EAT 258/3 Building Materials Engineering

Tutorial 1

1) What is concrete?
Concrete consists of a mix of ingredients, including Portland cement, pozzolans, water, coarse
aggregates, fine aggregates, and additives. Concrete may also contain mineral colors,
granulated blast-furnace slag, and blended cements. When fresh, cement can be molded hours
after it is produced. Once the initial set time is reached, the concrete continues to gain
strength.

2) How is the strength of concrete measured?

Scientists use compression and flexural mechanical strength tests to determine the strength of
concrete. The strength of concrete depends to a large degree on the water-cement ratio, and
the quality of the aggregates and paste in the cement.

3) Does concrete gain strength by drying out?

No. Concrete is made by mixing cement, aggregates and water together. When the water
comes in contact with the cement a chemical reaction starts to take place. This chemical
reaction is called hydration. Hydration is the reaction between the chemicals in water and the
chemicals in cement. This reaction forms new compounds and crystals interlocking
themselves and the aggregates together. A majority of this reaction takes place over the first
month after placing the concrete. Small amounts of additional reaction and strength gains
could take place for years as long as moisture is still present to cause more hydration.
Actually, when the concrete does finally dry out, it stops gaining strength.

4) My concrete is cracking after only a short period. Is there something wrong with
it and can it be repaired?
All concrete cracks. It has to crack because it contracts during the drying, curing, hardening
process, and the bond between the cement paste and the aggregates is not strong enough to
withstand that stress. The best way to prevent unsightly cracking is to put joints in your
concrete at regular intervals. A good formula is to measure the depth of your structure and
multiply the number by three. Use this number to determine the approximate number of feet
between joints.

5) What Causes Plastic Shrinkage Cracking?

Plastic shrinkage occurs as fresh concrete loses its moisture after placement but before any
strength development has occurred.
This type of shrinkage is affected by environmental effects of temperature (concrete and
ambient), wind and relative humidity. It is a particular problem in hot weather concreting.

6) Do cracks indicate a structural problem?

In most instances, the answer is no. Very narrow hairline cracks are superficial and do not
indicate any structural problem. Cracks that have movement where one side of the crack
moves relative to the opposite side should be evaluated by a professional engineer.
 7) Are there different types of portland cement?
Though all portland cement is basically the same, eight types of cement are manufactured to
meet different physical and chemical requirements for specific applications:
-Type I is a general purpose portland cement suitable for most uses.
-Type II is used for structures in water or soil containing moderate amounts of sulfate, or
when heat build-up is a concern.
-Type III cement provides high strength at an early state, usually in a week or less.
-Type IV moderates heat generated by hydration that is used for massive concrete structures
such as dams.
-Type V cement resists chemical attack by soil and water high in sulfates.
-Types IA, IIA and IIIA are cements used to make air-entrained concrete. They have the same
properties as types I, II, and III, except that they have small quantities of air-entrained
materials combined with them.

8) How do you control the strength of concrete?

The easiest way to add strength is to add cement. The factor that most predominantly
influences concrete strength is the ratio of water to cement in the cement paste that binds the
aggregates together. The higher this ratio is, the weaker the concrete will be and vice versa.
Every desirable physical property that you can measure will be adversely affected by adding
more water.

9) How is portland cement made?

Cement manufacturers mine materials such as limestone, shale, iron ore, and clay, crushed
and screened the rock, and place it in a cement kiln. After being heated to extremely high
temperatures, these materials form a small ball called clinker that is very finely grounded to
produce portland cement.
Lime and silica make up about 85 percent of the ingredients of cement. Other elements
include alumina and iron oxide.

10) Will concrete harden under water?

Portland cement is a hydraulic cement which means that it sets and hardens due to a chemical
reaction with water. Consequently, it will harden under water.

11) How does the temperature influence curing?

The higher the temperature, the more rapidly the hydration and pozzolanic reactions proceed.
Tests of specimens sealed against loss of moisture show higher early strengths but lower
strengths at later ages as the temperature is increased above 5C. At temperatures below 5C
(40F), the rate of hydration is greatly retarded. At freezing temperatures, special admixtures
are used for strength development. For temperatures between 5 and 15C , satisfactory results
can be obtained by prolonging the moist curing period. For job control specimens cured at
20C, lower temperatures at the time of casting and for a few hours thereafter give higher
strengths at one to three months.
 12) What methods are commonly used to ensure sufficient moisture for curing
concrete?
Concrete is kept moist by providing water through ponding, continuous sprinkling, covering
with wet burlap, cotton mats, or similar materials, or by moisture retention through covering
with specially prepared paper, polyethylene, or other plastic sheeting; or by spraying with a
liquid membrane-forming curing compound. Leaving metal or well-oiled wood forms in place
may offer considerable protection against the loss of moisture, especially if the upper
unformed concrete surfaces are kept saturated with wet burlap, sand, or soaker hoses. Water is
added to replace the water that has been lost.

13) What does 28-day strength mean?

When concrete hydrates, it hardens and gains strength. This hydration process continues over
a long period of time. It occurs quickly at the outset and slows down as time passes. It would
require a wait of several years before the strength of concrete can really be measured. Since
this is impractical, a time period of 28 days was introduced by specification-writing
authorities as the time where all concrete should be tested. In this period, a substantial
percentage of the hydration has already taken place.

14) Why is gypsum needed in cement?

Gypsum plays a very important role in controlling the rate of which hardening of the cement
develops. It must be controlled within the limits to make the cement a useful product in
construction. Small amount of gypsum are added to the clinkers at the grounding period.

15) What does it mean to curing concrete?

Curing is a very important step in concrete construction. When concrete has been cured
properly, it greatly increases its strength and durability. Through the result of hydration,
concrete hardens. It is the chemical reaction between cement and water. Hydration occurs
only if water is available and if the concretes temperature stays within a suitable range.
During the curing period which is from five to seven days after the placement for
conventional concrete, the concrete surface needs to be kept moist to allow the hydration
process. The new concrete can be wet with soaking hoses, sprinklers or covered with wet
burlap, or can be coated with commercially available curing compounds, which seal in
moisture.

16) In what forms can concrete be manufactured?

Concrete is produced in three basic forms:
-In-situ concrete which is manufactured either by the contractor or a ready-mix company on
the site of the project (also referred to as site-mix). The operation is completely under the
contractors control, and a high degree of flexibility in site management is possible, e.g. small
quantities can be made at short notice.

-Ready-mixed concrete, which in Malaysia accounts for almost 50% of all concrete, is
batched at local plants by specialist manufacturers for delivery in the familiar trucks with
revolving drums. This allows more space to be made available on site (important in many
urban projects); the supplier takes responsibility for quality control of the concrete and also
has the resources and technical expertise to provide a wide range of mixes.
-Precast concrete products are cast in a factory setting. These products benefit from tight
quality control achievable at a production plant. Precast products range from concrete bricks
and paving stones to bridge girders, structural components, and panels for cladding.

17) What is Hydration?

Soon after the aggregates, water, and the cement are combined, the mixture starts to harden.
All portland cements are hydraulic cements that set and harden through a chemical reaction
with water. During this reaction -called hydration - a node forms on the surface of each
cement particle. The node grows and expands until it links up with nodes from other cement
particles or adheres to adjacent aggregates.

The building up process results in progressive stiffening, hardening, and strength

development. Once the concrete is thoroughly mixed and workable it should be placed in
forms before the mixture becomes too stiff. This hardening process continues for years
meaning that concrete gets stronger as it gets older.

18) How do you control the strength of concrete?

The easiest way to add strength is to add cement. The factor that most predominantly
influences concrete strength is the ratio of water to cement in the cement paste that binds the
aggregates together. The higher this ratio is, the weaker the concrete will be and vice versa.
Every desirable physical property that you can measure will be adversely affected by adding
more water.

19) Can you use any water for mixing concrete?

Almost any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odour may be used
as mixing water for concrete. However, some waters that are not fit for drinking may be
suitable for concrete.
Excessive impurities in mixing water not only may affect setting time and concrete strength,
but also may cause efflorescence, staining, corrosion of reinforcement, volume instability, and
reduced durability. Specifications usually set limits on chlorides, sulphates, alkalis, and solids
in mixing water unless tests can be performed to determine the effect the impurity has on
various properties.

20) What is the right time to place concrete?

It is not advisable to cast concrete when temperatures reach 5C and decreasing, or when the
ambient temperature is above 32C. However, when temperatures are higher than 32C,
aggregates and water can be cooled or chilled, in order to continue concreting. Taking this
into account the time of placement should be determined.

21) Why is concrete compacted after placing?

Concrete is vibrated to remove entrapped air in the concrete, which causes a negative impact
on compressive strengths in concrete. Here are some advantages of compacting/ vibrating
concrete.
Have a higher compressive strength.
Will increase the bonding capacity between concrete and rebar.
Provides a better sealed concrete surface, reducing its permeability.
Reduces honeycombing
If builder knows how to correctly vibrate concrete, he can order drier mixtures that require
less cement
 Offers greater durability
Increases bonding strength between layers of concrete

22) Why should concrete be protected from loss of moisture from its surface after
placement, compaction and finishing?
The most crucial time for strength gain of concrete is immediately following placement. In
field conditions, heat and wind can suck out the moisture from the placed mixture. Concrete
that is allowed to dry in air will gain less strength compared continuously moist-cured
concrete.

Rapid evaporation also causes the concrete to shrink, which leads to tensile stresses within the
concrete. As a result, surface cracking may occur, especially if the stresses develop before the
concrete attains adequate tensile strength.

Selecting an appropriate curing process also helps in temperature control in the concrete and
to prevent moisture loss to the external environment.

23) Why does concrete crack only a short time after placing?
This is referred to as plastic cracking and can take two forms shrinkage and settlement. The
principal cause of plastic shrinkage cracking is the rapid removal of water from the concrete.
Water loss is mainly from the exposed surface of the concrete (e.g. concrete slabs). When the
evaporation rate exceeds he rate of bleeding, the surface concrete loses water and decreases in
volume. Tensile stresses are induced in the because of restraint by the non-shrinking inner
concrete. Plastic cracking can be minimised or avoided through proper mix design and
effective early curing.

24) What factors affect the workability of fresh concrete?

Workability is one of the physical parameters of concrete which affects the strength and
durability, as well as the cost of labour and appearance of the finished product. Concrete is
said to be workable when it is easily placed and compacted homogeneously i.e. with
minimum bleeding and no segregation. Unworkable concrete needs more work or effort to be
compacted in place, also honeycombs and/or pockets may also be visible in finished concrete.

Factors affecting workability:

Water content in the concrete mix
Amount of cement and its properties
Aggregate Grading (Size Distribution)
Nature of Aggregate Particles (Shape, Surface Texture, flakiness, Porosity etc.)
Temperature of the concrete mix
Humidity of the environment
Wind speed in the environment
Mode of compaction
Method of placement of concrete
Method of transportation of concrete
 25) Is it recommended to add water to fresh concrete to increase its workability?
It is not advised to add water to fresh concrete without the permission of the mix designer.
The more you add water the more the workability of concrete, but it decreases the strength of
the mix. Since, by simply adding water, the inter-particle lubrication is increased, high water
content results in a higher fluidity and greater workability, but this can have a negative impact
on your concrete strengths. Increased water content also results in bleeding and segregation.
Another effect of increased water content can be that cement paste will escape through joints
of formwork.

26) How do I perform a slump test?

The slump test is a relatively simple test to perform, whereby a slump cone mould is placed
on a flat plate and filled with fresh concrete in three approximately equals layer. Each layer is
subjected to 25 blows from a tamping rod, the mould being firmly held down by standing on
the foot pieces. The blows are evenly distributed over the whole area of the layer; for the
second and third layers, the rod should just penetrate the previous layer.

The surface is struck off by rolling the tampering rod across the top edge of the mould. After
careful removal of the mould, the slump of the concrete present is measured to the nearest 5
mm. The slump as measured is the distance between the top of the inverted mould and the
highest point of the concrete.