an analytical approach to comparing differences and identifying the reasons for them. It
should be noted that this may involve isolating of externalities that may be at work
a realistic approach to improvement planning including the setting of objectives that are
challenging but realistic
careful and sensitive consideration of the organisational implications of the process including
the need to ensure that all stakeholders are fully signed up to the process and understand what it
means.
This implies a process of:
analysis self appraisal
analysis existing processes
planning
administration
data collection
analysis of data
analysis of processes to identify reasons for differences
planning improvement action plan
implementing the action plan
review and iterate.
The main danger is for organisations to attempt to benchmark too many things, and there is
clearly a premium on selecting the correct key processes. These should be activities that are key
to overall performance. Difficulties associated with data collection may arise, and it is imperative
that the organisation is realistic and recognizes that it is better to have limited but reliable data. It
is also essential to carry out pilot tests to verify the methodology.
In a time of rapid change it is also important for the organisation to recognise that it may have
shifting objectives, so that the shelf life of a specific benchmarking exercise may be quite limited
and/or it may require constant overhaul.
Benchmarking does of course lead to the creation of league tables, and the use of these is the
subject of much criticism and controversy. The major weakness with a league table approach is
that it may give rise to a situation where we are not comparing like with like, a particular
shortcoming of school performance league tables.
In order to be really effective benchmarking needs to be open and transparent, particularly in the
public sector. If this objective is achieved it can provide excellent material upon which
performance can be evaluated by all stakeholders, including customers, who can be provided
with a meaningful measure of the extent to which improvements have been made.

Key performance indicators

A key performance indicator (KPI) is a measurement of the performance of an activity or
parameter that is a critical success factor for an organisation, or perhaps an individual project.
The widespread use of KPIs in the construction industry was driven by the Achieving
Excellence in Construction initiative launched in March 1999, which was itself prompted by
both the Latham and Egan reports, in which parameters for continuous improvement of the
industrys performance were clearly identified. The underlying thrust is one of obtaining better
value for money including in the areas of refurbishment and maintenance.
The initiative set out a route map with clear targets in relation to management, measurement,
standardisation and integration.
The Constructing Excellence concept adopted the following mission:
To deliver individual, corporate and industry excellence in construction.
To do this, it aimed to influence government by working with a number of stakeholder groups:
DTI
Strategic Forum for Construction
central and local government
ODPM
private sector clients
construction industry companies and organisations
regional development authorities
the research community
trade and professional organisations, and acting as a catalyst for innovation, continuous
improvement and the deployment of state-of-the-art technology.
To facilitate the process, a number of contributory organisations were founded together and
comprehensive websites developed as a vehicle for the reporting, dissemination and analysis of
information.
The Constructing Excellence team are grouped into four integrated programmes:
innovation
productivity
best practice
engagement with people, business and organisations.
Within this framework, it supports specific initiatives with particular sector groupings:
the Housing Forum
the Local Government Task Force
 the Infrastructure Task Force
central government clients.
A major lead in implementing and driving improvement is the Movement for Innovation (M4I).
The movement offers support to organisations wishing to use key performance indicators to
benchmark performance. At present, wall charts and toolkits are available for:
All Construction (Economic)
Respect for People
Environment
Construction Consultants
M and E Contractors
Construction Products Industry
Housing New Build
Housing Repair and Maintenance and Refurbishment.
The indicators fall into three categories:
headline indicators that provide a measure of the overall state of health of the company
operational indicators that relate to specific activities within an organisation
diagnostic indicators that provide intelligence help to explain why changes may have taken
place in headline or operational indicators.

Organisation of maintenance departments

Whilst the relationship between a maintenance department and the rest of the corporate body can
be extremely variable, it is possible to identify common elements or operations that will exist in
the departments themselves. These include:
identification of maintenance work, both planned and emergency, that can be called work
input
instructions for the work have to be transmitted to the work team
execution, supervision, approval and valuation of the work
authorisation and making payment
a contractual framework
an accounting context
a feedback system, the sophistication of which is variable.
These can be represented in the maintenance system as illustrated in figure 9.4, which is based
on Wieners traditional view of an organisation as an adaptive system, entirely dependent on
measurement and correction through information feedback.5
Maintenance organisations can be broadly encapsulated into two types of organisation:
centralised
decentralised.
There are significant differences in these models relating to operational aspects, but one of the
most significant features relates to the size of organisation required at the centre. This will vary,
not only with the policy adopted by the parent organisation, but also through a range of factors
directly related to operational matters:
the nature of the building stock
volume, timing and diversity of the workload
the complexity of the stock in technical terms
geographical and topographical factors
restrictions on the timing of work
whether work is to be executed by contract or direct labour
 the level of expertise of the workforce, and the extent to which non-operational tasks, such as
routine inspections, are delegated to the people on the job
how maintenance is defined in the organisation, such as the degree of involvement of the
maintenance department in minor capital works.
The two examples shown in figures 9.5 and 9.6 allow for the possibility of work by contract or
direct labour, although at the detailed level

The maintenance operative

Maintenance operations are very labour intensive, and therefore the greatest potential for
economising on the execution of the work lies in efficient use of labour. Studies have shown that
for painting and decorating labour accounts for 85% of the prime cost, and for general repair
work as much as 65%.6
The scope for improvement is largely to do with the efficient organisation of the work, as
mechanisation has relatively little potential.
Somewhere in the region of 40% of the construction industrys workforce is employed in repair
and maintenance. Amongst some trades the proportion involved in maintenance work is very
high: for example, about 75% of all painters and decorators. The training of these operatives is
largely along traditional lines, with very little specific to maintenance. A large volume of
maintenance work is carried out within the traditional trade divisions, and many small
contractors use the same labour for both new build and repair and maintenance.
It is quite normal for maintenance operatives to work in small gangs, made up of a number of
trades, and there is evidence of a far greater blurring of the divisions between trades than occurs
in new-build work. Furthermore, there are clear indications that the use of multi-skilled
personnel can bestow large advantages in terms of flexibility of working. There are obstacles to
these practices, and exceptions are more prevalent in Scotland and the North of England, and
within local authorities.
Rigid trade demarcations clearly hinder the provision of an efficient and effective maintenance
service, and concern about this on an industry-wide basis has been expressed in a series of
reports dating back to the end of World War II. For example, as long ago as 1968 the Phelps
Brown Report contained evidence commenting that an important part could be played in
controlling the rising cost of maintenance by the encouragement of multi-craft skills.
Of major concern is the steady de-skilling of new construction, with the increasing tendency for
buildings to become a series of assembly operations. This has contributed to the decline in
training, in terms of volume, and also in the nature of the essential experience to which a trainee
can become exposed.
As the level of skill required to execute work on existing buildings is generally higher than that
required for the average new-build project, there is mounting concern that the supply of such
skilled labour will diminish as the effects of reducing training programmes work their way into
the system.
The labour force in maintenance tends to be older than that engaged in new build, and there are
logical reasons behind this. The proportion of operatives over 40 years of age has been estimated
as 58% for maintenance and only 32% for new construction.7
A newly qualified tradesman has high earning potential in his early twenties, and this potential is
more likely to be realised in new construction. However, as he gets older, and perhaps
undertakes additional family responsibilities, this earning potential is counterbalanced by the
uncertain nature of his work, and he is likely to seek more security elsewhere in the industry.
Maintenance work has tended to provide one of these more stable positions. This was, of course,
particularly true in local authority DLOs, and although the situation has changed somewhat,
maintenance output remains rather more stable than new construction.
It has been argued that the varied nature of maintenance work provides a higher level of personal
satisfaction, particularly as there is a close relationship to the actual use of the building. There is
a suggestion, therefore, that the maintenance operative is less motivated by purely financial
reward, although it is difficult to separate these motivations from what many believe to be the
disincentives of larger construction sites.
In proposing the need for a multi-skilled operative, it is necessary to be aware not only of
practical difficulties, but also of the need to determine what basic skills are required.
Maintenance involves such a wide range of activity that it is difficult to produce the perfect
maintenance technician. The need for specialists will always exist, but many of these skills may
be rather more contained. There is a strong case for arguing that the real provision of the type of
skills required will come through experience and on-the-job training, rather than in a classroom.
Individual craft courses can, however, do more to educate trainees in the broad nature of all
construction work, so that their role can be seen in context.
Many of the demarcation problems that occur in maintenance are related to the need to execute
support work. Making-good exercises are extremely common, and the skill level required for
them is not necessarily high. The average carpenter is almost certainly quite capable of making
good a small area of brickwork after fitting a new window.8
CAD systems
Building maintenance operations require individual items of work to be carried out at prescribed
locations, which are normally indicated on drawings. These may be in hard copy format, or
stored electronically. Whether they can be considered to be up to date is uncertain. In many cases
they may only be the original as-built drawings, provided when the building was commissioned,
and in others may be so old as to require complete re-draughting following a full measured
survey. If the original drawings, or the new ones, are CAD based then their regular updating is
greatly facilitated.
Alongside this graphical information will be a large body of text data, either in a building
manual, on a computer database or in an integrated system such as that described above.
Consistency between graphic and text data is often very questionable, and there has more
recently been a move towards a more integrated approach, particularly in the facilities
management area.3 By attaching database information about the building, or facility, to the
graphic entities in the drawing, the database can be accessed via the on-screen drawing.

AutoCad is a particularly widely used CAD system, and many peripheral software packages have
been designed to integrate with it. The system acts as an electronic drawing board, and can be
used in two- or three-dimensional mode. Current versions allow the direct introduction of
building components such as walls, roofs, windows and doors, selected from a library of
standard components. In addition, many component manufacturers now produce product
information on a disk, for incorporation into
AutoCadTM.
For a CAD system to be used effectively, the information contained in its files must be organised
in a systematic manner. This is to ensure the efficient transfer of information between different
members of the design, construction and management team.
This, therefore, requires the adoption of a standard method of data organisation.
Part 5 of BS 1192 gives guidance on the structuring of computer graphic information, with the
aim of simplifying its transfer. It identifies two methods of data organization in CAD systems:
the use of sub-models
the use of a layering system.
The use of the former requires the adoption of a hierarchical approach, which is less flexible than
layering systems, which are now almost universally employed.
Sets of graphical items that make up a component, or part of one, are termed entities.
When these are entered into a model, they are assigned to a layer. This can be visualised as a
transparent sheet of paper. The full CAD model thus exists as a series of layers, or
transparencies. Each layer can be activated or suppressed by the operator, on the screen, or in a
plot.
Information can thus be grouped logically on an appropriate layer, and a high level of selectivity
is available. As well as reducing clutter on drawings, this provides a very powerful information
management tool. It is quite possible to name layers in any way, but standard naming
conventions permit easier transfer of data between applications and users.
An integrated computer model
Software packages such as AutoCadTM are, in themselves, very powerful data managers, and
have the ability to present information in other than graphical form. For example, there are
schedule generation facilities, which provide for the extraction of attribute data into an organised
form. This data can also be extracted for processing by a range of external data management
packages.
A number of facilities management groups have begun to exploit the potential that exists, and
develop fully integrated systems. The key characteristics of typical contemporary systems are
described below.
A major obstacle to progress for some time was a failure by most design teams to use CAD in
the design and commissioning of buildings. It is at the design stage that the formative model is
best constructed, although, as we noted earlier, even if this exists its appropriateness in many
cases for building management is still questionable and there are also continuing issues with
respect to shelf life. Keeping such models up to date requires a systematic approach to
information management, but if this is neglected they become very expensive to update
BUILDING ENVELOPE & INSULATION
The Building envelope building enclosure is the physical separator between the interior and the
exterior environments of a building. It serves as the outer shell to help maintain the indoor
environment (together with the mechanical conditioning systems) and facilitate its climate
control. Building envelope design is a specialized area of architectural functions of the building
envelope
Support
Control
Finish
The Control function is the core of good performance, rain control, air control, heat control,
Control of air flow is important to ensure indoor air quality, control energy consumption, and
avoid condensation and to provide comfort. Through components of the building envelope
(interstitial) itself, as well as into and out of the interior space, affect building insulation , Hence
air control includes the control of wind washing and convective loops.
Building envelopes the location of buildings on their lot, their height and overall shape can
affect:-
Neighborhood character.
Sunlight to adjoining buildings.
Open spaces.
Privacy.
Overlooking of other uses.
The quality of spaces inside the building.
The amenity and usability of private open spaces.
The sense of pedestrian scale and amenity in nearby streets.

Height and Massing

Building height can reinforce an area's character. Appropriate building height is derived from
local context, street conditions and character objectives for an area, specific design objectives.
For example, the protection of view lines, the natural features of an area, or solar access to the
public realm may be important objectives.

Street Setbacks
The setback of buildings from a street edge affects how uses relate to the public space of the
street. Front setbacks, are also an important aspect, Setbacks add to the apparent breadth of the
adjoining street and provide space for plantings.

Relationships to Adjoining Buildings

The proximity of buildings to each other affects the amenity of spaces inside the building, the
quality of space between buildings, visual and acoustic privacy and solar access to private and
shared open spaces. The challenge is to provide appropriate separation between buildings to
maximize light, air and outlook while meeting strategic planning goals and respecting
neighborhood character.

Views to and from Residential Units

Views onto and across streets and other public spaces are encouraged. For these frontages, the
design of each building (or the use of blinds or other screening devices) is to deal with issues of
privacy. Views from one building into adjoining buildings are, generally not acceptable, and the
design of new buildings is expected to limit intrusion into the privacy of existing properties. The
location and design of buildings, and open spaces must be carefully orchestrated to maintain
reasonable levels of privacy for adjacent development.

Evaluation of Building Envelope

The area that separates conditioned space form unconditioned space or the outdoors. A building
envelope includes all components of a building that enclose conditioned space.
Building envelope components separate conditioned spaces from unconditioned spaces or from
outside air.
A building envelop is the separation between the interior and the exterior environments of a
building. It serves as the outer shell to protect the indoor environment as well as to facilitate its
climate control.

Improvement of Existing Building Envelope

Reducing outside air infiltration into the building by improving building envelope tightness is
usually quite feasible, during re-roofing; extra insulation can typically be added with little
difficulty. Windows and insulation can be upgraded during more significant building
improvements and renovations.
Installing a system in a new building or upgrading the equipment in an existing structure, its
optimal performance (and reduced energy demand) depends on a high- performance building
envelop. A tight, insulated shell including thermally efficient windows and doors, creates an
environment that enables ultimate control of conditioned air and ventilation demand and costs.
A radiant floor system, for instance geothermal or passive solar energy are hard to implement
short of gutting the place you call.

Efficiency and Building Envelope

U-factor measures heat loss form a window. The rate of loss given as the U-factor of a
fenestration assembly. The lower the number, the better the performance of the assembly,
generally, those numbers range from 0.20 and 1.20. Most experts recommend that facility
executives seek out window assemblies with a U-factor lower than 0.35 in colder climates.
Solar Heat Gain (SHGC) measures how well limits radiant heat gain that is caused by sunlight.
This radiation is transmitted directly to the occupied space and lessens the heating load or
increases the cooling load. The SHGC is expressed as a number between 0 and 1, and that
fraction denotes how much radiation makes it into occupied space. As an example, a window
with an SHGC of 0.35 would admit 35 percent of the radiant heat that hits the window and
reflect 65 percent.
Visible Transmittance is a metric that measures how much light not heat comes through a
product, other worlds, this metric determines how clear the glass is. Fenestration assemblies that
reduce the visible transmittance the National Rating Council (NFRC), the visible transmittance is
expressed as a number between 0 and 1. The higher the number, the more light is transmitted.

Walls and Roofing System

Window assembly air leakage by a rating as the equivalent cubic feet of air passing through a
square foot of window area but its also vitally important to determine heat loss through
opaque walls and roofing systems.
Any roofing system is comprised, of two parts that affect energy efficiency roof material and the
insulation in the sub roof assembly.
Reflectivity values are measured on a scale of 0 to 1. A reflectivity value of 0.0 indicates that the
surface absorbs all solar radiation, and a 1.0 reflectivity value represents total reflectivity.

R Value
All main building materials (be it walls, floor, ceiling, loft or roof components) have known R-
Values.
R-Value of a material can vary depending on the mode of heat transfer you are trying to block
(radiant or conductive); so for different seasons it can be advantageous to use materials with
different qualities to suit whether you want to stop heat getting out (Winter) or heat getting in
(Summer).
The higher the R-Value of a material the better an insulator it is, but this usually also implies
higher costs. Also of importance is the degree of external temperature range need to deal with
where you live.

Passive Solar & R Value

Value is quite important in passive solar building design, knowing the correct R-Values for the
external walls, floors and ceilings is key in working out what is termed Skin Losses; i.e.
amount of heat that gets lost from the passive solar building the surrounding environment.
The R-Value of a substance is its direct measure of its resistance to transferring energy or heat;
R-Values are expressed using the metric units (m2.K/W). The higher the figure the better it is at
resisting energy transfer, the easier it is to maintain a difference in temperatures across it for a
longer time.
R-Value measures per meter squared the amount of degrees Kelvin temperature difference
required to transfer one watt of energy. So an R-Value of 1 means per meter squared a single
degree difference will transfer one watt of energy. So an R-Value of 2 will transfer half a watt of
energy for a degree of difference.

Building Services-HVAC
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
HVAC systems have a significant effect on the health, comfort, and productivity of occupants.
Issues like user discomfort, improper ventilation, and poor indoor air quality are linked to HVAC
system design and operation and can be improved by better mechanical and ventilation system
design.

Factors Affecting Thermal Comfort

Thermodynamic processes take place between the human body and the surrounding thermal
environment. Our perception of thermal comfort and acceptance of indoor thermal environment
is a result of the heat generated by metabolic processes and the adjustments that the human body
makes to achieve a thermal balance between our body and the environment.

Determining Loads
Projected load for new buildings can be analyzed accurately by using Computer Simulation.
Hourly simulation models designed for energy analysis, calculate hourly cooling loads from
detailed building geometry, scheduling, and equipment data.
Types of Air-Conditioning Systems
There are 4 primary types of heating and cooling systems: split systems, hybrid systems, ductfree
split systems and packaged systems.

Room and Split Air-Conditioners

Room air-conditioners cool rooms rather than the building. They provide cooling only when
needed Room air-conditioners are less expensive to operate than central units, even though their
efficiency is generally lower than that of central air-conditioners.
In a split-system central air-conditioner, an outdoor metal cabinet contains the condenser and
compressor, and an indoor cabinet contains the evaporator. In many splitsystem air-conditioners,
this indoor cabinet also contains a furnace or the indoor part of heat pump.

Packaged Air-Conditioners
In a packaged air-conditioners, the evaporator, condenser, and compressor are all located in one
cabinet, which usually is placed on a roof or on a concrete slab adjacent to the building.
This type of air-conditioner is typical in small commercial buildings and also in residential
buildings. Air supply and return ducts come from indoors through the buildings exterior wall or
roof to connect with the packaged air-conditioners, which is usually located outdoors. This
combination of air-conditioner and central heater eliminates the need for a separate furnace
indoor.

Central Air-Conditioners
In central air-conditioning systems, cooling is generated in a chillers and distributed to
airhandling units or fan-coil units with a chilled water system. This category includes systems
with air-cooled chillers as well as systems with cooling towers for heat rejection

VRV Air Conditioning System

VRV is a multi and direct expansion type air conditioning system that one outdoor unit can be
connected with multiples of indoor units. The amount of refrigerant can be changed freely
according to the load in the indoor unit because inverter compressor is used in the outdoor unit.
Zoning in a small office is easily made possible with indoor unit whose minimum capacity is
very small. Energy conservation is easily handled because individual indoor unit can stop and
start its operation as needed.

Chilled Beam
Chilled beams are predominantly used for cooling and ventilating spaces, where a good indoor
environment and individual space control is valued. Chilled beams use water to remove heat
from a room and are located in the room space. Chilled beams are primarily used in locations
where the humidity can be controlled.
Chilled beams provide excellent thermal comfort, energy conservation and efficient use of space
due to high heat capacity of water used as heat transfer medium. Chilled beam operation is
simple and trouble free due to having minimum maintenance requirements.
Chilled beam also supplement the flexible use of available space, at the same time as the high
temperature cooling and low temperature heating maximizing the opportunity for free cooling
and heating. Operation of the chilled beams is used where the internal humidity loads are
moderate, the primary air is dehumidified and any infiltration through the building is limited and
controlled.
GREEN BUILDING MATERIALS:
Green Building, also known as green construction or sustainable building, is the practice of
creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource
efficient throughout a buildings life-cycle: from sitting to design, construction, operation,
maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction.

Materials Efficiency
Building materials typically considered to be green include rapidly renewable plant materials
like bamboo. Total energy consumed in the life cycle of a product includes flowing process:
Extraction
Processing
Transportation
Disposal

Strategies Being Followed

Maximum Utilization of FLY ASH in structure, filler walls ,mortars and plasters
Reduction in Volume/Weight of Construction.
Low Energy materials

Green Building Material/Product Selection Criteria

The selection criteria for green building materials shall be based broadly on:
Resource efficiency
Indoor air quality
Energy efficiency
Water conservation
Affordability

Resource Efficiency can be accomplished by utilizing materials that meet the following criteria:
Recycled Content: Products with identifiable recycled content, including post- Industrial
content with a preference for post consumer content.
Natural, plentiful or renewable: Materials harvested from sustainably managed sources and
preferably have an independent certification (e.g., certified wood) and are certified by an
independent third party.
Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with resourceefficient
processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste (recycled, recyclable and or
source reduced product packaging), and reducing greenhouse gases.
Locally available: Building materials, components, and systems found locally or regionally
saving energy and resources in transportation to the project site.
Salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured: Includes saving a material from disposal and
renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the appearance, performance, quality,
functionality, or value of a product.
Reusable or recyclable: Select materials that can be easily dismantled and reused or recycled
at the end of their useful life.
Recycled or recyclable product packaging: Products enclosed in recycled content or
recyclable packaging.
 Durable: Materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional products with
long life expectancies.
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is enhanced by utilizing materials that meet the following criteria:
Low or non-toxic: Materials that emit few or no carcinogens, reproductive toxicants, or
irritants as demonstrated by the manufacturer through appropriate testing.
Minimal chemical emissions: Products that have minimal emissions of Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs). Products that also maximize resource and energy efficiency while reducing
chemical emissions.
Low-VOC assembly: Materials installed with minimal VOC-producing compounds, or no-
VOC mechanical attachment methods and minimal hazards.
Moisture resistant: Products and systems that resist moisture or inhibit the growth of
biological contaminants in buildings.
Healthfully maintained: Materials, components, and systems that require only simple, non-
toxic, or low-VOC methods of cleaning.
Systems or equipment: Products that promote healthy IAQ by identifying indoor air pollutants
or enhancing the air quality.

Some Green Building Materials

1. Fly Ash Bricks
Pulverized fuel ash commonly known as fly ash is a useful by-product from thermal power
stations using pulverized coal as fuel and has considerable pozzolonic activity.
Fly ash-lime bricks are obtained from materials consisting of pulverized fuel ash in major
quantity, lime and an accelerator acting as a catalyst. These bricks are suitable for use in masonry
construction just like common burnt clay bricks.
Advantages
Embodied Energy: In case of using Fly ash lime Gypsum bricks 40% reduction can be done in
embodied energy of masonry.
Environment Friendly: Fly ash brick uses unfired Fly Ash technology hence the CO2
emissions in the manufacturing process are limited..
Excellent Thermal Insulation: The buildings using fly ash bricks are cool in summers and
warm in winters.
Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of fly ash bricks is very high as these bricks are composed of
fly ash as its major constituents, which is the un-burnt residue of the coal fired in a thermal
power plant.
Nil Efflorescence: Fly ash bricks resist salt and other sulphate attack, ensuring no
efflorescence in the structure.

2. Autoclaved Aerated Concrete

Autoclaved aerated concrete is a versatile lightweight construction material and usually used as
blocks. Compared with normal (ie: dense concrete) aircrete has a low density and excellent
insulation properties. Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks are excellent thermal insulators and are
typically used to form the inner leaf of a cavity wall. They are also used in the outer leaf, when
they are usually rendered, and in foundations.
Autoclaved aerated concrete is easily cut to any required shape. Aircrete also has good acoustic
properties and it is durable, with good resistance to sulfate attack and to damage by fire and frost.
 Embodied Energy: In case of using AAC bricks 14% - 20% reduction can be done in
embodied energy of masonry.
Environment Friendly: AAC bricks help reduce at least 30% of environmental waste,
decrease over 50% of greenhouse radiation and over 60% integrated energy on the surface of
brick.
Excellent Acoustic Insulation: has excellent acoustic performance and can be used as an
effective sound barrier, e.g., intertenacy walls (aac wall panel).
Ventilation: AAC is very airy thus allowing more diffusion of water, reducing humidity of the
building. AAC Wall self-adjusts the humidity by absorbing moisture and releasing humidity
automatically, helps prevent condensation.

3. Terrazo Tiles
Terrazzo consists of marble, granite, onyx, or glass chips in Portland Cement, Portland Cement,
or resinous matrix binder. The Terrazzo is poured, cured, ground, and polished.
Terrazzo is typically used as a finish for floors, stairs or walls. Terrazzo is used in both interior
and exterior applications. Portland Cement and Polyacrylate Matrix Terrazzo can be used for
both interior and exterior applications, however. Epoxy Resin Matrix Terrazzo is not
recommended for exterior use.
Advantages
Embodied Energy: In case of using Terrazo flooring 4% - 10% reduction in overall volume of
construction can be done..
Low Maintenance: Terrazzo does not support microbial growth, does not allow accumulation
of water, absorbing water at a rate 1/10th that of cementitious terrazzo, resulting in greatly
increased stain resistance.
Environment Friendly: Made from recycled material, terrazzo is not only environmentally
friendly, but it also produces zero harmful chemicals. Making a terrazzo floor doesnt release any
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere because the material is all natural, so it
is one of the greenest floors available
Indoor Air Quality: Advantages in sanitation result in an overall improvement of the indoor
air quality of buildings such as hospitals and schools, and anywhere else indoor air quality is a
factor.

4. UPVC Windows
The New age window making material UPVC (Unplastisized Polyvinyl chloride) is formed from
Polymerization of Ethylene and Chlorine .UPVC is considered as the most preferred
contemporary window making material because of its efficient features .The Vinyl windows are
excellent insulators :They reduce heating and cooling loads by preventing thermal loss through
the frame and sash material .It is not affected by the weather or air pollution ,salt ,acid rain
industrial pollution ,pesticides ,smog and discoloration and structural damage . Its user friendly
and Eco Friendly, Its readily accepted and safe .

Advantages
NO WEATHERING EFFECT: do not absorb moisture and do not alter under extreme
weather conditions.
 GOOD THERMAL INSULATOR: With a heat insulation at least 2.2 times better than
Aluminum windows, UPVC windows save a lot of energy, and keep the interiors cool and
comfortable.
ACOUSTIC INSULATOR: Protection against noise pollution and higher levels of privacy is
ensured. Sound insulation is increasingly becoming a compliance issue in many sensitive areas e
ECO FRIENDLY: UPVC is energy efficient compared to other materials. The compound
used is recyclable and the longevity of the product makes it a very strong option to wood, which
reduces deforestation considerably

5. Bamboo Jute Composite Doors

This product is rapidly renewable and is manufactured by using composite materials made from
renewable natural fibre i.e. non-oven jute felt and jute stick fibre with suitable aqua based binder
for manufacturing of flush door shutter of solid core type was investigated.
Flush door shutter of solid core type has been made using jute composite in the form of non-
woven fiber felt of weight 1900 to 1950 gm/m2 and of thickness 10 mm by impregnating with
low condensed PF resin liquid (resol type of 50% solid content).

6. Calcium Silicate Tiles

Calcium Silicate Tiles are Lightweight with densified edges, to give high edge Strength, which
minimizes damage in handling, Transport, storage, and installation of the tiles. 100% RH
Humidity resistance which eliminates Sagging of the product in high humidity Environments and
do not lose their physical Integrity even in the case of condensation from air Conditioning ducts.