Chapter 1

Control Volumes and Units

1.1. Thermodynamic system and control volume

A thermodynamic system corresponds to a quantity of matter bounded by an enclosure: the matter may
be liquid, solid or gas. The enclosure could be real or imaginary: the enclosure is also called control
volume. Everything outside the control volume is called the surroundings. The surroundings are
separated from the control volume by a control surface. As system is called closed if it doesnt exchange
mass with the surroundings. A system is called isolated if it doesnt exchange any type of matter and is
not influenced by its surroundings. Therefore, an isolated system is necessarily closed.

A control mass contains the same amount of matter at all times. Ex: piston cylinder.

1.2. Properties of a pure system

A substance passes through different phases in a thermodynamic process. In each phase the substance
may exist at various pressures and temperatures or, to use the thermodynamic term, in various states.
At a given state, the substance can be described using its properties (temperature, pressure, density).

An intensive property is independent of the mass (ex: pressure, temperature, density). An extensive
property varies directly with the mass (ex: mass, total volume). An intensive property can be rendered

extensive by dividing by the mass. Ex: specific volume ( = ) expressed in m3/kg.

1.3. Processes and cycles

A system is in thermal or mechanical equilibrium if the temperatureor pressure is the same throughout
the system, respectively. When a system is in equilibrium regarding all possible changes of state, we say
the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Wherever one or more of the properties of a system change, we say that a change in state has occurred.
The path of the succession of states through which the system passes is called the process. A process is
quasi-static process (or quasi-equilibrium) is a process in which the deviation from equilibrium is
infinitesimal. In a quasi-equilibrium process, the states of the system can be described continuously. In a
non-equilirbrium process, only the states before and after the process can be described.

A process is reversible, if for a given state of equilibrium an infinitesimal variation of one of its
properties permits to reverse the direction of the process. A reversible process is necessarily a quasi-
equilibrium process. A process is irreversible, if the variation of its properties has no effect on the
direction of the process. Ex: dissipation of heat in a resistance is independent of the current direction.
The process cannot be reversed by reversing the current.

A process is called:

- Isobaric if it occurs at constant pressure

 - Isochoric if it occurs at constant volume
- Isothermal if it occurs at constant temperature

In a thermodynamic cycle, a system goes through a number of different changes and finally returns to its
initial state.

1.4. Specific volume, density, and pressure

The specific volume of a substance (expressed in m3/kg) is defined as the volume per unit mass and is
given by:

= lim

is the minimal infinitesimal volume where the concept of continuum is applicable.

The density is defined as the inverse of the specific volume and is expressed in (kg/m3).

The pressure is defined as the normal component of force per unit area:

= lim

The SI unit of pressure is Pa (N/m2). 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa. 1 atm = 1013 mbar = 101325 Pa.

1.5. The zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are separately in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, then they have the same temperature.

The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin and is related to the Celsius scale by:

K=C + 273.15