Wal. Sci. Tech. Vol. 27, No.9, pp. 75-82,1993.

0273-1223193 $24'00
Printed in Great Britain. All rigbts reserved. Copyrigbt 1993 IA WQ

ANAEROBIC TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC

WASTEWATER IN SMALL SCALE UASB
REACTORS

J. J. Bogte*, A. M. Breure*, J. G. van Andel* and

G. Lettinga**

* Laboratory for Waste Materials and Emissions, National Institute of Public Health
and Environmental Protection (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven,
The Netherlands
** Department of Environmental Technology, Agricultural University, P. O. Box 8129,
6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT

A survey was made on the feasibility of on-site anaerobic treatment of domestic wastewater from small
3
scale emissions in The Netherlands. Three 1.2 m UASB-reactors (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket)
were tested in different rural locations. The survey made clear that the efficiency of the process is
highly dependent on the reactor temperature. Below 12C purification was predominantly based on
settling, while above 12 C microbial degradation of organic matter increased. Efficiencies for the
removal of total COD and BOD of two of the reactors ranged between 33 and 60%, equalising well
performing septic tanks. In one of the reactors the average production of biogas, with a methane content
of 78%, was 67 liters per day. Complete transformation of volatile fatty acids (VFA) into biogas was
achieved during 3 to 4 months a year at temperatures above 15C. In this period, during the second
year of operation, the average efficiencies for COD and BOD removal were 60 and 72% respectively,
while the maximum gas production reached 300 liters per day. In the latter period the mineralisation rate
exceeded the input rate of organic matter, resulting in a decrease of settled material in the reactor. The
possibility of high efficiencies during summertime in The Netherlands and the positive results of similar
experiments in Indonesia and Latin America lead to the conclusion that anaerobic digestion is a
promising process for the (pre-)treatment of domestic waste water in (sub)tropical countries.

KEYWORDS

UASB-reactor, anaerobic treatment, wastewater. treatment, small-scale treatment, on-site treatment,

domestic wastewater, field research.

INTRODUCTION

About 95% of the wastewater produced in The Netherlands is being treated in communal facilities. The
remaining 5% is produced by approximately 300,000 sources, like remote houses, farms and recreation
facilities for which connection to municipal wastewater treatment plants is too costly. The nearly
6
untreated wastewater from these sources, totally about 1.63 x 10 kg COD per day, is discharged directly
into the surface water and the soil. The aim of the project was to investigate the feasibility of anaerobic
treatment of domestic wastewater under Dutch climatological conditions using small-scale UASB
75
JIIST 27,9F
76 J. J. BOOTE et aL

(Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) reactors. This would offer a possibility to reduce the problem of
rural emissions of domestic waste water.

MATERIALS AND METIIODS

The locations of the UASB-reactors were chosen in cooperation with the Dutch Forestry Commission.
The reactors were made out of steel plate, with internal structures (influent pipe, baffles and gashood)
made of PVC. The reactors were wrapped in insulating mats and placed in ventilated concrete cellars.
Two reactors, receiving wash- and toilet water (grey water), were installed next to houses of foresters at
Noordwijk and Kootwijk (The Netherlands) and were tested for 28 and 24 months respectively. The
third reactor was installed at the Agricultural University (location Bennekom, The Netherlands). This
reactor was tested for 13 months, receiving toilet water (black water) only. The whole experiment ended
in December 1988.
The reactors were designed to enable the treatment of wastewater of five persons, with a hydraulic
retention time (HRT) of minimum one day. Calculations based on these conditions and on previous
laboratory experiments resulted in a volume of 1.2 m3 for each reactor. Figure 1 displays the
construction and facilities of one pilot plant. Ventilation gas from the cellars was fed to a compost filter
to avoid emissions of nasty odours to the environment.
Sampling of the influent and effluent was done weekly. The content of the reactors was sampled once a
month and the composition of the gas produced was analyzed incidentally. During 30% of the
experimental time each reactor was equipped with a grinding influent pump coupled with an automatic
sampler for taking influent samples.
Reactor temperature, pH values and biogas production were monitored weekly. Influent, effluent and
reactor content were analysed for BOD, total COD (CODt), COD of the filtrate passing a 0.45 Ilm
membrane filter (CODf), COD of the suspended solids retained by the filter described (CODss), volatile
fatty acids (VFA) and nitrogen and phosphorous compounds (NH/, NKj, P04-ortho and P04-total).
Details of the used methods were described in the final report of this project (Bogte, et al,1989).

cellar

1
-r---e
---. rTluent

Figure 1: Scheme of the test plant. 1: 1.2 rr1 UASB-reactor; 2: Influent pipe with pump
3: Refrigerator; 4: Influent sampling system; 5: Effluent pipe with sample point;
6: Gasmeter; 7: Sampling taps; 8: Temperature registration.
 Small scale UASB reactors 77

RESULTS

S tanin& up and overall results

The reactors at Noordwijk and Kootwijk were inoculated with 160 liters of digested sewage sludge from
a municipal wastewater treatment plant. The third reactor was supplied with 100 liters of granular
methanogenic sludge from the wastewater treatment plant of a papermill. The specific methanogenic
l 1
activity of the inoculation sludge amounted to 0.114, 0.038 and 0.163 (g COD).(g VSSr .d, for the
reactors at Noordwijk, Kootwijk and Bennekom respectively. Because the gas production in the reactor at
Kootwijk remained very low, extra inoculation sludge was added after four months (100 I from the
municipal plant) and ten months (80 I from the papermill) after starting up; the specific methanogenic
l
activity was 0.052 and 0.061 (g COD).(g VSSr .d,1 respectively.
The average values of the influent and effluent quality and the average HRT and reactor temperature
conceming the three reactors during the total test period are given in table 1. The influent values of
each reactor are based on the samples taken by means of the automatic sampler, during 30% of the
experimental time. The values were considered to be valid for the total test period, because the number
of tenants and the use of water and detergents etc. did not change during the time of the experiment.

TABLE 1: The average influent and effluent quality, HRT and reactor temperature ( standard error)
of the reactors at Noordwijk, Kootwijk (both grey water) and Bennekom (black water).

!\OORPWUK KOOTWUK BENNEKOM

ANALYSES Influent Effluent Influent EffluCDt Influent Effluent

CODI mgll 916.2 125.9 610.6 234.1 820.1 88.1 189.5 219,4 1.115.6 261.0 686.2 228.6

CODr mgll 324.8 51.4 294.2 143.6 352.3 45.3 351.0 109.3 5 1 4.1 63.6 485.0 149.1

COD.. mgll 640.6 95.1 339.6 162.3 468.4 10.3 441.0 224.8 1,20Q.9 221.5 214.5 112.1

BOD mgll 453.8 11.0 281.0 159.2 466.8 62.9 399.1 123.5 639.6 94.0 311.1 101.0

VFA mgCODIl 118.6 32.8 119.1 93.5 65.1 14.1 151.9 11.2 l OO.5 22.5 209.8 128.8

PO"t mgPIl 18.1 2.2 19.6 1.4 23.6 1.3 W.O 8.4 32.2 5.1 25.8 9.2

PO,-o mgPIl 13.1 2.5 14.5 6.1 15.2 4.4 14.8 1.4 12.3 2.1 20.0 8.4

NKj mgNIl 123.3 5.2 92.6 23.9 49.9 9.9 65.0 11.8 231.5 26.4 223.3 26.4

Nil: mgNIl 95.4 9.3 69.5 19.9 28.9 6.3 45.3 10.3 181.3 22.5 184.9 18.9

pH 6.9 0.2 6.8 0.3 1.5 0.1 6.8 0.3 9.1 0.9 8.0 1.0

Ratio CODtlBOD 2.2 0.2 2.1 1.2 1.9 0.4 2.1 0.5 2.9 0.3 2.4 0.1
.. ....... ......... .................... ...... ...... ..... ..................... ........................................................ .................................................... ....................................................... ............

IlRT hours 44.3 13.9 51.2 12.2 102.5 12.8

Temp. 'C 13.8 3.1 12.9 4.9 11.1 4.0

Influence of temperature

The production of biogas was strongly influenced by the water temperature in the reactors. Figure 2a
shows the production of VFA + CH4 and CH4 alone (as COD) in the reactor at Noordwijk as a
percentage of the incoming BOD. The production of volatile fatty acids increased when the temperature
rose above 8 C but the methanogenic activity increased from 12 C onwards. Complete conversion of
VFA into CH4 occurred when temperature was above 15 C. Falling temperatures resulted in reduced
production of VFA and biogas alike. Prolonged low temperatures reduced the methanogenic activity so
severely that complete conversion ceased to take place, causing the VFA concentration to increase again.
78 J. J. BOGTE el al.

:;:: 200 r-----8-u -m -m-e- , 8' 7=-----8-u-m- m-e-r'8="8=--

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5 10 15 20 25 30

months
Figure 2: Performance of the reactor at Noordwijk. 2a: Reactor temperature ( ....)
and relative conversion of BOD-infl. into VFA+CH4 (-) and CH4 (-).
2b: Efficiencies for the removal of BOD (-) and CODt (-).

Complete conversion of VFA into CH4 also occurred in the reactors at Kootwijk and Bennekom, in the
reactor at Kootwijk however only in the second year of operation.
The potential average biogas productions considering BOD input in the reactors at Noordwijk, Kootwijk
and Bennekom were 106, 80 and 56 liters per day respectively. The average biogas productions
measured were 66.5, 16.1 and 16.7 liters respectively, with maxima of 300, 60 and 52 liters per day
respectively, The relative amounts of methane in the biogas were 79, 77 and 89 % respectively,

Removal Efficiencies

The efficiencies for the removal of CODt and BOD by the reactor at Noordwijk are shown in figure 2b.
The patterns clearly display the influence of temperature and the increased adaptation of the microbial
 Small scale UASB reactors 79

_ COO ace @.\:t COOaa c::::J COOf _ CH 4

160 r-------8ummer.81.-,--8ummer88r---
140
;;:::: 1 20
.5 IOUT+ACC.
I 100 r-
c
o
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.

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:

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1 2 3 45 678910 1 2 14 16 18 20 2 2 24 26 28

months
Figure 3: COD balances per month. as a percentage o/ the average CODt-infl. (IN) and
divided over CH4 COD/-effl . CODss-effl. and CODacc (OUT +ACC.).
Reactor at Noordwijk.

population to the feed in the second year of operation. Just after starting up, when gas production was
very low, the efficiencies were relatively high due to the retention of solids in the reactor. When the
biogas production increased, the accumulation of solids decreased due to turbulence, gradually leading to
lower efficiencies up to the tenth month. A steep increase in the production of biogas from then onwards
accomplished significantly better efficiencies. At Noordwijk the average efficiencies for the removal of
COOt and BOD were 33 and 50% respectively for the total test period. A reduction of 60% for COOt
and of 72% for BOD occurred during four months in the second year of operation. The average
efficiencies for the reactor at Kootwijk came to 3.8% for COOt and 14.5% for BOD. During the
complete transformation of VFA in the second year the efficiencies rose to 20 and 38% for COOt and
BOD respectively during one month. At Bennekom the average efficiencies came to 60% for COOt and
50% for BOD. Complete transformation of VFA into CH4 during three months resulted in average
efficiencies of 72% for COOt and 73% for BOD.

COD-balance

In figure 3, where monthly COD balances are given, it can be seen that the reactor at Noordwijk initially
worked as a septic tank: the removal of COD was the result of accumulation. After a few months
however, when the temperature rose (see also figure 2b) microbial conversion started up, resulting in an
increase of CH4 production and, partly because of the turbulence in the reactor, in a decrease of
accumulation. During the second summer, when the sludge was well adapted, increase of temperature
resulted in such a high microbial activity that even part of the accumulated material was transformed
into biogas (see bars higher than 100%). Figure 4 shows the monthly COD balances of the reactor at
Kootwijk. The figure shows the low production of biogas and the minimal accumulation of COD,
reflected in the low removal efficiencies. In several months the effluent contained more COD than the
influent. This was caused by the washing out of sludge due to turbulence (see discussion). The monthly
balances of the reactor at Bennekom are given in figure 5. Especially during the cold periods a high rate
of accumulation took place, while in summenime there was a relatively high microbial activity. Table 2
shows the COD balances of the three reactors over the total period of operation.
80 J. J. BOOTE el aL

180----------------------------------
summer '87 summer '88

140
I
;;:::: 120
.5 IOUT+ACC.
I 100
a
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2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

months

Figure 4: COD balances per month (as figure 3). Reactor at Kootwijk.
160
summer '88
140

;;:::: 120
.5 .,
I 100
C
0
0 80

-
0 60

40

20

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

months
Figure 5: COD balances per month (as figure 3 and 4). Reactor at Bennekom.

TABLE 2: COD balances o/the reactors during the total test period,as a
percentage 0/ the average CODt-in./l. and divided over CH4L
CODfeffl., CODss-eff/. and CODacc.

IN OUT ACCUMULATED

Month. of CQD\ gI, (CQID CQDf CQDII CQDE;

REACfOR operation kg ... kg ... kg ... kg ... kg ...
Noonlwijk 28 56\.3 100 126.3 22.5 174.4 31.1 211.2 37.6 48.9 8.8

KOOlwijk 24 304.7 100 25.3 8.3 13\'4 43.1 16\'7 53.1 -13.7 4.5

Bennekom 13 209.9 100 13.1 6.3 56.2 26.8 27.7 13.2 112.8 53.7
 Small scale UASB reactors 81

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The results of the experiment make clear that the efficiency of the anaerobic process is highly
dependent on the reactor temperature. Below 12C the acidogenic fermentation was significantly more
active than the methanogenesis, while purification was predominantly based on settling. Above 12C the
methanogenic activity increased strongly, giving a steep rise in the removal of COD. Complete
conversion of VFA into CH4 was achieved from 15C onwards. During part of the two summer periods,
when complete conversion occurred in the reactor at Noordwijk, more BOD was converted into CH..
than supplied by the influent at that time. This means that material settled previously in the reactor at
Noordwijk was converted during that period, resulting in a slight decrease of the sludge content of the
reactor. This phenomenon was not observed in the other two reactors. The poor results in Kootwijk were
probably caused by the severe disturbance of the sludge bed in the reactor during the activities of
unplugging the clogged influent pipe on several occasions. Other inhibiting factors were not observed,
but the experience at Kootwijk makes clear that the process has to be handled with care.
Although the gas production in the reactor at Bennekom was low, the removal efficiencies were quite
high. This was caused by the high rate of sedimentation, due to the long HRT. Anaerobic digestion is a
pre-treatment process as reduction of the nitrogen and phosphorous content in the wastewater does not
take place (see table 1). If one wants to remove these compounds, aerobic post-treatment of the effluent
with methods as e.g. described by Graaf et ai, (1989) is necessary. The average removal efficiencies of
the reactors at Noordwijk and Bennekom throughout the project were as good as well-functioning septic
tanks (Graaf et ai, 1989). In UASB-reactors however microbial activity plays an important role in the
removal of COD, while septic tanks mainly function as settlers. During summertime the reactor at
Noordwijk performed nearly as well as UASB-reactors in similar research projects in Indonesia (Jansen,
1988) and Latin America (Louwe Kooijmans and Velsen, 1986; Vieira 1988). Although UASB-reactors
can be applied in moderate climates like in The Netherlands, we cannot conclude that they have a great
advantage over traditional septic tanks under that kind of conditions.
The high removal efficiencies and the high production of biogas that can be achieved when temperatures
are favourable however, make anaerobic treatment of domestic waste water in our opinion a promising
technique for (sub)tropical countries, while the simple construction of the UASB-reactor makes
application of the process feasible for rural communities and even for single households.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We thank K. Grolle for her laboratory analyses, E.Rab for his technical design and assistance and the
Forestry Commision and the tenants for their permission to install our test plants on their premises and
their cooperation throughout the project.

NOMENCLATURE

BOD : biochemical oxygen demand Infl. : influent.

CH4 : methane NKj : Kjeldahl-nitrogen
COD : chemical oxygen demand NH/ : ammonium

CODacc : COD of accumulated matter P04-0 : ortho-phosphate

CODf : COD of the fIltrate P04-t : total phosphate
CODss : COD of the suspended solids UASB : Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
Effl. : effluent VFA : volatile fatty acids
HRT : hydraulic retention time VSS : volatile suspended solids
82 J. J. BOOTE et aL

REFERENCES
Bogte, ].J., Breure, A.M., Andel, lG. van and Lettinga, G. (1989). Kleinschalige anaerobe zuivering van
huishoudelijk afvalwater. Praktijkproef met drie UASB-reactoren. Eindrapport. RIVM report number
738518005.
Graaf, J.H.J.M. van der, Fastenau, F.A. and Bergen, A.H.M. van (1989). Practical performance of
various systems for small-scale wastewater treatment during a two-year field test. fuhn.,
vol. 21, (4/5), 1-12.
Jansen, A.G.N. (ed.)(1988). Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket low cost sanitation research project in
Bandung/lndonesia. Final Report. RIVM report number 768471006.
Louwe Kooijmans, J. and Velsen, E.M. van (1986). Application of the UASB process for treatment of
domestic sewage under subtropical conditions, the Cali case. In: Proceedings of the Aquatech
treatment conference "Anaerobic treatment a fUOwn-uP technology". Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 15-19 September 1986, 423-436.
Vieira, S.M.M. (1988). Anaerobic treatment of domestic sewage in Brazil-research results and full-scale
experience. In: Proceedings of the 5th Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion. Bologna, Italy, 22-26
May, 185-196.