RIAS WITA SURYANI (16178070)

SUMMARY I - LANDASAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN

INTRODUCTION TO THEORY
Theory is a set of related general statements used to explain particular facts. Theory has three
functions, they are to discover new facts about the world, to summarize sets of disparate facts,
and to explain facts or observations. A learning theory is a set of related general statements that
explains facts about learning. Good theories are adequately reflect the facts, are clear and
understandable, are useful for predicting as well as explaining, are internally consistent, are
based on as few unproven assumptions as possible, and are testable.

Most theorist accept the following definition of learning, learning is a change in knowledge
or behavior, the change brought about by learning are relatively permanent, and learning result
from previous experiences. Then, there are some important issues to consider when deciding
which learning theory to apply in any situations (core issues on which learning theories
differ):

- What is learned?
- What is the relative emphasis on environmental versus organismic factors in learning?
- What is the source of motivation for learning?
- How does transfer occur?
- What are important variables in instruction?
Differences between Behavioral and Cognitive approaches

Behavioral Theory Cognitive Theory

Learning is stimulus and response events Learning is negative reaction against
behaviorist view
Analyzes behavior into molecular or Deals with molar or global units of
elemental units behavior
Does not ascribe purpose or intention to Attributes goals and purposes to human
be behavior includes inly stimulus- behavior
responses relationships in its explanation
Focuses on formulating laws of behavior Focuses on describing mental processes
inferred from behavior
Theorist: Theorist:
- Ivan P. Pavlov - Gestalt theory
- John B. Watson - Tolmans purposive behaviorism
- Edwin R. Guthrie - Cognitive developmental theory
- Edward L. Thorndike - Information processing theory
- Clark L. Hull
- Burrhus Frederic Skinner

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 CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
According to Pavlov, there are two components of classical conditioning, they are the
unconditioned stimulus which naturally elicits responses and the conditioned stimulus which
does not originally elicit the unconditioned responses. Pavlov also distinguished between two
basic types of conditioning, they are appetitive conditioning involves an unconditioned
stimulus that is positive and defense conditioning involves an unconditioned stimulus that is
negative. In primary conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus naturally elicits an emotional
responses while in secondary conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is a previously neutral
stimulus that has acquire the capability of eliciting an emotional responses through prior
conditioning.
Factors that determine classical conditioning include:

- How the neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired

- The inter-stimulus interval should be short
- The pairing of the neutral with the unconditioned stimulus should be repeated often for
optimal conditioning
- The neutral should not occur without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus for
optimal conditioning
- Conditioning also depends upon certain biological characteristics of individuals as well
as their prior experiences with neutral stimulus.

Once a responses has been conditioned to a neutral stimulus, other stimuli that are physically
similar to stimulus will also elicit the responses which is called as generalization. The opposite
of generalization that involves learning to inhibit the conditioned responses to all stimuli except
the conditioned stimulus which is called as discrimination.

Classical responses can be eliminated through extinction (conditioned stimulus is presented

and not followed by the unconditioned stimulus), and counterconditioning (the conditioned
stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits a responses that is incompatible with the unwanted
conditioned responses.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
There are two components of operant conditioning, namely operant responses which
produced by the organism, and stimulus consequences in the environment brought about by
the emitted responses. Types of operant conditioning procedures:

Pleasant stimulus Aversive stimulus

Positive Positive reinforcement Positive punishment
(added to the situation after
a responses)
Negative Negative reinforcement Negative punishment
(taken from the situation
after a responses)

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Order of operant conditioning, consequences can be either inherently reinforcing or
punishing (primary conditioning) or can acquire their capability to reinforce or punish
through learning (secondary conditioning).
Factors that determine operant conditioning are:

- The interval between the response and consequence

- Moderate consequence, nether too strong nor too week
- The schedule of reinforcement can be either continuous or intermittent

When a responses is reinforced in the presence of certain stimuli, those stimuli become signals
that the behavior will be reinforces. They are called discriminative stimuli. Discrimination
involves learning to emit the responses only in the presence of the discriminative stimuli and
not in the presence of similar stimuli.

Operant responses can be eliminated through extinction (withholding consequences following

the responses), differential reinforcement (reinforcing a responses that is incompatible with
the undesirable response), and punishment.

Comparison of classical and operant conditioning on core issues

CORE ISSUES CLASSICAL OPERANT

What is learned? A reflexive responses is
acquire to a stimulus that did
not previously elicit that
responses
Emphasis on Emphasis on environment, the
environmental versus learner is passively acted upon
organismic factors by stimuli and has no control
over the conditioned responses
Source of motivation Motivation plays little role,
conditioning occurs whether
the individuals is motivates or
not
Transfer Stimulus generalization
Variables in instruction Timing and repetition of
pairing of unconditioned and
conditioned stimuli
The individual learns to
make a particular responses
in a particular situation
Emphasis on shaping of
learner by reinforcement
contingencies in the
environment
Reinforces can become
incentives which motivated
behavior
Stimulus generalization
Nature and timing of
reinforcement