Colville: Clinical Anatomy and Physiology for Veterinary Technicians, 3rd

Edition

Chapter 15: The Respiratory System

Test Yourself Answers

Test Yourself 15-1

1. Its primary function is to bring oxygen (O2) into the body and carry carbon dioxide (CO2) out
of it.
2. Secondary functions include voice production, body temperature regulation, acid-base balance
regulation, and the sense of smell.
3. Breathing, also known as ventilation, is the process of drawing air into the lungs and blowing
it back out again. Respiration is the process of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide.
4. External respiration occurs in the lungs. It is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the air inhaled into the lungs and the blood flowing through the pulmonary (lung)
capillaries. Internal respiration, on the other hand, occurs everywhere in the body. It is the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood in the capillaries all over the body
(the systemic capillaries) and all of the cells and tissues of the body. Internal respiration is the
real business end of respiration. It is the means by which the bodys cells receive the oxygen
they need and get rid of their waste (carbon dioxide). Without external respiration, however,
there would be no oxygen in the blood for the cells to absorb and no way for the cells to dump
the carbon dioxide.

Test Yourself 15-2

1. The scroll-like twists and turns of the turbinates tremendously increase the surface area of
the nasal lining. They allow it to function as a combination radiator and humidifier. The air
is warmed by the blood flowing through the complex of blood vessels just beneath the nasal
epithelium and humidified by the mucus and other fluids that lie on the epithelial surface.
The filtering function of the nasal passages helps remove particulate matter, such as dust
and pollen, from the inhaled air before it reaches the lungs. The filtering mechanism relies
on the many twists and turns of the nasal passages produced by the turbinates, the mucous
layer on the surface of the nasal epithelium, and the cilia that project up into it. Air easily
passes along the tortuous path of the nasal lining as it is inhaled, but particles of dust and
other debris do not negotiate the twists and turns as readily and become trapped in the
mucous layer. The beating of the cilia sweeps the mucus and the trapped foreign material
back to the pharynx, where it is swallowed.
2. The respiratory passageway (nasal passage) starts out dorsal to the digestive passageway

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Test Yourself Answers 15-2

(mouth) rostrally, but further caudally, the respiratory passageway (larynx) is ventral to the
digestive passageway (esophagus).
3. The pharynx and larynx work together to prevent swallowing from interfering with breathing,
and vice versa. The seemingly simple act of swallowing actually involves a complex series of
actions that stops the process of breathing, covers the opening into the larynx, moves the
material to be swallowed to the rear of the pharynx, opens the esophagus, and moves the
material into it. Once swallowing is complete, the opening of the larynx is uncovered and
breathing resumes. The epiglottis is the structure that temporarily covers the opening to the
larynx so that food can pass over it and into the rear of the pharynx and esophagus.
4. Straining begins with the animal holding the glottis closed while applying pressure to the
thorax with the breathing muscles. This stabilizes the thorax and allows the abdominal
muscles to effectively compress the abdominal organs when they contract. Without the closed
glottis, contraction of the abdominal muscles merely forces air out of the lungs (exhalation).

Test Yourself 15-3

1. The hyaline cartilage rings prevent the trachea from collapsing each time the animal inhales.
2. The trachea bifurcates to form two main bronchi. Each main bronchus enters the lung and
divides into some fairly large branches, which divide into smaller and smaller branches called
bronchioles. Bronchioles continue to subdivide down to the smallest air passageways, the
microscopic alveolar ducts. These ducts end in groups of alveoli arranged like bunches of
grapes, the alveolar sacs.
3. Structurally, the alveoli are tiny, thin-walled sacs that are surrounded by networks of capillaries. The
wall of each alveolus is composed of the thinnest epithelium in the bodysimple squamous
epithelium. The capillaries that surround the alveoli are also composed of simple squamous epithelium.
The main physical barriers between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries are the very
thin epithelium of the alveolus and the adjacent, equally thin epithelium of the capillaries. These two
thin layers allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to freely diffuse back and forth between the air and the
blood. Each alveolus is lined with a thin layer of fluid that contains a substance called surfactant.
Surfactant helps reduce the surface tension (the attraction of water molecules to each other) of the fluid.
This prevents the alveoli from collapsing as air moves in and out during breathing.
4. The hilus is a small, well-defined area on the medial side of each lung where air, blood,
lymph, and nerves enter and leave the lung. It is the only area of the lung that is fastened in
place. The rest of the lung is free within the thorax.
5. The mediastinum is the area between the lungs that contains most of the rest of the thoracic
contents: the heart, large blood vessels, nerves, trachea, esophagus, and lymphatic vessels and
lymph nodes.
6. Pulmonary vein

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Test Yourself Answers 15-3

7. The animal was born dead. If it had been born alive and had breathed, the lung piece would
have floated.
8. These surfaces are lubricated with pleural fluid and ensure that the surfaces of the organs,
particularly the lungs, slide smoothly along the lining of the thorax during breathing.

Test Yourself 15-4

1. The pressure within the thorax is negative with respect to atmospheric pressure and creates a
partial vacuum within the thorax. That partial vacuum pulls the lungs tightly out against the
thoracic wall. The soft, flexible nature of the lungs allows them to conform closely to the
shape of the inside of the thoracic wall. Pleural fluid between the lungs and the thoracic wall
provides lubrication. As the thoracic wall goes, so go the lungs. The lungs follow passively as
movements of the thoracic wall and diaphragm alternately enlarge and reduce the volume of
the thorax. The whole system functions like a bellows as it pulls air into the lungs (inspiration)
and blows it back out (expiration). Without this negative pressure, the lungs would collapse
and not be able to fill. In addition, blood return to the heart would be decreased.
2. Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles. When the diaphragm contracts (flattens), the
thoracic cavity enlarges and the lungs expand. The fibers of the external intercostal muscles
are oriented obliquely so that when they contract, they rotate the ribs upward and forward,
thus increasing the size of the thoracic cavity.
3. Internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles. The fibers of the internal intercostals run
deep and at right angles to the external intercostal muscles. When they contract, they rotate the
ribs backward, which decreases the size of the thorax and helps push air out of the lungs.
When abdominal muscles contract, they push the abdominal organs against the caudal surface
of the diaphragm. This pushes the diaphragm back into its full dome shape and also decreases
the size of the thorax.
4. When that air is inhaled down into the alveoli of the lungs, it is only a couple of thin epithelial
layers away from the blood in the surrounding capillaries. That alveolar capillary blood
contains very little oxygen but a high level of carbon dioxide because it gave up its oxygen to
the bodys cells and picked up their carbon dioxide as it flowed through the systemic
circulation. As this low-oxygen, highcarbon-dioxide blood circulates right next to an alveolus
containing high-oxygen, lowcarbon-dioxide air, oxygen diffuses from the alveolar air (area of
high concentration) into the blood of the alveolar capillary (area of low concentration). At the
same time, carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood (area of high concentration) into the
alveolus (area of low concentration). The differences in the concentrations of the gases (the
concentration gradient) stay fairly constant because as the blood picks up oxygen and dumps
carbon dioxide, it flows away and is replaced by more low-oxygen, highcarbon-dioxide
blood. At the same time, the air in the alveoli is refreshed with each breath.

Test Yourself 15-5

1. Breathing is controlled by the medulla oblongata of the brain stem in an area called the

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Test Yourself Answers 15-4

respiratory center. Within the respiratory center are individual control centers for functions
such as inspiration, expiration, and breath-holding that receive input from stretch receptors in
the lungs that indicate when the lungs reach preset inflation and deflation limits. These centers
send nerve impulses out to the respiratory muscles at a subconscious level, directing when and
how much they contract. Therefore, the voluntary respiratory muscles are controlled by nerve
impulses from a subconscious part of the brain.
2. The mechanical system sets routine inspiration and expiration limits, and the chemical system
monitors the levels of certain substances in the blood and directs adjustments in breathing if
they get out of balance.
3. Chemical receptors in blood vessels (the carotid and aortic bodies located in the carotid artery
and aorta, respectively) and in the brain stem constantly monitor various physical and
chemical characteristics of the blood. Three characteristics important to the control of the
breathing process are (1) the CO2 content, (2) the pH, and (3) the O2 content of the arterial
blood. If any of these varies outside preset limits, the chemical control system signals the
respiratory center to modify the breathing process to bring the errant level back into balance.
If the chemical control system detects a rise in the blood level of CO 2 and a decrease in the
blood pH (blood becomes acidic), it signals the respiratory center to increase the rate and
depth of respiration so that more CO 2 can be eliminated from the lungs. If the CO 2 level falls
too low, which is usually accompanied by a rise in the blood pH level, the opposite occurs
(that is, respiration is decreased to allow the CO 2 level to rise back into the normal range).
The effects of variations in the blood O2 level are not as clear cut as the CO2 effects. If a
slight decrease in the blood O2 level (hypoxia) occurs, the chemical control system signals the
respiratory center to increase the rate and depth of breathing so that more O2 will be taken in.
If, however, the blood O2 level drops below a critical level, the neurons of the respiratory
center can become so depressed from the hypoxia (lack of oxygen) that they cannot send
adequate nerve impulses to the respiratory muscles. This can cause breathing to decrease or
stop completely.
4. A cough is a protective reflex stimulated by irritation or foreign matter in the trachea or
bronchi. Moist coughs, also known as productive coughs, help an animal clear mucus and
other matter from the lower respiratory passages. They are generally beneficial to the animal,
and we usually do not try to eliminate them with medications. Dry coughs, also known as
nonproductive coughs, are generally not beneficial and are often treated with cough-
suppressant medications.
A sneeze is similar to a cough, but the irritation originates in the nasal passages. The burst of
air is directed through the nose and mouth in an effort to eliminate the irritant or irritants.
A yawn is a slow, deep breath taken through a wide-open mouth. It may be stimulated by a
slight decrease in the oxygen level of the blood, or it may result from boredom, drowsiness, or
fatigue. Yawns can even occur in humans by the power of suggestion, such as seeing someone
else yawn or even thinking about yawning. (Did you just yawn?)
A sigh is a slightly deeper-than-normal breath. It is not accompanied by a wide-open mouth
like a yawn. A sigh breath may be a mild corrective action when the blood level of oxygen

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Test Yourself Answers 15-5

gets a little low or the carbon dioxide level gets a little high. It may also serve to expand the
lungs more than the normal breathing pattern does. Anesthetized animals are often manually
given deep sigh breaths periodically to keep their lungs well expanded. This is done to prevent
the partial collapse of the lungs, which can occur in anesthetized animals as a result of
respiratory system depression caused by general anesthetic drugs.
Hiccups are spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm accompanied by sudden closure of the
glottis, causing the characteristic hiccup sound. Although hiccups can result from serious
conditions such as nerve irritation, indigestion, and central nervous system damage, most of
the time they are harmless and temporary and occur for unknown reasons.

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