TRANSDUCER

SENSOR

DETECTOR

VOM

_______________________________________________

A report submitted to the faculty, Electronics Engineering

Department, School of Engineering and Architecture, Saint Louis University

_______________________________________________

In partial fulfillment of the

Course, Instrumentation and Control (ECE 414E)

_______________________________________________

Submitted by:

Cosalan, Donaldson E.

Ellorin, Floreen Karl F.

Eslava, Francis Jed M.

Gamueda, Graham Isaac M.

Pacate, Marc Edward U.

10:30 – 11:30 TTHS

Submitted to:

Engr. JeffersonWalcien

AUGUST 2010
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researchers would like to extend our heartfelt thanks and

appreciation to all persons who had helped in the completion of this project
feasibility. Particularly, we should like to acknowledge:

To our family who are always there beside us to give moral and
financial support, and encouragement, you are our inspiration.

To our adviser, Engr. Jefferson Walcien, thank you for the teachings
and knowledge you have imparted with us most especially for the
inspirational saying, “Always do things in advance and BE PROACTIVE”.

To our friends and classmates who are always there to lend their hands
and thank you for your encouraging words.

Above all to Almighty God for providing wisdom, patience and

determination forus to be able to finish this report.

To all of you, we dedicate this work.

PREFACE /FOREWORD
 This report prepared by Donaldson E. Cosalan, Floreen Karl F. Ellorin,
Francis Jed M. Eslava, Graham Isaac M. Gamueda, and Marc Edward U.
Pacate is all about the Transducers, the Sensors, the Detectors and the VOM.
Its historical background on how is it discovered by scientists or engineers
and on how it is developed.Its technical operation, function and application
to our everyday life are to be tackled in this report.

Engr. Jefferson Walcien

Instructor

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

II. PREFACE/ FORWORD

III. TABLE OF CONTENTS

IV. DEFINITION OF TERMS

V. INTRODUCTION

VI. TOPIC PRESENTATION/ DISCUSSION

i. HISTORICAL ACCOUNT

ii. SYSTEM/ DEVICE BLOCK DIAGRAM

iii. TECHNICAL OPERATION

iv. FUNCTION AND APPLICATION

v. OTHER RELATED INFORMATION

VII. SUMMARY/ CONCLUSION/ RECOMMENDATION

VIII. APPENDICES

IX. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Actuator (output transducer)

• a device converts the modified electrical signal into a non-

electrical signal.

Inverse transducer

• a device which that converts an electrical quantity into a

non-electrical quantity

Sensor (input transducer)

• a device converts the physical or non-physical signal which is

tobe measured into an electrical signal which can be
processed ortransmitted electronically.

Transducer

• a device which converts the energy from one form to another

form.
 INTRODUCTION

Transducers are electric or electronic devices that transform energy

from one manifestation into another. Most people, when they think of
transducers, think specifically of devices that perform this transformation in
order to gather or transfer information, but really, anything that converts
energy can be considered a transducer.

Transducers that detect or transmit information include common items

such as microphones, Geiger meters, potentiometers,pressure sensors,
thermometers, and antennae. A microphone, for example, converts sound
waves that strike its diaphragm into an analogous electrical signal that can
be transmitted over wires. Apressure sensor turns the physical force being
exerted on the sensing apparatus into an analog reading that can be easily
represented. While many people think of transducers as being some sort of
technical device, once you start looking for them, you will find transducers
everywhere in your everyday life.

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it

into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For
example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts the measured
temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on
a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output
voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, most sensors are
calibrated against known standards.

In the general case, a sensor is the complete assembly required to

detect and communicate a particular event, while a transducer is the
element within that assembly which accomplishes only the detection of the
event. At the risk of getting too abstract, a transducer converts an input to
an output that can be exploited to accomplish the sensing mission.

For example, a pressure sensor may use a diaphragm and/or strain

gage to "detect" pressure differential across the diaphragm, but he complete
sensor will additionally consist of a display element and the electronics
required to energize and condition the output of the detecting transducer, as
well as the elements required to house and drive the display feature.

A detector is a device that recovers information of interest contained in

a modulated wave. The term dates from the early days of radio when all
transmissions were in Morse code, and it was only necessary to detect the
presence (or absence) of a radio wave using a device such as a coherer
without necessarily making it audible. A more up-to-date term is
"demodulator", but "detector" has a history of many decades of use, even if
it is a misnomer.

TOPIC PRESENTATION/ DISCUSSION

TRANSDUCERS
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
Background

Certain materials allow electrical and electromagnetic energy to

conveniently be transduced (converted) into other forms of energy, such as
mechanical energy. Transduction materials generally also show the opposite
effect: conversion of incident mechanical energy into electromagnetic
energy. While many materials function well as sensors, far fewer efficiently
convert input electromagnetic energy into sizeable amounts of mechanical
output energy.

The historical context may help the understanding of these materials.

The 1800’s

Materials that transduce both electric and magnetic fields were

discovered in the nineteenth century. In 1842, James P. Joule discovered that
a bar of iron would constrict under the influence of a magnetic field, giving
rise to the term “Joule magnetostriction.” In 1880, Jacques and Pierre Curie
discovered that an electric charge could be produced by applying an external
mechanical force to quartz crystals.

The 1900’s

Soon investigators learned that introducing charge to the same crystal

would produce a corresponding mechanical strain. Through World War II, the
dominant transduction material was nickel. Known piezoelectric ceramic
strain was relatively insignificant until around 1946 when it was discovered
that barium titanate could be electrically “poled,” a process similar to
magnetizing a permanent magnet.
 SYSTEM/ DEVICE BLOCK DIAGRAM
Simple Input/Output System using Sound Transducers

There are many different types of transducers available in the

marketplace, and the choice of which one to use really depends upon the
quantity being measured or controlled, with the more common types given in
the table below.

Common Transducers

Quantity being Input Device Output Device

Measured (Sensor) (Actuator)
Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)
Lights & Lamps
Photodiode
Light Level Phototransistor
LED's & Displays
Fibre Optics
Solar Cell
Thermocouple
Thermistor Heater
Temperature Thermostat Fan
Resistive temperature detectors (RTD)
Strain Gauge Lifts & Jacks
Force/Pressure Pressure Switch Electromagnetic
Load Cells Vibration
Potentiometer
Motor
Encoders
Position Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch
Solenoid
Panel Meters
LVDT
Tacho-generator AC and DC Motors
Speed Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler Stepper Motor
Doppler Effect Sensors Brake
Sound Carbon Microphone Bell
Piezo-electric Crystal Buzzer
 Loudspeaker

Input type transducers or sensors, produce a proportional output

voltage or signal in response to changes in the quantity that they are
measuring and the type or amount of the output signal depends upon the
type of sensor being used. These types of sensors are known as Active or
self-generating devices and produce an output voltage, for example 1 to 10v
DC or an output current such as 4 to 20mA DC, while other types change
their physical properties acting more like Passive devices, such as
resistance, capacitance or inductance etc. As well as analogue sensors,
Digital Sensors produce a discrete output representing a Binary number or
Digit such as a logic level "0" or a logic level "1".

TECHNICAL OPERATION
Basic requirements of a transducer

 RUGGEDNESS (Capability of withstanding overload)

 LINEARITY (input – output characteristics should be linear)

 REPEATABILITY (should reproduce same output signal when the same

input signal is applied again and again)

 HIGH OUTPUT SIGNAL QUALITY (quality of output signal should be

good)

 HIGH RELIABILITY & STABILITY

 GOOD DYNAMIC RESPONSE (output should be faithful to input when

taken as a function of time)

 NO HYSTERESIS (should not give any hysteresis during measurement)

 RESIDUAL DEFORMATION (should be no deformation on removal of

local after long period of application)

CLASSIFICATON OF TRANSDUCERS

• 1. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS

• 2. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

• 3. ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS

 • 4. TRANSDUCERS AND INVERSE TRANSDUCERS (An inverse transducer
is a device which that converts an electrical quantity into a non-
electrical quantity)

TRANSDUCERS FOR POSITION

RESISTIVE PRESSURE DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER

It is used to sense position of an object or the distance it has moved.

The physical variable being measured is made to cause a resistance

change in sensing element.

A resistance element AB with a sliding contact or shaft(w) linked with

the object being monitored.

Resistance between W and B ,R depends on the position of shaft

.L1/L XR = R2.

Output voltage V is fn of shaft position V=V X R2/R1+R2.

ADVANTAGES

 Electrical efficiency high

 Provides sufficient output for control operations.

 Device may be excited by ac or dc supply.

DISADVANTAGES

 Mechanical friction between W and resistive elements AB reduces its

life.

TRANSDUCERS FOR PRESSURE

  RESISTIVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

 INDUCTIVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

 CAPACITIVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

RESISTIVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

 It is based on an arrangement in which a change in pressure results in

the change of the resistance of a sensing element.

 When applied pressure changes, the spring bellow extends or contracts

thereby moving the resistance slider up and down.Consequently
changes in resistance of sensing resistive element become
proportional to the changes in pressure.

These changes in resistance can be made part of a bridge circuit

and produce an AC or DC signal for pressure determination.
Bridge is balanced under unstrained condition but becomes
unbalanced when gauge is strained.

R1/R2=∆R3/∆R4. When subjected to pressure change ,R3 increases ,

so R4 decreases.

INDUCTIVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

 In this case, change in pressure produces a change in the self

inductance of a sensing element.

 When pressure being measured increases, the bellow expands and,

hence, the movable magnetic core is pushed more inside the coil
thereby increasing in self inductance. Similarly, when applied pressure
decreases, the bellows contract and thus the magnetic core is pulled
out of the coil and, as a result, coil inductance is decrease.
 The changes in self inductance can be made a part of an inductance
bridge and converted into an electrical signal for pressure
measurement. As compared to the previous resistive arrangement the
advantages of this inductive type are as under :No moving parts are
used thereby avoiding wear & tear,No extra friction load is imposed on
the measuring system.

CAPACITIVE PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

In this arrangement, changes in pressure are detected by the
variation in the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor whose one
plate is free to move with change in pressure.

The capacitance of the capacitor is given by C=εA/d, where

A=plate area, d= plate separation.

When pressure increases the moving plate comes inwards,

thereby decreasing d and consequently increasing C. However when
the pressure decreases exactly opposite happens. The changes in
capacitance can be used for pressure determination.
 ADVANTAGES:

 Inexpensive and easy to construct.

 Particularly effective for high frequency variations.

 Capable of measuring both static and dynamic phenomena.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Sensitivity to temperature variation.

 Possibility of erratic or distorted signals due to long leads.

TRANSDUCER FOR VELOCITY

VELOCITY TRANSDUCER

 It is an inductive transducer (active) that utilizes the basic generator

principle that when there is any relative motion between a conductor
and a magnetic field or flux , an emf is induced in the conductor.

 The relative motion between flux and conductor is provided in

tachometer by the physical quantity under measurement(velocity).

 The object whose angular velocity is to be measured is directly coupled

to the rotor made of permanent magnet having N and S poles.

FUNCTION AND APPLICATION

 The main function of a transducer is to respond only for the
measurement under specified limits for which it is designed.

APPLICATIONS

Electromagnetic:

• Antenna - converts electromagnetic waves into electric

current and vice versa.

• Cathode ray tube (CRT) - converts electrical signals into visual

form

• Fluorescent lamp, light bulb - converts electrical power into

visible light

• Magnetic cartridge - converts motion into electrical form

• Photodetector or Photoresistor (LDR) - converts changes in

light levels into resistance changes

• Tape head - converts changing magnetic fields into electrical

form

• Hall effect sensor - converts a magnetic field level into

electrical form only.

Electrochemical:

• pH probes

• Electro-galvanic fuel cell

• Hydrogen sensor

Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices are generically called

actuators):

• Electroactive polymers

• Galvanometer

• Microelectromechanical systems

• Rotary motor, linear motor

• Vibration powered generator

• Potentiometer when used for measuring position

 • Load cell converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain
gauge

• Accelerometer

• Strain gauge

• String Potentiometer

• Air flow sensor

• Tactile sensor

Electroacoustic:

• Loudspeaker, earphone - converts electrical signals into sound

(amplified signal → magnetic field → motion → air pressure)

• Ear - converts sound into electrical signals (air pressure →

Eardrum motion → Basilar membrane/Stereocilia
electricity(Action potential))

• Microphone - converts sound into an electrical signal (air

pressure → motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → signal)

• Pick up (music technology) - converts motion of metal strings

into an electrical signal (magnetism → electricity (signal))

• Tactile transducer - converts solid-state vibrations into electrical

signal (vibration → ? → signal)

• Piezoelectric crystal - converts solid-state electrical moduluations

into an electrical signal (vibration → ? → signal)

• Geophone - convert a ground movement (displacement) into

voltage - (vibrations → motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field
→ signal)

• Gramophone pick-up - (air pressure → motion → magnetic field →

signal)

• Hydrophone - converts changes in water pressure into an

electrical form

• Sonar transponder (water pressure → motion of conductor/coil →

magnetic field → signal)

Photoelectric:
 • Laser diode, light-emitting diode - convert electrical power into
forms of light

• Photodiode, photoresistor, phototransistor, photomultiplier tube -

converts changing light levels into electrical form

• Electrostatic:

• Electrometer

Thermoelectric:

• RTD Resistance Temperature Detector

• Thermocouple

• Peltier cooler

• Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)

Radioacoustic:

• Geiger-Müller tube used for measuring radioactivity.

• Receiver (radio)

OTHER RELATED INFORMATION

*Potentiometer as a transducer

How Potentiometer is used as the Transducer

There are number of applications of the potentiometer or pots, of these

one of the most common applications is the measurement of displacement.
To measure the displacement of the body, this body, which is moving, is
connected to the sliding element of the potentiometer.

As the body moves, the position of the slider located on the

potentiometer also changes so the resistance between the fixed point and
the slider changes. Due to this the voltage Vo across these points also
changes. The change in voltage or the resistance is proportional to the
change in the displacement of the body. Thus the voltage change indicates
the displacement of the body. The potentiometer can be used for the
measurement of translational as well as well rotational displacement. Since
these potentiometers work on the principle of resistance, they are also called
as the resistive potentiometers
SENSORS AND CONTROLS
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
1930

• First high-temperature thermostat metals introduced

1933

• First room thermostat introduced

1938

• First one-inch motor protector introduced

1939

• Three-quarter-inch motor protector introduced

1940

• Motor protection devices under the KLIXON® trademark added

1941

• Production of circuit breakers for military vehicles and aircraft begins

1945

• Receives Army-Navy “E” award for contributions to war effort

1949
• 4370 appliance thermostat debuts; first major product for commercial
use

1950

• Manufacturing begins in Mexico

• First hermetically sealed thermostat introduced

1952

• S&C becomes the world’s major source of aircraft circuit breakers

1953

• Ships first fuel elements for Sea Wolf Nuclear Submarine

1954

• First hermetic motor protector introduced

• Sine switch launched, entry to precision position switches for military

• First patents issued for pressure temperature bonding process

1955

• Motor protector assembly begins at plant in Holland

1956

• 3 Phase bimetal breaker introduced

• Receives license to fabricate reactor core modules

• Removable fry pan probe introduced

1959

• Merger with Texas Instruments Incorporated

1960

• Tubular Protector for fluorescent light ballasts developed

1962

• Hermetically sealed tubular protectors introduced

1963

• First pressure switch using a snap-action sensor disc introduced

• Copper-clad aluminum wire bonding process developed

1964

• Electronic clothes dryer control introduced

• High-volume contract awarded to supply connectors to IBM

1965

• First miniature aircraft breakers introduced

• Contracted to create switches for the Apollo Command Module, Lunar

Rover

• Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) technology introduced

 • $30 million contract awarded by U.S. Mint for clad coinage

1966

• First electronic connector business secured

• First PTC heaters introduced

1969

• Stainless clad aluminum disclosure filed

1970

• Stainless-steel aluminum shipped for first volume automotive application

1971
• Calculator keyboard using discs introduced

1972

• Military connector product line launched

• First PTC electric choke introduced

1974

• 5TI programmable controller introduced

• Manufacturing in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, commences

1975

• 8AM PTC Motor-starting device introduced

• Crimp-sealed appliance protector introduced

1976

• Electronic controls for microwave oven introduced

1979

• PTC early evaporation device for 1980 Chevette produced

1980

• S&C’s Appliance Electronics unit ships first electronic wall thermostat

1981

• First free-disc pressure switch introduced

 • Work begins on Statue of Liberty restoration project

1983

• First 8EA PTC starter produced

• Aguascalientes, Mexico, selected as site for expansion

1985

• 4TM motor protector introduced

1988

• Automotive Pressure Transducer (APT) production launches for GM

• Automotive Pressure Transducer produced for Nissan air conditioners

• TI-RFID introduced for Automatic Rapid Frequency Identification

1989

• Implantable TIRIS™ transporter introduced

1990

• First battery protector introduced

• First family of SP Combination Start and Protect Devices introduced

1992

• Low-g accelerometer introduced

• TIRIS read/write transponder debuts

1994

• Transmission Range Sensor production launches for Ford

• TI-RFID vehicle immobilizer developed

1995

• Development of DuraFoil™ material

1996

• Plant opens in Baoying, China

• Construction begins on new facility in Aguascalientes, Mexico

1997

• Mobil Oil selects TIRIS for use in Speed Pass pay-at-pump transactions

• Industry's first c24x low-cost motor controller introduced

• Land Grid Array (LGA) burn-in sockets selected by Intel for Pentium II

• High-Volume Manufacturing of 0.5mm pitch Chip Scale Package (CSP)

begins

1998

• Wholly-owned China manufacturing operation opens in Baoying

• TIRIS announces Tag-It™ SMART label technology

1999

• Production of DuraFoil™ material begins

• Subcontracting agreement signed with Videoton in Hungary

• Tag-It™ SMART label low-cost RFID Transponder introduced

• Micro-Silicon Strain Gauge sensor introduced

2003

• Automotive passive entry system using an RFID-enabled key created

2004

• ARC Shield™ introduced (fault circuit Interrupter)

• Second plant in China opens in Changzhou Province after acquisition of

the motor protector business of Chengheng Company.

SYSTEM/ DEVICE BLOCK DIAGRAM

Analogue Sensors

Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is

generally proportional to the quantity being measured. Physical quantities
such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure, Displacement, Strain etc are all
analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature. For example,
the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer or
thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature changes as the
liquid is heated up or cooled down.

Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal

Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals which are slow

changing and very small in value so some form of amplification is required.
Also analogue signals can be easily converted into Digital type signals for
use in microcontroller systems by the use of Analogue to Digital Converters.

Digital Sensors

As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output signal or

voltage that is a digital representation of the quantity being measured.
Digital sensors produce a Binary output signal in the form of a logic "1" or a
logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF"). This means then that a digital signal only produces
discrete (non-continuous) values which may be outputted as a single "bit",
(serial transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single "byte"
output (parallel transmission).

Light Sensor used to produce an Digital Signal

 In our simple example above, the speed of the rotating shaft is
measured by using a digital LED/Opto-detector sensor. The disc which is
fixed to the shaft has a number of transparent slots within its design. As the
disc rotates with the speed of the shaft each slot passes by the sensor inturn
producing an output pulse representing a logic level "1". These pulses are
sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display to show the
speed or revolutions of the shaft. By increasing the number of slots or
"windows" within the disc more output pulses can be produced giving a
greater resolution and accuracy as fractions of a revolution can be detected.
Then this type of sensor could also be used for positional control.

In most cases, sensors and more specifically Analogue sensors

generally require an external power supply and some form of additional
amplification or filtering of the signal in order to produce a suitable electrical
signal which is capable of being measured or used. One very good way of
achieving both amplification and filtering within a single circuit is to use
Operational Amplifiers as seen before.

TECHNICAL OPERATION
Classification of measurement errors

A good sensor obeys the following rules:

* Is sensitive to the measured property

* Is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its

application

* Does not influence the measured property

 Ideal sensors are designed to be linear or linear to some simple
mathematical fuction of the measurement, typically logarithmic. The output
signal of such a sensor is linearly proportional to the value or simple function
of the measured property. The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio
between output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor
measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant
with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is constant at all
points of measurement.

Sensor deviations

If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:

* The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This
is called a sensitivity error, but the sensor is still linear.
* Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output
signal will eventually reach a minimum or maximum when the
measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range defines the
maximum and minimum values of the measured property.

* If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero,
the sensor has an offset or bias. This is defined as the output of the
sensor at zero input.

* If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this
is called nonlinearity. Usually this is defined by the amount the output
differs from ideal behavior over the full range of the sensor, often
noted as a percentage of the full range.

* If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured

property over time, there is a dynamic error. Often, this behaviour is
described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error and phase shift as
function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.

* If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured

property, this is defined as drift (telecommunication).

* Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor

properties over a long period of time.

* Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.

* Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property

reverses direction, but there is some finite lag in time for the sensor to
respond, creating a different offset error in one direction than in the
other.
 * If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an
approximation of the measured property. The approximation error is
also called digitization error.

* If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling

frequency also can cause a dynamic error, or if the variable or added
noise noise changes periodically at a frequency near a multiple of the
sampling rate may induce aliasing errors.

* The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other

than the property being measured. For example, most sensors are
influenced by the temperature of their environment.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random

errors. Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of
some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a random error that can be
reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the
dynamic behaviour of the sensor.

Resolution

The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can detect in the

quantity that it is measuring. Often in a digital display, the least significant
digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that magnitude are only just
resolved. The resolution is related to the precision with which the
measurement is made. For example, a scanning tunneling probe (a fine tip
near a surface collects an electron tunnelling current) can resolve atoms and
molecules.

Types

All living organisms contain biological sensors with functions similar to

those of the mechanical devices described. Most of these are specialized
cells that are sensitive to:

* Light, motion, temperature, magnetic fields, gravity, humidity, vibration,

pressure, electrical fields, sound, and other physical aspects of the external
environment

* Physical aspects of the internal environment, such as stretch, motion of

the organism, and position of appendages (proprioception)

* Environmental molecules, including toxins, nutrients, and pheromones

* Estimation of biomolecules interaction and some kinetics parameters

* Internal metabolic milieu, such as glucose level, oxygen level, or

osmolality
 * Internal signal molecules, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and
cytokines

* Differences between proteins of the organism itself and of the

environment or alien creatures

Biosensor

In biomedicine and biotechnology, sensors which detect analytes

thanks to a biological component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or
biomimetic polymers, are called biosensors. Whereas a non-biological
sensor, even organic (=carbon chemistry), for biological analytes is referred
to as sensor or nanosensor (such a microcantilevers). This terminology
applies for both in vitro and in vivo applications. The encapsulation of the
biological component in biosensors, presents with a slightly different
problem that ordinary sensors, this can either be done by means of a
semipermeable barrier, such as a dialysis membrane or a hydrogel, a 3D
polymer matrix, which either physically constrains the sensing
macromolecule or chemically (macromolecule is bound to the scaffold).

FUNCTION AND APPLICATION

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator
buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the
base. There are also innumerable applications for sensors of which most
people are never aware. Applications include cars, machines, aerospace,
medicine, manufacturing and robotics.

A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal or

stimulus. Here, the term "stimulus" means a property or a quantity that
needs to be converted into electrical form. Hence, sensor can be defined as a
device which receives a signal and converts it into electrical form which can
be further used for electronic devices. A sensor differs from a transducer in
the way that a transducer converts one form of energy into other form
whereas a sensor converts the received signal into electrical form only.

A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes

when the measured quantity changes. For instance, if the mercury in a
thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the
sensitivity is 1 cm/°C. Sensors that measure very small changes must have
very high sensitivities. Sensors also have an impact on what they measure;
for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of
liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors need
to be designed to have a small effect on what is measured, making the
sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages.
Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured
on a microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most
cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly higher speed and sensitivity
compared with macroscopic approaches.

OTHER RELATED INFORMATION

Acoustic, sound, vibration

• Geophone
• Hydrophone
• Lace Sensor a guitar pickup
• Microphone
• Seismometer
• Accelerometer

Automotive, transportation

• Air-fuel ratio meter

• Crank sensor
• Curb feeler, used to warn driver of curbs
• Defect detector, used on railroads to detect axle and signal problems
in passing trains
• MAP sensor, Manifold Absolute Pressure, used in regulating fuel
metering.
• Parking sensors, used to alert the driver of unseen obstacles during
parking manoeuvres
• Radar gun, used to detect the speed of other objects
• Speedometer, used measure the instantaneous speed of a land vehicle
• Speed sensor, used to detect the speed of an object
• Throttle position sensor, used to monitor the position of the throttle in
an internal combustion engine
• Variable reluctance sensor, used to measure position and speed of
moving metal components
• Water sensor or water-in-fuel sensor, used to indicate the presence of
water in fuel
• Wheel speed sensor, used for reading the speed of a vehicle's wheel
rotation

Chemical

• Breathalyzer
• Carbon dioxide sensor
• Carbon monoxide detector
• Catalytic bead sensor
• Chemical field-effect transistor
• Electrochemical gas sensor
 • Electronic nose
• Electrolyte–insulator–semiconductor sensor
• Hydrogen sensor
• Hydrogen sulfide sensor
• Infrared point sensor
• Ion-selective electrode
• Nondispersive infrared sensor
• Microwave chemistry sensor
• Nitrogen oxide sensor
• Olfactometer
• Optode
• Oxygen sensor
• Pellistor
• pH glass electrode
• Potentiometric sensor
• Redox electrode
• Smoke detector
• Zinc oxide nanorod sensor

Electric current, electric potential, magnetic, radio

• Ammeter
• Current sensor
• Galvanometer
• Hall effect sensor
• Hall probe
• Leaf electroscope
• Magnetic anomaly detector
• Magnetometer
• Metal detector
• Multimeter
• Ohmmeter
• Radio direction finder
• Telescope
• Voltmeter
• Voltage detector
• Watt-hour meter

Environment, weather, moisture, humidity

• Bedwetting alarm
• Dew warning
• Fish counter
• Gas detector
• Hook gauge evaporimeter
• Hygrometer
 • Leaf sensor
• Pyranometer
• Pyrgeometer
• Psychrometer
• Rain gauge
• Rain sensor
• Seismometers
• Snow gauge
• Soil moisture sensor
• Stream gauge
• Tide gauge

Flow, fluid velocity

• Air flow meter

• Anemometer
• Flow sensor
• Gas meter
• Mass flow sensor
• Water meter

Ionising radiation, subatomic particles

• Bubble chamber
• Cloud chamber
• Geiger counter
• Neutron detection
• Particle detector
• Scintillation counter
• Scintillator
• Wire chamber

Navigation instruments

• Air speed indicator

• Altimeter
• Attitude indicator
• Depth gauge
• Fluxgate compass
• Gyroscope
• Inertial reference unit
• Magnetic compass
• MHD sensor
• Ring laser gyroscope
• Turn coordinator
• Variometer
 • Vibrating structure gyroscope
• Yaw rate sensor

Position, angle, displacement, distance, speed, acceleration

• Accelerometer
• Capacitive displacement sensor
• Free fall sensor
• Gravimeter
• Inclinometer
• Laser rangefinder
• Linear encoder
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
• Liquid capacitive inclinometers
• Odometer
• Piezoelectric accelerometer
• Position sensor
• Rotary encoder
• Rotary variable differential transformer
• Selsyn
• Sudden Motion Sensor
• Tilt sensor
• Tachometer
• Ultrasonic thickness gauge

Optical, light, imaging

• Charge-coupled device
• Colorimeter
• Contact image sensor
• Electro-optical sensor
• Flame detector
• Infra-red sensor
• LED as light sensor
• Nichols radiometer
• Fiber optic sensors
• Photodetector
• Photodiode
• Photomultiplier tubes
• Phototransistor
• Photoelectric sensor
• Photoionization detector
• Photomultiplier
• Photoresistor
• Photoswitch
• Phototube
 • Proximity sensor
• Scintillometer
• Shack-Hartmann
• Wavefront sensor

Pressure

• Barograph
• Barometer
• Boost gauge
• Bourdon gauge
• Hot filament ionization gauge
• Ionization gauge
• McLeod gauge
• Oscillating U-tube
• Permanent Downhole Gauge
• Pirani gauge
• Pressure sensor
• Pressure gauge
• Tactile sensor
• Time pressure gauge

Force, density, level

• Bhangmeter
• Hydrometer
• Force gauge
• Level sensor
• Load cell
• Magnetic level gauge
• Nuclear density gauge
• Piezoelectric sensor
• Strain gauge
• Torque sensor
• Viscometer

Thermal, heat, temperature

• Bolometer
• Calorimeter
• Exhaust gas temperature gauge
• Gardon gauge
• Heat flux sensor
• Infrared thermometer
• Microbolometer
• Microwave radiometer
 • Net radiometer
• Resistance temperature detector
• Resistance thermometer
• Silicon bandgap temperature sensor
• Temperature gauge
• Thermistor
• Thermocouple
• Thermometer

Proximity, presence

• Alarm sensor
• Motion detector
• Occupancy sensor
• Passive infrared sensor
• Reed switch
• Stud finder
• Triangulation sensor
• Touch switch
• Wired glove

Sensor technology

• Active pixel sensor

• Machine vision
• Biochip
• Biosensor
• Capacitance probe
• Catadioptric sensor
• Carbon paste electrode
• Displacement receiver
• Electromechanical film
• Electro-optical sensor
• Fabry–Pérot interferometer
• Image sensor
• Inductive sensor
• Intelligent sensor
• Lab-on-a-chip
• Leaf sensor
• Micro-sensor arrays
• RADAR
• Sensor array
• Sensor grid
• Sensor node
• Soft sensor
• SONAR
 • Staring array
• Transducer
• Ultrasonic sensor
• Video sensor
• Visual sensor network
• Wheatstone bridge
• Photoelasticity

DETECTORS
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
Radiation Detection

Since the discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895 radiation

detectors have experienced a constant evolution. The phosphorescent
screen where Roentgen observed x-ray was the first real-time detector and
the precursor to the scintillation crystal detectors still in use today. The gas
filled radiation detector was discovered by Hans Geiger while working with
Ernest Rutherford in 1908. The design of this device was later refined by
Hans Geiger and Wilhelm Mueller, in the 1920s. The design of this device
was later refined by Hans Geiger and W. Mueller, in the 1920s. It is
sometimes called simply a Geiger counter or a G-M counter and is the most
commonly used portable radiation instrument. The main drawback of the G-
M counter is its inability to provide information on the energy of the radiation
it detects.

Most modern spectrometers depend on scintilation crystals or

semiconductor radiation detectors. Scintillation crystals respond to radiation
by emitting a flash of light proportional to the energy of the photon that is
stopped in the crystal. CsI, and NaI are the most common compounds used
in this application. Scintillation crystals can be very efficient due to the size
of crystals that can be grown, yet their resolution is relatively poor.
Photomultiplier tubes are used to convert the light emitted by these
detectors into electrical pulses which can then be processed. Temperature
drift, size, and power requirements are the main obstacles to overcome in
designing systems that use these detectors.

The most recent class of detector developed is the solid state detector.
These detectors convert the incident photons directly into electrical pulses.
Solid state detectors are fabricated from a variety of materials including:
germanium, silicon, cadmium telluride, mercuric iodide, and cadmium zinc
telluride. The best detector for a given application depends on several
factors. For instance, germanium detectors have the best resolution, but
require liquid nitrogen cooling which makes them impractical for portable
applications. Silicon, on the other hand, needs no cooling, but is inefficient in
detecting photons with energies greater than a few tens of keV (kilo electron
volts). In the last few years detectors fabricated from high Z semiconductor
materials have gained acceptance due to their ability to operate at room
temperature and their inherent high efficiency. Detectors made from
cadmium telluride, mercuric iodide, and cadmium zinc telluride are routinely
used.

Smoke Detection

The first automatic electric fire alarm was invented in 1890 by Francis
Robbins Upton (US patent no. 436,961). Upton was an associate of Thomas
Edison, but there is no evidence that Edison contributed to this project.

In the late 1930s the Swiss physicist Walter Jaeger tried to invent a
sensor for poison gas. He expected that gas entering the sensor would bind
to ionized air molecules and thereby alter an electric current in a circuit in
the instrument. His device failed: small concentrations of gas had no effect
on the sensor's conductivity. Frustrated, Jaeger lit a cigarette—and was soon
surprised to notice that a meter on the instrument had registered a drop in
current. Smoke particles had apparently done what poison gas could not.
Jaeger's experiment was one of the advances that paved the way for the
modern smoke detector.

It was 30 years, however, before progress in nuclear chemistry and

solid-state electronics made a cheap sensor possible. While home smoke
detectors were available during most of the 1960s, the price of these devices
was rather high. Before that, alarms were so expensive that only major
businesses and theaters could afford them.

The first truly affordable home smoke detector was invented by Duane
D. Pearsall in 1965, featuring an individual battery powered unit that could
be easily installed and replaced. The first units for mass production came
from Duane Pearsall’s company, Statitrol Corporation, in Lakewood,
Colorado.[1][2]

These first units were made from strong fire resistant steel and shaped
much like a bee's hive. The battery was a rechargeable specialized unit
created by Gates Energy. The need for a quick replace battery didn't take
long to show itself and the rechargeable was replaced with a pair of AA
batteries along with a plastic shell encasing the detector. The small
assembly line sent close to 500 units per day before Statitrol sold its
invention to Emerson Electric in 1980 and Sears’s retailers picked up full
distribution of the 'now required in every home' smoke detector.

The first commercial smoke detectors came to market in 1969. Today

they are installed in 93% of US homes and 85% of UK homes. However it is
estimated that any given time over 30% of these alarms don't work, as users
remove the batteries, or forget to replace them.

Although commonly attributed to NASA, smoke detectors were not

invented as a result of the space program, though a variant with adjustable
sensitivity was developed for Skylab.

Metal Detection

In the beginning metal detectors, couldn’t pick up any thing deeper

than one inch down. As time passes and inventors learn more, the
capabilities of the metal detector have greatly improved. On July 2, 1881,
American President James Garfield was shot in the chest, and the bullet was
left behind. Alexander Graham Bell, tried using one of the first original metal
detectors, in order to help locate the bullet. Alexander Graham Bell wasn't
able to locate the fatal bullet that was left behind. The following day, it was
discovered that the metal detector was confused by the metal coils located
in the bed he was laying on. In 1925, Gerard Fisher was the first person to
apply for and receive a patent for the first portable tool known as a metal
detector. This was a revamped version of the one that Alexander Graham
Bell used to try to help James Garfield with. Metal detectors have many uses.
They are used medically to find metal in the human body.

Metal detectors are also used to help in the process of detecting land
mines. They are also used for security purposes in air ports, court rooms,
prisons, post offices, and other high security buildings in order to find
weapons, like guns or knives. Miners and prospectors also were very glad to
use the invention. Construction is yet another field in which the metal
detector is very welcomed. In this case they use the metal detectors ability
to search out steel reinforcement beams, pipes, and wires. Archaeologists,
also use a metal detector to help in the findings of coins, and artifacts.

Many people have become interested in the use of metal detectors,

over the last few decades. This has become a very popular hobby, all over
the world. People are well known for taking metal detectors to the beach
hoping to find money, jewelry, old coins, gold and many other great
undiscovered buried treasures. Metal detectors have also become very
popular among retirees. Some people actually have made a living from
finding war relics or gold nuggets.

Metal detectors hit both ends of the price spectrum these days. You
can get a commercial one brand new for around $100.00 or get a top quality
gold detector for up to $5,000.00 to experiment with. They even have a
cheaper version for kids, which I think is a great lesson being taught while
they have fun learning what types of things are metal. The metal detector
has been a very useful invention in our society. Many industries use this
invention to save them a lot of valuable time, and make their work much
easier.
SYSTEM/ DEVICE BLOCK DIAGRAM
 TECHNICAL OPERATION
Circuit description:

If you have a few remote control units around the house, you’ll
appreciate this little circuit. The LED clearly indicates whether the remote
control unit actually emits an IR signal when you press one of the buttons on
the unit. The circuit uses a photo-diode (D1) to sense the infrared light
emitted by the remote control unit (if it is working properly). The plastic
package of this diode acts as an IR filter that is only transparent to invisible
light with a wavelength of 950 nm.

Although there are probably some remote control units that use IR
diodes operating at a different wavelength, the circuit has enough sensitivity
to detect them as well. If enough light falls on photo-diode D1, an electrical
current will flow through the diode. In fact, what happens is that the leakage
current increases, since photo-diodes are usually operated in reverse-biased
mode (as is the case here). If the current is large enough, transistor T1
conducts and causes LED D2 to light up.

If LED D2 remains dark, this means the remote control unit is not
producing any IR light. This can be due to an empty battery (or batteries) or
a fault in the internal circuitry. Pay careful attention to the polarization of the
photo-diode when wiring it into the circuit. The cathode is clearly marked by
a special pin. For LED D2, use a low-current type that can handle a current of
at least 7 mA. The detector can be powered by a pair of 1.5-V penlight cells
connected in series.
 FUNCTION AND APPLICATION
A smoke detector is a device that detects smoke, typically as an
indicator of fire. Commercial, industrial, and mass residential devices issue a
signal to a fire alarm system, while household detectors, known as smoke
alarms, generally issue a local audible and/or visual alarm from the detector
itself.

Smoke detectors are typically housed in a disk-shaped plastic

enclosure about 150 millimetres (6 in) in diameter and 25 millimetres (1 in)
thick, but the shape can vary by manufacturer or product line. Most smoke
detectors work either by optical detection (photoelectric) or by physical
process (ionization), while others use both detection methods to increase
sensitivity to smoke. Smoke detectors in large commercial, industrial, and
residential buildings are usually powered by a central fire alarm system,
which is powered by the building power with a battery backup. However, in
many single family detached and smaller multiple family housings, a smoke
alarm is often powered only by a single disposable battery.

VOM
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
The first moving-pointer current-detecting device was the
galvanometer. These were used to measure resistance & voltage by using a
wheatstone bridge, and comparing the unknown quantity to a reference
voltage or resistance. While usable in a lab, the technique was very slow and
impractical in the field. These galvanometers were bulky and delicate.

The D'Arsonval/Weston meter movement used a fine metal spring to

give proportional measurement rather than just detection, and built-in
permanent field magnets made deflection independent of the position of the
meter. These features enabled dispensing with Wheatstone bridges, and
made measurement quick and easy. By adding a series or shunt resistor,
more than one range of voltage or current could be measured with one
movement.

Multimeters were invented in the early 1920s as radio receivers and

other vacuum tube electronic devices became more common. The invention
of the first multimeter is attributed to Post Office engineer Donald Macadie,
who became dissatisfied with having to carry many separate instruments
required for the maintenance of the telecommunication circuits.[1] Macadie
invented an instrument which could measure amperes, volts and ohms, so
the multifunctional meter was then named Avometer.[2] The meter
comprised a moving coil meter, voltage and precision resistors, and switches
& sockets to select the range.

Macadie took his idea to the Automatic Coil Winder and Electrical
Equipment Company (ACWEEC, founded probably in 1923).[2] The first AVO
was put on sale in 1923, and although it was initially a DC-only instrument
many of its features remained almost unaltered right through to the last
Model 8.

Pocket watch style meters were in widespread use in the 1920s, at

much lower cost than Avometers. The metal case was normally connected to
the negative connection, an arrangement that caused numerous electric
shocks. The technical specs of these devices were often crude, for example
the one illustrated has a resistance of just 33 ohms per volt, a non-linear
scale and no zero adjustment.
The usual analog multimeter when used for voltage measurements
loads the circuit under test to some extent (a microammeter with full-scale
current of 50μA, the highest sensitivity commonly available, must draw at
least 50μA from the circuit under test to deflect fully). This may load a high-
impedance circuit so much as to perturb the circuit, and also to give a low
reading. Vacuum Tube Voltmeters or valve voltmeters (VTVM, VVM) were
used for voltage measurements in electronic circuits where high impedance
was necessary. The VTVM had a fixed input impedance of typically 1
megohm or more, usually through use of a cathode follower input circuit, and
thus did not significantly load the circuit being tested. Before the
introduction of digital electronics high-impedance analog transistor and FET
voltmeters were used. Modern digital meters and some modern analog
meters use electronic input circuitry to achieve high input impedance—their
voltage ranges are functionally equivalent to VTVMs.

Additional scales such as decibels, and functions such as capacitance,

transistor gain, frequency, duty cycle, display hold, and buzzers which sound
when the measured resistance is small have been included on many
multimeters. While multimeters may be supplemented by more specialized
equipment in a technician's toolkit, some modern multimeters include even
more additional functions for specialized applications (e.g., temperature with
a thermocouple probe, inductance, connectivity to a computer, speaking
measured value, etc.)

SYSTEM/ DEVICE BLOCK DIAGRAM

TECHNICAL OPERATION
Digital multimeters (DMM or DVOM)

Modern multimeters are often digital due to their accuracy, durability

and extra features. In a digital multimeter the signal under test is converted
to a voltage and an amplifier with electronically controlled gain preconditions
the signal. A digital multimeter displays the quantity measured as a number,
which eliminates parallax errors.

Modern digital multimeters may have an embedded computer, which

provides a wealth of convenience features. Measurement enhancements
available include:

 Auto-ranging, which selects the correct range for the quantity

under test so that the most significant digits are shown. For
example, a four-digit multimeter would automatically select an
appropriate range to display 1.234 instead of 0.012, or
overloading. Auto-ranging meters usually include a facility to
'freeze' the meter to a particular range, because a measurement
that causes frequent range changes is distracting to the user.
Other factors being equal, an auto-ranging meter will have more
circuitry than an equivalent, non-auto-ranging meter, and so will
be more costly, but will be more convenient to use.

 Auto-polarity for direct-current readings, shows if the applied

voltage is positive (agrees with meter lead labels) or negative
(opposite polarity to meter leads).

 Sample and hold, which will latch the most recent reading for
examination after the instrument is removed from the circuit
under test.

 Current-limited tests for voltage drop across semiconductor

junctions. While not a replacement for a transistor tester, this
facilitates testing diodes and a variety of transistor types.

 A graphic representation of the quantity under test, as a bar

graph. This makes go/no-go testing easy, and also allows
spotting of fast-moving trends.

 Automotive circuit testers, including tests for automotive timing

and dwell signals.

 Simple data acquisition features to record maximum and

minimum readings over a given period, or to take a number of
samples at fixed intervals.

 Integration with tweezers for surface-mount technology.

  A combined LCR meter for small-size SMD and through-hole
components.

Modern meters may be interfaced with a personal computer by IrDA

links, RS-232 connections, USB, or an instrument bus such as IEEE-488. The
interface allows the computer to record measurements as they are made.
Some DMMs can store measurements and upload them to a computer.

The first digital multimeter was manufactured in 1955 by Non Linear

Systems.[17][18]

Analog multimeters

A multimeter may be implemented with a galvanometer meter

movement, or with a bar-graph or simulated pointer such as an LCD or
vacuum fluorescent display. Analog multimeters are common; a quality
analog instrument will cost about the same as a DMM. Analog multimeters
have the precision and reading accuracy limitations described above, and so
are not built to provide the same accuracy as digital instruments.

Analog meters, with needle able to move rapidly, are sometimes

considered better for detecting the rate of change of a reading; some digital
multimeters include a fast-responding bar-graph display for this purpose. A
typical example is a simple "good/no good" test of an electrolytic capacitor,
which is quicker and easier to read on an analog meter. The ARRL handbook
also says that analog multimeters, with no electronic circuitry, are less
susceptible to radio frequency interference.

The meter movement in a moving pointer analog multimeter is

practically always a moving-coil galvanometer of the d'Arsonval type, using
either jeweled pivots or taut bands to support the moving coil. In a basic
analog multimeter the current to deflect the coil and pointer is drawn from
the circuit being measured; it is usually an advantage to minimize the
current drawn from the circuit. The sensitivity of an analog multimeter is
given in units of ohms per volt. For example, an inexpensive multimeter
would have a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt and would draw 1 milliampere
from a circuit at the full scale measured voltage.[20] More expensive, (and
mechanically more delicate) multimeters would have sensitivities of 20,000
ohms per volt or higher, with a 50,000 ohms per volt meter (drawing 20
microamperes at full scale) being about the upper limit for a portable,
general purpose, non-amplified analog multimeter.

To avoid the loading of the measured circuit by the current drawn by

the meter movement, some analog multimeters use an amplifier inserted
between the measured circuit and the meter movement. While this
increased the expense and complexity of the meter and required a power
supply to operate the amplifier, by use of vacuum tubes or field effect
transistors the input resistance can be made very high and independent of
the current required to operate the meter movement coil. Such amplified
multimeters are called VTVMs (vacuum tube voltmeters), TVMs (transistor
volt meters), FET-VOMs, and similar names.

FUNCTION AND APPLICATION

Ammeters measure current, voltmeters measure voltage, and
ohmmeters measure resistance.

These devices are often combined into one instrument called a

multimeter or VOM (volt-ohm-milliemmeter).

Analog versions of ammeters and voltmeters typically utilize a

galvanometer, which relies on magnetic effect.

A needle is deflected by an amount proportional to the current passes

through the device (coil).

A good ammeter should have a resistance that is small compared to

other resistance in the circuit.

A good voltmeter should have a large resistance.

SUMMARY/ CONCLUSION/ RECOMMENDATION

Summary of Transducers

Input Devices or Sensors

 Sensors are "Input" devices which convert one type of energy or

quantity into an electrical analog signal.
 The most common forms of sensors are those that detect Position,
Temperature, Light, Pressure and Velocity.
 The simplest of all input devices is the switch or pushbutton.
 Some sensors called "Self-generating" sensors generate output
voltages or currents relative to the quantity being measured, such
as thermocouples and photo-voltaic solar cells and their output
bandwidth equals that of the quantity being measured.
 Some sensors called "Modulating" sensors change their physical
properties, such as inductance or resistance relative to the quantity
being measured such as inductive sensors, LDR's and
 potentiometers and need to be biased to provide an output voltage
or current.
 Not all sensors produce a straight linear output and linearization
circuitry may be required.
 Signal conditioning may also be required to provide compatibility
between the sensors low output signal and the detection or
amplification circuitry.
 Some form of amplification is generally required in order to produce
a suitable electrical signal which is capable of being measured.
 Instrumentation type Operational Amplifiers are ideal for signal
processing and conditioning of a sensors output signal.

Output Devices or Actuators

 "Output" devices are commonly called Actuators and the simplest of

all actuators is the lamp.
 Relays provide good separation of the low voltage electronic control
signals and the high power load circuits.
 Relays provide separation of DC and AC circuits (i.e. switching an
AC current path via a DC control signal or vice versa).
 Solid state relays have fast response, long life, no moving parts with
no contact arcing or bounce but require heatsinking.
 Solenoids are electromagnetic devices that are used mainly to open
or close pneumatic valves, security doors and robot type
applications. They are inductive loads so a flywheel diode is
required.
 Permanent magnet DC motors are cheaper and smaller than
equivalent wound motors as they have no field winding.
 Transistor switches can be used as simple ON/OFF unipolar
controllers and pulse width speed control is obtained by varying the
duty cycle of the control signal.
 Bi-directional motor control can be achieved by connecting the
motor inside a transistor H-bridge.
 Stepper motors can be controlled directly using transistor switching
techniques.
 The speed and position of a stepper motor can be accurately
controlled using pulses so can operate in an Open-loop mode.
 Microphones are input sound transducers that can detect acoustic
waves either in the Infra sound, Audible sound or Ultrasound range
generated by a mechanical vibration.
  Loudspeakers, buzzers, horns and sounders are output devices and
are used to produce an output sound, note or alarm.

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A

Transducer is a device which converts the energy from one form to another
form.

• The energy may be electrical, mechanical, chemical, optical or

thermal.

Classification

Transducer may also classified as

o Active transducer

o Passive transducer

Active transducer also known as self generating type developing their own
voltage or current as output signal. PV cell, thermo couple, piezo electric
transducer, photo electric transducer.

Passive transducer also known as externally powered transducer. They

derive the power required for energy conversion from an external power
source. LVDT, capacitive transducer, RTD.
Basic requirements of a transducer.

1. Linearity

The input-output should be linear.

2.Ruggedness

The transducer should withstand overloads, with measures for over

load protection.

3.Repeatability
The transducer should produce identical output signal when the same
input signal is applied at different times under the same environmental
condition.

4. High stability and reliability

The output from the transducer should not be affected by temperature,

vibration and other environmental variation and their should be minimum
error in measurements.

5.Good dynamic response

The transducer should response to the changes in input as quickly as

possible.

6. Convenient instrumentation

The transducer should produce a sufficiently high analog output signal

with high signal to noise ratio. So that the output can be measured either
directly or after suitable amplification.

7. Good mechanical characteristic

working conditions – subject to mechanical strains

external forces – deformity /affect performance

Transducers – Principle

Transducers converts energy from one form into another and the output as
electrical signal by using the principal effects like variation in resistance,
capacitance, inductance, piezo electric and thermal effects.
Example:

Sound

Quantity being Input Device Output Device

Measured (Sensor) (Actuator)
Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)
Lights & Lamps
Photodiode
Light Level LED's & Displays
Phototransistor
Fibre Optics
Solar Cell
Thermocouple
Thermistor
Heater
Temperature Thermostat
Fan
Resistive temperature detectors
(RTD)
Strain Gauge Lifts & Jacks
Force/Pressure Pressure Switch Electromagnetic
Load Cells Vibration
Potentiometer
Motor
Encoders
Position Solenoid
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch
Panel Meters
LVDT
Tacho-generator AC and DC Motors
Speed Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler Stepper Motor
Doppler Effect Sensors Brake
Bell
Carbon Microphone
Sound Buzzer
Piezo-electric Crystal
Loudspeaker
CAPACITIVE TYPES OF TRANSDUCER

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

A
C = ε oε r
d

The capacitance between two conductive surfaces varies with three major
factors: the overlapping area(A) of those two surfaces, the distance between
them(d), and the dielectric constant(εo & εr) of the material in between the
surfaces. If two out of three of these variables can be fixed (stabilized) and
the third allowed to vary, then any measurement of capacitance between the
surfaces will be solely indicative of changes in that third variable.

The value of capacitance is determined by:

(a) The area of the plates

(b) The distance between the plates

(c) The type of dielectric between the plates

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER

when a force is applied to the ferromagnetic armature, the air gap is

changed. The applied force is measured by change of inductance in a single
coil
The main function of a transducer is to respond only for the measurement
under specified limits for which it is designed.

APPLICATIONS

Electromagnetic:

• Antenna - converts electromagnetic waves into electric current and

vice versa.

• Cathode ray tube (CRT) - converts electrical signals into visual form

• Fluorescent lamp, light bulb - converts electrical power into visible light

• Magnetic cartridge - converts motion into electrical form

• Photodetector or Photoresistor (LDR) - converts changes in light levels

into resistance changes

• Tape head - converts changing magnetic fields into electrical form

• Hall effect sensor - converts a magnetic field level into electrical form
only.

Electrochemical:

• pH probes

• Electro-galvanic fuel cell

• Hydrogen sensor

Electromechanical (electromechanical output devices are generically called

actuators):

• Electroactive polymers

• Galvanometer

• Microelectromechanical systems

• Rotary motor, linear motor

• Vibration powered generator

• Potentiometer when used for measuring position

• Load cell converts force to mV/V electrical signal using strain gauge

• Accelerometer

• Strain gauge
• String Potentiometer

• Air flow sensor

• Tactile sensor

Electroacoustic:

• Loudspeaker, earphone - converts electrical signals into sound

(amplified signal → magnetic field → motion → air pressure)

• Ear - converts sound into electrical signals (air pressure → Eardrum

motion → Basilar membrane/Stereocilia electricity(Action potential))

• Microphone - converts sound into an electrical signal (air pressure →

motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → signal)
• Pick up (music technology) - converts motion of metal strings into an
electrical signal (magnetism → electricity (signal))

• Tactile transducer - converts solid-state vibrations into electrical signal

(vibration → ? → signal)

• Piezoelectric crystal - converts solid-state electrical moduluations into

an electrical signal (vibration → ? → signal)

• Geophone - convert a ground movement (displacement) into voltage -

(vibrations → motion of conductor/coil → magnetic field → signal)

• Gramophone pick-up - (air pressure → motion → magnetic field →

signal)

• Hydrophone - converts changes in water pressure into an electrical

form

• Sonar transponder (water pressure → motion of conductor/coil →

magnetic field → signal)

Photoelectric:

• Laser diode, light-emitting diode - convert electrical power into forms

of light

• Photodiode, photoresistor, phototransistor, photomultiplier tube -

converts changing light levels into electrical form

• Electrostatic:

• Electrometer

Thermoelectric:
• RTD Resistance Temperature Detector

• Thermocouple

• Peltier cooler

• Thermistor (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)

Radioacoustic:

• Geiger-Müller tube used for measuring radioactivity.

• Receiver (radio).

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• www.digital.ni.com
• www.wiki.answers.com
• www.answers.com
• www.encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com
• www.en.wikipedia.org
• www.scribd.com
• www.notes.ump.edu.my
• www.artsites.ucsc.edu
• www.crutchfield.com
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_3.html
• ^ Wolfbeis, O. S. (2000). "Fiber-optic chemical sensors and
biosensors." Anal Chem 72(12): 81R-89R