FREUD PSYCHOANALYSIS Postpones, delays or redirect demands of reality

Focused on unconscious forces, biologically based drives, Reality Principle: reconcile the unrealistic demands of
childhood conflicts the id & superego
Born on May 6, 1856 3) SUPEREGO (Uber Ich)
Much of his theory reflects his childhood experiences, Idealistic principle
autobiographical Moralistic (right and wrong)
Used cocaine before Conscience: from punishment
Considered sex dangerous and degrading Ego ideal: moral or ideal behaviors
He suffered severe neurotic episode such as physical symptoms. Guilt/shame: when we think of an action contrary to
To Freud, we are driven and controlled by internal and external our moral code
forces of which we are unaware and over which we can exercise Purpose is to inhibit them completely
little rational control. Identify which one to satisfy or not
When high stress causes our defenses to fail and they are not Superego can be construed as the social component of
restored, we are likely to develop neurotic and psychotic symptom the personality
He viewed humans as prisoners/victims of past events ANXIETY
Drive: the stimulus within the person that operates as a constant Feeling of fear and dread without an obvious cause
motivational force Only the EGO feels anxiety
Aim: the urge to satisfy and reduce tension Fundamental to the development of neurotic and psychotic
Impetus: amount of force behavior
Source: region of the body Reality Anxiety: Fear of tangible dangers. Serves the positive
INSTINCTS purpose of guiding our behavior to escape or protect ourselves
Motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction from danger
TRIEB: driving force or impulse Neurotic Anxiety: egos relation to the ID. Conflict between ID and
HOMEOSTATIC APPROACH: we are motivated to restore and ego. Basis is in childhood, conflict between instinctual gratification
maintain condition of physiological equilibrium/balance and reality
LIFE INSTINCTS (eros): ensures survival ex. Food, water, air, sex, Moral Anxiety: conflict between ID and SUPEREGO. Similar to
growth and development guilt. Fear of ones conscience; this is a function of how well
o Libido: form of psychic energy, drives a person toward developed the superego is a person inhibiting conscience will
pleasurable behavior and thoughts experience greater conflict than a person with less stringent set of
o Cathexis/object-cathexis: investment of psychic energy moral guidelines.
in an object/person to fulfill a need DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Identification: action of finding the right REPRESSION
machine to counterpart the image DENIAL
DEATH INSTINCTS (Thanatos): decay, destruction, aggression REACTION FORMATION
o Aggressive drives: compulsion to destroy, conquer, kill PROJECTION
Primary narcissism: self-centeredness and childlike REGRESSION
Secondary narcissism: not universal but matured already RATIONALIZATION
Regressive: return person to a prior state DISPLACEMENT
Conservative: conserving equilibrium SUBLIMATION
Repetition compulsion: repeating cycle state PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
3 LEVELS OF MENTAL LIFE 1) ORAL (0-12)
1) CONSCIOUS Through mouth, sucking, biting, swallowing
Sensations and experiences of which we are ware at Oral passive/incorporative: taking in
any given moment Oral aggressive: sadistic
2) PRECONSCIOUS Dependent and seeks attention
Storehouse of memories, perception, and thoughts of 2) ANAL (1-3)
which we are not consciously aware at the moment but Issues of expression
can access readily Cannot maintain a relationship
3) UNCONSCIOUS Anal triad: orderliness, stinginess, obstinacy
Focus of psychoanalytic theory Anal expulsive: messy, destructive
Home of our instincts (wishes and dreams that direct Anal retentive: OCPD, organized
our behavior) 3) PHALLIC (3-6)
Drives (sex and aggression) Most controversial
Instincts (life & death instincts) Awakening of sexuality
Repression: blocking out of anxiety-filled experiences Exploring with genitals
Phylogenetic endowment: inherited experiences that Oedipus Complex (boys)
lie beyond and individuals personal experiences i. Castration anxiety: fear that his penis will
PROVINCES OF THE MIND be cut off, desire for mother
1) ID (Da Es) Electra complex: unconscious desire of a girl for her
Unconscious father, accompanied by a desire to replace/destroy her
Source of psychic energy mother
Pleasure principle: id strives to satisfy its needs & does i. Penis envy: envy that female feels toward
not tolerate delay or postponement male because the male possesses a penis.
Primary process thought: investment of libidinal 4) LATENCY (6+)
energy Sex instinct is dormant
Secondary process thought: mature thought processes Gratification is through same sex like friendship
needed to deal rationally with the external world sublimated in school activities, sports, and hobbies,
2) EGO (Das Ich) and in developing friendships with the opposite sex
Cannot exist without the ID 5) GENITAL (12+)
Rational aspect of the personality Conflict is minimized through sublimation
Help the id obtain the tension reduction it craves Sexual urges are reawakened
Decides when and how the id instincts can be satisfied ASSESSMENT
 FREE ASSOCIATION Present behavior is shaped by past experiences.
o Patient says whatever comes to mind Focus more on biological.
o Owed its development to Josef Breuer hypnosis CRITICISMS
o Catharsis: expression of emotions that is expected to High in generating research
lead to reduction of disturbing symptoms. Low on falsification
o Resistance: blockage or refusal to disclose painful Average in organizing data
memories Average in guiding action and parsimonious (lack of operationally
DREAM ANALYSIS defined terms)
o Uncover unconscious conflicts Low in internal consistency
o Manifest content: actual events in the dream CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
o latent content: symbolic meaning of the dream events Deterministic
o Dreams: the rich source of unconscious. Reveals Pessimistic
conflicts in a condensed and intensified form Causality
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: Unconscious
Unconscious is major motivating force in life Biology
Goal: to bring repressed memories, fears and thoughts back to the Equal emphasis on uniqueness and similarity
level of consciousness and strengthen the ego
CARL JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY o EXTRAVERSION: orientation toward the external world
and other people. EX. open, sociable, and socially
Disagreed with Freud on the role of sexuality assertive
Redefined libido as a more generalized psychic energy that include o INTROVERSION: orientation toward ones own
sex but not restricted to it thoughts and feelings. Introverts are withdrawn and
He argued that we are shaped by our future as well as our past. often shy, tend to focus on themselves, and on their
We are not only affected by our childhood experiences but also by own thoughts and feelings
what we aspire to do in the future 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS:
Placed more greater emphasis on unconscious o SENSING
He combined ideas from history, mythology, anthropology and o INTUITING
religion o THINKING
His approach to personality resembled a subjective, personal o FEELING
confession and was intensely autobiographical PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES
Focuses more on the inner growth of the individual rather than on EXTRAVERTED THINKING
relationships with other people o Thinks out loud
Concluded that the most crucial stage in personality development o Confrontational
was in middle age, which was the time of crisis o Learn from external world
GOAL: help neurotics become healthy and to move healthy people o Use logical rules
in the direction of self-realization o Rigid and cold
LIFE OF JUNG o Scientists
He is an unhappy child o Accountants
Whole female side of his family seemed to be tainted with insanity o Mathematicians
Specialized in psychiatry INTROVERTED THINKING
Met with Eugen Bleuler coined the term schizophrenia o Thinks internally
Met with Freud and considered him a father figure o Non-confrontational
Jung became neurotic and overcame it by confronting his o Stubborn
unconscious through exploration of his dreams and fantasies o Inconsiderate
PSYCHIC ENERGY: OPPOSITIES, EQUIVALENCE, ENTROPY o Aloof
Argued that libido was a broad, undifferentiated life energy o Arrogant
He maintained a vigorous, anxiety-free sex life o Philosophies
Libido: as a diffuse and general life energy and as a narrower o Inventors
psychic energy that fuels work of the personality o Rational
PSYCHE: term for personality
o Logical
o It is through psychic energy that psychological activities
EXTRAVERTED FEELING
such as perceiving, thinking, feeling, and wishing are
o Expresses emotions outwardly
carried out
o Lives according to norms
OPPOSITE PRINCIPLE
o Values
o Conflict between opposing processes or tendencies is
o Sensitive
necessary to generate psychic energy
o Emotional
o Every wish or feeling has its opposite
o Sociable
EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLE
o Objective movie critics
o Continuing redistribution of energy within a personality
o Real estate appraisers
o The psychic energy used for conscious activities while
INTROVERTED FEELING
we are awake is shifted to dreams when we are asleep
o In touch with their own feelings
PRINCIPLE OF ENTROPY
o Values identity
o Tendency toward balance or equilibrium within the
personality o Evaluate something based on truth
LEVELS OF PSYCHE o Modest
CONSCOUS OR EGO o Mysterious
o Ego is the conscious aspect of personality o Inaccessible
o Part of the psyche concerned with perceiving, thinking, o Conceals emotions
feeling, remembering o Quiet
ATTITUDES: EXTRAVERSION AND INTROVERSION o Subjective movie critics
o Art appraisers
EXTRAVERTED SENSING
 o Seeking new experiences o DUALISTIC: introverted & extraverted. Ego either be
o Strongly oriented toward real world objective or subjective
o Adaptable AUXILLARY (puberty/adolescence to middle life)
o Outgoing o Youth
o Enjoys life o Extraverted attitude development
INTROVERTED SENSING o Schooling, occupation, courtship, marriage, family
o Passive & calm TERTIARY (35/40 until old age)
o Detached from everyday world o Introverted attitude develops
o Sensitive o Metanoia change of mind
o Artistic and musicians o Philosophical or religious
o Repress intuition INFERIOR (old age to death)
EXTROVERTED INTUITING o Psychological rebirth
o Business and politics o Self-realization and preparation of death
o Attracted to new ideas o Acquisition of wisdom
o Creative o Ultimate goal of life is death
o Inspire others SYNCHRONICITY
o Changeable o Meaningful coincidences
o Make decisions based on hunches INDIVIDUATION
INTROVERTED INTUITING o Gradual integration & unification of the self
o Little contact with reality ALCHEMY
o Visionaries o You are now able to find or create yourself
o Daydreamers
o Aloof METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
o Odd/eccentric Dream analysis
o Difficulty coping with life and future o Useful in explaining past events and in making
PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS decisions about the future
Reservoir of material that was once conscious but has Active imagination
been suppressed o To arrive at collective images
Freuds preconscious o Patient concentrate on a single images until that image
Contains the complexes begins to appear in a different form
core or pattern of emotions, memories Word association
perceptions and wishes o To uncover complexes
attracts personal and ancestral experiences MBTI
multiple shared experiences o Used to assess psychological types
COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS o An assessment test based on Jungs psychological types
Deepest and least accessible level of the psyche and the attitudes of introversion and extraversion
Images that are beyond our personal experiences o Developed in the 1920s by Katherine Cook Briggs and
Powerful and controlling repository of ancestral Isabel Briggs Myers
experiences o One of the most popular self-report inventories today
There is already something in there, born already o Administered to approximately 2.5 million people
Contains the ARCHETYPES annually
Images of universal experiences o 89 of the 100 corporations in the Fortune 100 used the
Primordial images MBTI for hiring/promotions
Originate from ancestors experiences and o 1975: Isabel Briggs Myers and Mary McCaulley
expressed in dreams, fantasies, delusion & established the Center for Applications of Psychological
hallucinations Type for MBTI training and research.
PERSONA: side that we show to others. mask. o 1979: Association for Psychological Type was founded
ANIMA/ANIMUS o MBTI is considered the most visible practical outgrowth
Anima: mens feminine side of Jungs work on the human personalit
Animus: females masculine side
SHADOW: dark side of personality CRITICISMS
GREAT MOTHER: nourishment and destruction Moderate in generating research
WISE OLD MAN: wisdom and meaning Very low on falsifiability
HERO: conqueror who vanquishes evil Moderate on organizing data
SELF: image that we have of fulfillment, Low on practicality
completion/perfection Low on internal consistency
MANDALA: highest form; self-realization; Low on parsimony
perfect geometric figure
DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
DETERMINISTIC
DOMINANT (birth until adolescence) OPTIMISTIC
o Childhood CAUSAL AND TELEOLOGICAL
o ANARCHIC: has sporadic conscious BOTH CONSCIOUS AND UNCONCSIOUS
o MONARCHIC: theres ego development. Begin logical BIOLOGICAL
and abstract thinking SIMILARITY
ALFRED ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY Conscious was the core of Adlers personality system
Optimistic
Focused on the unique experiences of each person Idealistic and rooted in family experiences
Each individual is primarily a social being GOAL: to create a relationship between therapist and patient that
Personality is shaped by our unique social environments and fosters social interest
interactions
Minimized the role of sex LIFE OF ADLER
 Marked by illness, awareness of death and jealousy of his brother
Suffered from rickets (vitamin D deficiency)
He emphasized the importance of peer group and suggested that
childhood relationships with siblings and children outside the
family were much more significant
Notion of inferiority feelings
President of Vienna Psychoanalytical Society (1910)
Founded the Society for Individual Psychology (1912)
Became Americas first popular psychologists
FICTIONAL FINALISM
The goal for which we strive are potentialities, not actualities
The idea that there is an imagined/potential goal that guides our
behaviors
CREATIVE POWER
Ability to create and appropriate style of life
Ability to freely choose a course of action

INFERIORITY FEELINGS: THE SOURCE OF HUMAN STRIVING 3 universal problems we face:

Inferiority feelings: the normal condition of all people where all 1. Neighborly love
the source of human striving 2. Work
Compensation: a motivation to overcome inferiority, to strive for 3. Sexual love
higher levels of development
Begins in infancy where infant is aware of his/her parents greater STYLE OF LIFE
power of trying to resist/challenge that power, then the infant Unique character structure or pattern of personal behaviors and
develops feelings of inferiority relative to the larger, stronger characteristics by which each of us strives for perfection
people around him/her Everything we do is shaped and defined by our unique style of life
Firmly crystallized by the age 4-5 that is difficult to change
INFERIORITY COMPLEX thereafter
Inferiority complex: condition that develops when a person is It becomes our guiding framework for all later behaviors
unable to compensate for normal inferiority feelings 4 TYPES OF STYLE OF LIFE
o Poor opinion of oneself and feel helpless and unable to 1. GETTING/LEANING TYPE
cope with demands of life Most common.
EXTERNAL FACTORS OF EXTERNAL MALADJUSTMENT: Expects to receive satisfaction from other people and
o EXAGGERATED PHYSICAL DEFICIENCY/ ORGANIC become dependent on them
INFERIORITY Sensitive, selfish, no give just take
Defective parts/organs shape personality Anxiety related disorders
through persons effort to compensate for 2. AVOIDING TYPE
the defect/weakness Makes no attempt to face lifes problems
Effort fail: result to inferiority complex Avoid difficulties to avoid failure
o PAMPERED STYLE OF LIFE/SPOILED Fear of rejection/defeat
Center of attention at home. Psychotic disorders
Every need and whim are satisfied 3. RULING/DOMINANT TYPE
Weak social interest but strong desire to be Little social awareness, behaves without regard for
pampered others.
When confronted with obstacles to Aggressive and dominant
gratification, they believed they must have Bullies, sadists, delinquents or sociopaths
some personal deficiency that is thwarting Mood disorders
them 4. SOCIALLY USEFUL TYPE
o NEGLECT STYLE OF LIFE Cooperates with others and acts in accordance with
Lack of love and security because their their needs
parents are indifferent or hostile Healthy people
Develop feelings of worthlessness, anger, Have energy to join social interest
and view others with distrust SOCIAL INTEREST
SUPERIORITY COMPLEX Gemeinschaftgefuhl community feeling
Condition develops when a person overcompensates for normal Getting along with others is the first task we encounter in life
inferiority feelings Our innate potential to cooperate with other people to achieve
Exaggerated opinion of ones abilities and accomplishments personal and societal goals
Self-satisfied and superior SAFEGUARDING TENDENCIES
Boasting, vanity, self-centered, denigrate others 1. EXCUSES
Yes but
STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY OR PERFECTION 2. AGGRESSION protect their fragile self-esteem
Unhealthy individuals strive for this with little concern for other DEPRECIAITON: undervalue other peoples and
people. overvalue ones own
Basic motivation is personal benefit ACCUSATION: blame others
Fundamental fact of life SELF-ACCUSATION: self-torture and guilt
We strive for superiority in order to protect ourselves, to make 3. WITHDRAWAL distance between self and problems
ourselves complete/whole MOVING BACKWARD: reverting to a more secure
Innate goal is oriented toward the future period. (same to Freuds regression)
It increases rather than decreases tension HESITATION: procrastination give them the excuse its
The striving for superiority is manifested both by the individual too late now
and by society STANDING STILL: do not move in any direction & avoid
responsibilities
STRIVING FOR SUCCESS CONSTRUCTING OBSTACLES: protect their self-esteem
Healthy individuals strive for the success of all humanity without and prestige
losing their personal identity MASCULINE PROTEST
Result of hereditary condition, followed after birth by a feeling of
SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS being incomplete
Peoples subjective view of the world and not reality shapes their Men are superior to women
behavior
FAMILY CONSTELLATION o Remain the center and focus of attention
FIRST BORNS o Mature early and manifest adult behaviors/attitudes
o Unique and enviable situation EARLY RECOLLECTIONS
o Receive parents instant and undivided attention More reliable method of determining style of life
o When 2nd child is born, they are dethroned Adler believed that early memories are templates on which
o The older the first born is when the 2nd arrives, the less people project their current style of life
dethronement the 1st born will experience
o Nurturing and protective CRITICISMS
o Good organizer High on generating research
SECOND BORNS High on organizing data
o Competition with the 1st born may serve to motivate High on guiding action
the 2nd born Low on falsification
o Not concerned with power Low on internal consistency
o More optimistic about the future Moderate on parsimony
o Competitive and ambitious
YOUNGEST BORNS CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
o Never face dethronement and often become the pet of Very high on free choice
the family Very high on optimism
o Driven to surpass the older siblings Very low on causality
o High-achievers Average on unconscious and conscious
ONLY CHILD High on social factors
o Never lose the position of primacy and power High on uniqueness
KAREN HORNEY: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY Achieve security through success
4. WITHDRAWAL
Men are envious of women for their ability to give birth (womb Attempt to become independent of others
envy) MOVING TOWARDS PEOPLE
Her theory was influenced by her gender and her personal - Compliant Personality
experiences, as well as by social and cultural forces - Self-effacing solution NEUROTIC NEEDS:
Personality cannot depend wholly on biological forces - Helpful and conforming 1. Affection and approval
Placed greater emphasis on social relationship as significant - Sweet Orientation 2. A dominant partner
factors in personality - Self-sacrificing
Argued that sex was not the governing factor in personality - Saintly
People are motivated not by sexual/aggressive forces but by the NEUROTIC NEEDS:
MOVING AGAINST PEOPLE
needs for security and love 4. Power
- Aggressive Personality
LIFE OF HORNEY 5. Exploitation
- Expulsive solution
2nd born child 6. Prestige
- Manipulate & exploit others
Lack of love in childhood which fosters anxiety and hostility 7. Admiration
Orientation
Being in love temporarily reduces anxiety and insecurity 8. achievement
Gave birth to 3 daughters but felt overwhelming unhappiness and MOVING AWAY PEOPLE
depression - withdrawn/detached NEUROTIC NEEDS:
Was strongly influenced by Adlers notion of compensation for - resignation solution 9. Self-sufficiency
feelings of inferiority - Aloof & arrogant 10. Perfection
Founder of the Association for the advancement of Psychoanalysis Orientation 3. Narrow limits to life
and the American Institute for Psychoanalysis - Independent & rebellious

THE CHILDHOOD NEED FOR SAFETY IDEALIZED SELF-IMAGE

Believed that social forces in childhood influence personality For normal people, it is an idealized picture of oneself built on a
development flexible, realistic assessment of ones abilities
SAFETY NEED: higher level need for security and freedom from For neurotics, the self-image is based on an inflexible unrealistic
fear self-appraisal
Childs security depends entirely on how the parents treat eh child REALISTIC SELF IMAGE: flexible and dynamic, adapting as the
Horney placed a great emphasis on the infants helplessness. I individual develops and changes, it reflects strengths, growth and
have to repress my hostility because I need you self-awareness
The more frightened children become the more they will repress NEUROTIC SELF IMAGE: inflexible and dynamic, not a goal but a
their hostility. I must repress my hostility because I am afraid of fixed idea
you
3 IDEALIZED SELF-IMAGE
Guilt is another reason why children represses hostility.
1. NEUROTIC SEARCH FOR GLORY
BASIC HOSTILITY Comprehensive drive toward actualizing the ideal self
2. NEUROTIC CLAIMS
Children develop basic hostility due to parents often neglect,
dominate, reject or overindulge Belief that they are entitled to special privileges
3. NEUROTIC PRIDE
BASIC ANXIETY False pride based not on reality but on a distorted and
The foundation of Neurosis idealized view of self
TYRANNY OF SHOULDS
Pervasive feeling of loneliness and helplessness
Attempt to realize an unattainable idealized self-image by denying
4 WAYS TO PROTECT OURSELVES AGAINST BASIC ANXIETY:
the true self and behaving in terms of what we think we should be
1. AFFECTION AND LOVE
doing
Trying to do whatever the other person
wants
SELF HATRED
2. SUBMISSIVENESS
Complying with others wishes Tendency for neurotics to hate and despise their real self
3. POWER/PRESTIGE o Relentless demands on self
 o Merciless self-accusation easily distort or hide aspects of their inner lives or
o Self-contempt- ridicule falsify feelings about events that they remembered
o Self-frustration I dont deserve this o she focused on her patients visible emotional
o Self-torment cutting oneself; inflict harm reactions toward her, believing these attitudes could
o Self-destructive actions physical, psychological, only explain her patients attitudes toward others
imagination, like overeating. Dream analysis
FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY o Believed that dream analysis could reveal a persons
WOMB ENVY true self, and that dreams represented attempts to
The envy a male feels toward a female because she can bear solve problems, in either a constructive or a neurotic
children and he cannot. Womb envy was Horneys response to way.
Freuds concept of penis envy in females CAD (Compliant, Aggressive and Detached Personality)
Men have such a small part to play in the act of creating a new life o A 35-item self-report inventory, the CAD, was devised
that they must sublimate their womb envy and overcompensate to measure Horneys three neurotic trends
for it by seeking achievement in their work HCTI (Horney-Coolidge Type Indicator)
Womb envy is manifested unconsciously in behaviors designed to o a 57-item self-report inventory
disparage and belittle women and to reinforce their inferior status o Men tended to score higher on the aggressive and
OEDIPUS COMPLEX detached scales whereas women scored higher in
Horney disagreed with Freud compliance
By removing sex from the Oedipus complex, she reinterpreted the o Aggression and detachment correlated highly with
situation as a conflict between dependence on ones parents and psychoticism; compliance was associated with
hostility toward them neuroticism
Her explanation for Oedipal feelings lies in neurotic conflicts that CRITICISMS
evolve from parent-child interactions. These feelings are not based Low on generating research
on sex or other biological forces, nor are they universal. They Low on falsifiability
develop only when parents act to undermine their childs security Very low on organizing knowledge
QUESTIONS ABOUT HUMAN NATURE Low on guiding action
Each person is unique Moderate on internal consistency
Neurotic behavior results from social forces in childhood; parent- Moderate on parsimony
child relationship will either satisfy or frustrate the childs need for
safety CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
Each of us has innate potential for self-realization and this is our Freechoice
ultimate goal of life Optimism
ASSESSMENT Causality
Free association Conscious
o Horney did not follow Freuds lead in trying to probe Social influence
the unconscious mind. She believed that patients could Similarity
ERIK ERIKSON: POST FREUDIAN THEORY STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
SYNTONIC harmonious element
Trained by Anna Freud DYSTONIC disruptive element
Extended Freuds theory: Basic strength
o He suggested that personality continues to develop in a Identity crisis
succession of 8 stages over the entire life span
o Placed greater emphasis on ego than on the ID. Ego is INFANCY (BIRTH 1)
an independent part not dependent to the ID ORAL-SENSORY
o Recognized the impact on personality of cultural and TRUST VS. MISTRUST
historical forces HOPE
We are not governed by innate biological factors at work in WITHDRAWAL
childhood, they do not provide the complete explanation for EARLY CHILDHOOD (1 3)
personality ANAL URETHRAL & MUSCULAR
AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & DOUBT
LIFE OF ERIKSON WILL
Gave us the concept of identity crisis and experienced several for COMPULSION
himself PLAY AGE (3 5)
Was unsure who is father was GENITAL-LOCOMOTOR
Considered himself German despite his parents being Danish INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
Described himself as sensitive and neurotic even close to PURPOSE
psychotic INHIBITION
Was drawn to Freud in part because of his search for a father SCHOOL AGE (6 11)
Became affiliated with Henry Murrays Harvard Clinic SEXUAL LATENCY
Identity confusion: symptoms appeared to be related to a sense INDUSTRIOUSNESS VS. INFERIORITY
of alienation from cultural traditions and resulted in the lack of a COMPETENCE
clear self-image or self-identity INERTIA
EGO ADOLESCENCE (12 -18)
Body ego IDENTITY
Ego ideal IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
Ego identity FIDELITY
Develops within a given society and is influenced by childrearing ROLE REPUDATION
practices and other cultural customs YOUNG ADULTHOOD (18 35)
Pseudospecies: fictional notion that they are superior to other INTIMACY
culture INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
Epigenetic principle: grows according to a genetically established LOVE
rate and in a fixed sequence EXCLUSIVITY
ADULTHOOD (35 55) o Girls tended to build static, peaceful scenes that
PROCREATIVITY contained low, enclosed structures. Intruders (animal
GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION figures or male figures, never female figures) tried to
CARE force their way into the interiors
REJECTIVITY o boys focused on exteriors, action, and height. Their
OLD AGE (55 +) creations tended to be action-oriented, with tall
GENERALIZED SENSUALITY towering structures and cars and people in motion
INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR CRITICISMS
WISDOM High on generating research
DISDAIN Moderate on falsifiability
Moderate on organizing knowledge
ASSESSMENT Moderate on guiding action
PSYCHOHISTORICAL ANALYSIS application of Eriksons life-span High on internal consistency
theory along with psychoanalytic principles to the study of Moderate on parsimony
historical figues
Ego Identity Scale designed to measure the development of ego CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
identity during adolescence Determinism
Ego Identity Process Questionnaire 32 items to measure the Optimism
dimensions of exploration and commitment Causality
Loyola Generativity Scale 20 item self-report inventory to Unconscious & Conscious
measure the level of generativity or stagnation in adulthood. Culture
Play construction for children in which structures assembled Uniqueness
from dolls, blocks, and other toys.
ABRAHAM MASLOW: HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY o Psychologically healthy people
o Achieved only by embracing B VALUES truth,
Founder and spiritual leader of the humanistic psychology beauty, oneness, justice etc.
movement o We must be free of constraints imposed by society and
Focused on psychological health rather than illness, growth rather by ourselves
than stagnation, virtues and potentials rather than weaknesses o We must not be distracted by the lower-order needs
and limitations His theory does not derive from case histories of o We must be secure in our self-image and in our
clinical patients but from research on creative, independent, self- relationships with other people; we must be able to
sufficient fulfilled adults love and be loved in return
The badness in a mans behavior comes out of bad environment o We must have a realistic knowledge of our strengths
rather than inherent rottenness and weaknesses, virtues and vices
Strong sense of confidence in our ability to shape our lives and our
society DEFICIT (DEFICIENCY NEEDS):
LIFE OF MASLOW The lower needs; failure to satisfy them produces a deficiency in
Felt hostility toward his Father, he despised his mother the body
Has hatred for his mother GROWTH (BEING NEEDS):
He tried compensating by excelling in athletics during his teenage the higher needs; they involve realization and fulfillment of
years human potential
Interested with Adlers work REMEMBER:
Became enthralled with J.B. Watson Behaviorism The lower the need is in the hierarchy, the greater are its strength,
Met Horney and Adler potency, and priority; the higher needs are weaker needs
Higher needs appear later in life
5 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT MOTIVATION: Because higher needs are less necessary for survival, their
The whole organism is motivated at any one time gratification can be postponed
Motivation is complex. And unconscious motives often underlie Although higher needs are less necessary for survival, they
behavior contribute to survival and growth
People are continually motivated by one need or another Satisfaction of higher needs is also beneficial psychologically
People in different cultures are motivated by the same basic needs Gratification of higher needs requires better external
The basic needs can be arranged on a hierarchy circumstances than does gratification of lower needs
A need does not have to be satisfied fully before the next need in
HIERARCY OF NEEDS the hierarchy becomes important
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS COGNITIVE NEEDS
o Oxygen, food, water so on Maslows second set of innate needs to know and understand
o have a greater personal impact as motivating forces in The need to know is stronger than the need to understand; thus,
cultures where basic survival remains an everyday the need to know must be at least partially satisfied before the
concern need to understand can emerge
SAFETY NEEDS AESTHETIC NEEDS
o Physical security, stability, dependency, protection Desire for beauty and order
o Too much freedom and permissiveness leads to an NEUROTIC NEEDS
absence of structure and order Desire to dominate, inflict pain or to subject oneself to the will of
LOVE AND BELONGINGNESS NEEDS another person. Can lead to pathology
o Desire for friendship, for mate and children, need to SELF ACTUALIZER
belong META MOTIVATION
ESTEEM NEEDS o B-motivation
o Result from satisfaction of love needs which includes Motivation of self-actualizers which involves
self-confidence and recognition maximizing personal potential rather than
o allows us to feel confident of our strength, worth, and striving for a particular goal or object
adequacy o D-motivation
SELF-ACTUALIZATION Motivation of people who are not self-
actualizers which involves striving for
 something specific to make up for
something that is lacking within us
Self-actualizing persons are concerned with fulfilling their JONAH COMPLEX
potential and with knowing and understanding their environment
Their goal is to enrich their lives by acting to increase tension to
experience a variety of stimulating and challenging events
METANEEDS states of growth or being toward which self-
actualizers evolve; states of being such as goodness, uniqueness
and perception rather than specific goals or objects
METAPATHOLOGY a thwarting of self-development related to
failure to satisfy the metaneeds
Absence of psychopathology
Satisfaction of each of the 4 lower level needs
Full realization of ones potential for growth CRITICISMS
Acceptance of B values
CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-ACTUALIZERS
An efficient perception of reality
An acceptance of themselves, others, and nature
A spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness
Problem centered
A sense of detachment and the need for privacy CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
Autonomy
Mystical or peak experiences
Social interest
Profound interpersonal relations
A democratic character structure
Creativeness
Resistance to enculturation
CARL ROGERS: PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
Non-directive or client-centered therapy
His theory is influenced by his experiences with his clients, instead
of experimental
Person-centered: suggests the ability to change and improve 3 LEVELS OF AWARENESS
personality is centered within the person
Believed that we are rational beings ruled by a conscious
perception of ourselves and our experiential world
Did not emphasized unconscious forces
Rejected the notion of past events exerts a controlling influence
on present behavior
Personality can be best understood based on our subjective NEEDS
experiences
believed we have a basically healthy nature and an innate
tendency to grow and fulfill our potential
We are not doomed to conflict with our selves or with our society
We are not ruled by instinctive biological forces or controlled by
events of the first 5 years of life; our outlook is progressive rather
than regressive, toward growth rather than stagnation
We experience our world openly, not defensively, and we seek
challenge and stimulation instead of the security of the familiar
Goal: to actualize the self, to become fully functioning person
LIFE OF ROGERS
Competitiveness between his brother
He came to appreciate the value of scientific approach
Has feelings of insecurity
Believed people are motivated by an innate tendency to actualize,
maintain, and enhance the self
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
The formative tendency that states that all matter both organic
and inorganic tend to evolve from simpler to more complex forms
Actualizing tendency which suggests that all living things including
humans tend to move toward completion or fulfillment of
potentials
SELF AND TENDENCY TOWARD ACTUALIZATION
SELF CONCEPT ALL APECTS OF ONES IDENTITY THAT ARE
PERCEIVED IN AWARENESS
IDEAL SELF view of our self as we would like to be or aspire to
be
ACTUALIZATION TENDENCY basic human motivation to CHARACTERISTICS OF FULLY FUNCTIONING PERSONS OR PERSON OF
actualize, maintain and enhance the self
o Tendency to move toward completion
Discrimination between means and ends
Philosophical sense of humor
The fear that maximizing our potential will lead to a situation with
which we will be unable to cope
ASSESSMENT
Biographical material of historical figures
Interviews
Free association
Projective Tests
POI (Personal Orientation Inventory) self report questionnaire
consist of 150 pairs of statements developed by Everett Shostrom
to measure self-actualization
Moderate on generating research
Low on falsifiability
Very high on organizing knowledge
High on guiding action
Moderate on internal consistency
Moderate on parsimony
Free choice
Optimism
Teleology
Conscious
Equal emphasis on culture and biology
Uniqueness
o Responsible for maturation; growth-oriented
ORGANISMIC VALUING PROCESS
o Process by which we judge experiences in terms of
their value for fostering/hindering our actualization
and growth
Those that are symbolized below the threshold of awareness and
are ignored, denied, or not allowed into the self-concept
Those that are distorted or reshaped to fit it into an existing self-
concept
Those that are consistent with the self-concept and thus are
accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure
Maintenance needs food, air, safety, aslo include our tendency
to resist change and maintain our self-concept.
Enhancement needs needs to grow and to realize ones full
human potential
Need for positive regards acceptance, love and approval from
others
Positive self regard we grant ourselves acceptance and
approval
Unconditional positive regard approval granted regardless of a
persons behavior
Conditions of worth a belief that we are worthy of approval
only when we express desirable behavior and attitudes and refrain
from expressing those that bring disapproval from others (similar
to Freuds superego)
Conditional positive regard approval, love, acceptance granted
only when a person expresses desirable behaviors and attitudes
Incongruence discrepancy between a persons self-concept and
aspects of his or her experiences become threatening and are
manifested as anxiety
o The greater the incongruence the more vulnerable the
person becomes
TO PREVENT INCONGRUENCE:
DISORTION people misinterpret an experience so that it fits
into their self-concept
DENIAL people refuse to allow the experience into awareness
DISORGANIZATION behave consistently with their organismic
experience and sometimes in accordance with their shattered self-
concept
TOMORROW
Full functioning persons are aware of all experience
Fully functioning persons live fully and richly in every moment
 Fully functioning persons trust in their own organismpeople THE EXPERIENCE INVENTORY self report questionnaire,
trust their own reactions rather than being guided by the opinions attempts to assess openness or receptivity to experience
of others, by a social code, or by their intellectual judgments THE EXPERIENCING SCALE measures our level of self-trust
Fully functioning persons feel free to make choices without
constraints or inhibitions CRITICISMS
Fully functioning persons are creative and live constructively and MODERATE ON GENERATING RESEARCH
adaptively as environmental conditions change HIGH ON FALSIFIABILITY
Full functioning persons may face difficulties HIGH ON ORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE
VERY HIGH ON PRACTICALITY
CLIENT-CENTERED PSYCHOTHERAPY VERY HIGH ON INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
A vulnerable client must have contact of some duration with a HIGH ON PARSIMONY
counselor who is congruent and demonstrate unconditional
positive regard and who listens with empathy to a client. And the CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
client must perceives the congruence, unconditional positive FREE CHOICE
regard and empathy OPTIMISM
Empathic listening therapist to sense the feeling of a client TELEOLOGY
CONSCIOUS
ASSESSMENT SOCIAL INFLUENCE
PERSON-CENTERED THERAPY UNIQUENESS
ENCOUNTERED GROUPS
ROLLO MAY: EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY CARE, LOVE, AND WILL
o CARE active process that suggests that things matter
Anti-scientific & anti theoretical o LOVE means to care, to delight in the presence of
Existence precedes essence what people do is more important another person, and to affirm that persons value as
than what they are much as ones own
People are both subjective and objective o Psychologically healthy people will be able to
People are motivated to search for answers for the meaning of life combine love and will
People have an equal degree of both freedom and responsibility FORMS OF LOVE
Each of us is responsible for who we are and what we will become o SEX basic form of love. A biological function that
Rooted from Soren Keirkegard founder of modern seeks satisfaction through the release of sexual tension
existentialism o EROS higher form of love, seeks an enduring union
with a loved one
BASIC CONCEPTS o PHILIA intimate nonsexual relationship
DASEIN OR BEING IN THE WORLD o AGAPE altruistic or spiritual love. Undeserved and
o Unity of people and their phenomenological world unconditional
UMWELT FREEDOM
o Ones relationship with the world of o Gained through confrontation with ones identity
things/environment o We are free when we recognize that death is a
MITWELT possibility at any moment
o Ones relationship with the world of people o EXISTENTIAL FREEDOM freedom of doing/action
EIGENWELT o ESSENTIAL FREEDOM freedom of being or an inner
o Ones relationship with oneself freedom
Nonbeing or nothingness awareness of the possibility of ones DESTINY
not being through death or loss of awareness o The design of the universe speaking through the design
o People experience anxiety when they are aware of the of each one of us
possibility of their nonbeing as well as when they are o Includes the limitations of our environment and our
aware that they are free to choose personal qualities
NORMAL ANXIETY Cultural myths belief systems both conscious and unconscious
o Growth produces normal anxiety that provide explanations for personal and social problems
o Experienced by everyone and is proportionate to the PSYCHOPATIOLOGY
threat May saw apathy and emptiness chief existential disorders
o Does not involve repression People have become alienated from the natural world
o Can be handled on a conscious level From other people
NEUROTIC ANXIETY From them selves
o Disproportionate to the threat Thus have lack of connectedness and inability to fulfill ones
o Involves repression destiny
o Handled in a self-defeating manner
o Felt whenever ones values are transformed into CRITICISMS
dogma Very low on generating research
o Blocks growth and productive action Very low on falsifiability
GUILT Average in organizing data
o Arises as a result of their: Low on guiding action
Separation form the natural world Poor internal consistency
Inability to judge the needs of others Moderate parsimony
Denial of their own potentials
o Anxiety and guilt are ontological they refer to the CONCEPT OF HUMAN NATURE
nature of being and not to feelings arising from specific Freedom
situations Optimistic
INTENTIONALITY Teleological
o An underlying structure that gives meaning to Middle conscious & unconscious
experience and allows people to make decisions about Middle biological vs. social influences
the future More on uniqueness
ERICH FROMM: HUMANISTIC PSCYHOANALYSIS BURDEN OF FREEDOM
Humans are the freaks of the universe because they
Looks at people from the perspective of psychology, history and lack the ability to reason
anthropology Freedom becomes burden basic anxiety
Influenced by Freud and Horney Basic anxiety feeling of being alone in the world
Developed a more culturally oriented theory than Freud MECHANISIMS OF ESCAPE
More broader theory than Horney AUTHORITARIANISM give up ones independence &
Goal: to work toward satisfaction of basic human needs & be unite with a powerful partner
reunited with the world DESTRUCTIVENESS doing away with other people or
things
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS CONFORMITY surrendering of ones individuality in
Believed that humans have been torn away from their prehistoric order to meet the wishes of others
union with nature and left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a NONPRODUCTIVE ORIENTATION
changing world. HUMAN DILLEMMA RECEPTIVE receive always
Can be solved by Positive freedom spontaneous EXPLOITATIVE use other people
activity of the whole, integrated personality, which is HOARDING for myself only
achieved when a person becomes reunited with others MARKETING sell self
RELATEDNESS drive for union w/ another person PRODUCTIVE ORIENTATION
SUBMISSION WORK
POWER LOVE
LOVE ability to unite with another while retaining REASONING
ones own individuality & integrity. It is the only BIOPHILIA love of life
relatedness that can solve our basic human dilemma PERSONALITY DISORDERS
TRANSCENDENCE to rise above NECROPHILIA love of death
Being thrown into the world destroying or creating MALIGNANT NARCISSISM belief that everything
people or things belonging to ones self is of great value and anything
Malignant aggression killing for reasons other than belonging to others is worthless (same as depreciation)
survival INSCESTUOUS SYMBIOSIS extreme dependence on
ROOTEDNESS ones mother or mother substitute
The need to establish roots ad feel home again in the
world CRITICISM
Productively enables us to grow beyond and Very low on generating research
establish ties with outside world Very low on falsifiability
Nonproductively we become fixated & afraid to High on organizing knowledge
move beyond the security and safety of our mother or Low on guiding action
a mother substitute Low on internal consistency
SENSE OF IDENTITY Low on parsimony
Awareness of ourselves as a separate person
Nonproductively conformity to a group CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
Productively as individuality Average on free choice
FRAME OF ORIENTATION Average on optimism
A road map to make their way to the world Low on causality
Nonproductively striving for irrational goals Average on unconscious
Productively movement toward rational goals High on social influences
Uniqueness
GORDON ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
We reflect both our heredity and our environment; heredity
He helped bring personality into the mainstream and formulated a provides the personality with raw materials (such as physique,
theory of personality development in which traits play a intelligence, and temperament) that may be shaped, expanded, or
prominent role limited by the conditions of our environment.
Did not accept the notion that unconscious forces dominate the Our genetic background is responsible for the major portion of our
personality/normal mature adults uniqueness.
Suggested that emotionally healthy people function in rational Allport concluded that to study personality, psychology must deal
and conscious terms, aware and in control of many of the forces with the individual case and not with average findings among
that motivate them groups.
Unconscious in important only in neurotic/disturbed behavior
We are not prisoners of childhood conflicts and past experiences 2 DISTINCT PERSONALITIES
rather we are more guided by the present and our view of the DISCRETE
future DISCONTINUOUS
Collect data from emotionally healthy adults Found no continuum of personality between childhood and
Emphasis on the uniqueness of personality adulthood
Personality is not general or universal but specific to the individual Primitive biological urges and reflexes drive infant behavior,
Morphogenic study only one person at a time whereas adult functioning is more psychological in nature.
PERSONALITY Two personalities; one for adulthood and one for childhoodthe
Dynamic organization: although personality is constantly adult personality is not constrained by childhood experiences.
changing and growing, the growth is organized, not random. **Allport emphasized the conscious rather than the unconscious
Psychophysical: the personality is composed of mind and body **Emphasized the present and future rather than the past
functioning together as a unit; personality is neither mental nor all **Studied normal rather than abnormal personality
biological. PERSONALITY TRAITS
Determine: all facets of personality activate or direct specific TRAITS: distinguishing characteristics that guide behavior. Traits
behaviors and thoughts are measured on a continuum and are subject to social,
Characteristics, behavior and thought: everything we think and environmental, and cultural influences
do is characteristic, or typical, of us, thus each person is unique.
 INDIVIDUAL TRAITS: unique to a person and define his or her
character
COMMON TRAITS: shared by a number of people; likely to change
over time
PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS
PERSONAL DISPOSITONS: traits that are peculiar to an individual,
as opposed to traits shared by a number of people
CARDINAL TRAITS:
o Dominates and shapes behavior
o Definition of ones life
o Ruling passion
o Powerful force
SECONDARY TRAITS:
o Seen only in certain circumstances that only your
closest friend can describe
CENTRAL TRAITS:
o 5-10 people only knows about that behavior
o Handful of outstanding traits
Habits (several habits may form a trait) Attitude (similar to trat)
MOTIVATIONAL AND STYLISTIC DISPOSITION
MOTIVATIONAL DISPOSITIONS
o Strong enough to initiate action
STYLISTIC DISPOSITION manner in which an individual behaves
and which guide rather than initiate action
MOTIVATION
Motives changes as people mature and also that people are
motivated by present drives and wants
People not only react to the environment but also shape their
environment and cause it to react to them
Proactive approach idea that people often seek additional
tension & that they purposefully act on their environment in a
way that fosters growth toward psychological health
FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY
Allport emphasized the influence of a persons present situation
Cognitive processes are a vital aspect of our personality
Allport criticized Freuds focus on unconscious, irrational forces.
functional autonomy: The idea that motives in the normal,
mature adult are independent of the childhood experiences in
which they originally appeared.
PRESERVERATIVE FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY
tendency of certain behaviors to perseverate or continue in the
absence of reinforcement
related to low-level and routine behaviors
PROPRIATE FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY
relates to our values, self-image and lifestyle
refers to self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium
PROPRIUM
self or ego
The ego determines which motives will be maintained and which
will be discarded; we retain motives that enhance our self-esteem
or self-image
Warm and central in their lives
Propriate functioning is an organizing process that maintains our
sense of self. It determines how we perceive the world, what we
remember from our experiences, and how our thoughts are
directed.
This organizing process is governed by the following three
principles:
Organizing the energy level: explains how we acquire new
motives; these motives arise from necessity to help consume
excess energy that we might otherwise express in destructive and
harmful ways
RAYMOND CATTELL
Cattells goal in his study of personality was to predict how a
person will behave in response to a given stimulus situation.
Cattells subjects were normal people
He believed it was unwise to attempt to change a personality
before understanding it
Cattells approach is rigorously scientific, relying on observations
of behavior and masses of data
Mastery and competence: refers to the level at which we choose
to satisfy motives; healthy, mature adults are motivated to
perform better and more efficiently, to master new skills, and to
increase their degree of competence
Propriate patterning: describes a striving for consistency and
integration of the personality; we organize our perceptual and
cognitive processes around the self, keeping what enhances our
self-image and rejecting the rest
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF PROPRIUM
BODILY SELF
o Stages 13 emerge during the first three years. In this
stage, infants become aware of their own existence
and distinguish their own bodies from objects in the
environment.
SELF-IDENTITY
o Children realize that their identity remains intact
despite the many changes that are taking place.
SELF-ESTEEM
o Children learn to take pride in their accomplishments
EXTENTION OF SELF
o Stages 4 and 5 emerge during the fourth through sixth
year. In this stage, children come to recognize the
objects and people that are part of their own world.
SELF-IMAGE
o Children develop actual and idealized images of
themselves and their behavior and become aware of
satisfying (or failing to satisfy) parental expectations.
SELF AS A RATIONAL COPER
o Stage 6 develops during ages 612. Children begin to
apply reason and logic to the solution of everyday
problems.
PROPRIATE STRIVING
o Stage 7 develops during adolescence. Young people
begin to formulate long-range goals and plans.
ADULTHOOD
o Normal, mature adults are functionally autonomous,
independent of childhood motives. They function
rationally in the present and consciously create their
own lifestyles.
HEALTHY ADULT PERSONALITY
Mature adult extends his/her sense of self to people
Mature adult relates warmly to other people
Mature adults self-acceptance helps him/her achieve emotional
security
Mature adult holds realistic perception of life
Mature adults has a sense of humor and self-objectification
Mature adults subscribes to a unifying philosophy of life
CRITICISM
Moderate on generating research
Low on falsifiability
Low on organizing knowledge
Moderate in guiding action
High on internal consistency
High on parsimony
CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
Free choice
Optimism
Teleology
Conscious
Social influence
Uniqueness
Factor analysis: A statistical technique based on correlations
between several measures, which may be explained in terms of
underlying factors.
Traits: the mental elements of the personality
LIFE OF CATTELL
He developed chronic digestive disorders resulting from overwork,
a deficient diet, and being forced to live in a cold basement
apartment
He worked at Harvard with Henry Murray, Gordon Allport, and
William Sheldon
CATTELLS APPROACH TO PERSONALITY TRAITS
Traits: To Cattell, reaction tendencies, derived by the method of
factor analysis, that are relatively permanent parts of the
personality
Common trait: Traits possessed in some degree by all persons.
Intelligence, extraversion, and gregariousness.
All people have a similar hereditary potential and are subject to
similar social pressures, within the same culture
Unique trait: Traits possessed by one or a few persons;
particularly apparent in our interests and attitudes
ABILITY, TEMPERAMENT, AND DYNAMIC TRAITS
Ability traits: Traits that describe our skills and how efficiently we
will be able to work toward our goals; intelligenceour level of
intelligence will affect the ways in which we strive for goals
Temperament traits: Traits that describe our general behavioral
style in responding to our environment; assertiveness, easy-going,
irritability
Dynamic traits: Traits that describe our motivations and interests;
the driving forces of behavior
o Traits concerned with motivation
o Cattell believed that a personality theory that failed to
consider the impact of dynamic, or motivating, forces is
incomplete
SURFACE TRAITS AND SOURCE TRAITS
Surface traits : Traits that show a correlation but do not constitute
a factor because they are not determined by a single source; less
stable and permanent and therefore less important in describing
personality
Source traits: Stable, permanent traits that are the basic factors of
personality, derived by the method of factor analysis.
o 16 source traits identified by intensive factor-analysis
research
o Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire
o Temperament traits: relate to the general style and
emotional tone of behavior
Source traits are classified by their origin as either constitutional
traits or environmental-mold traits
CONSTITUTIONAL TRAITS AND ENVIRONMENT MOLD TRAITS
Constitutional traits: Source traits that depend on our
physiological characteristics; originate in biological conditions but
are not necessarily innate.
HANS EYSENCK: BIOLOGICALLY BASED FACTOR THEORY
Developed several personality assessment devices:
Eysenck Personality Inventory
Eysenck Personality Profiler
Maudsley Medical Questionnaire
Maudsley Personality Inventory
Theorize before collecting and analyzing data
Extracted fewer factors
Used a wider variety of approaches to gather data
Conducted considerable research on intelligence, noting that a
person with a 120 IQ is likely to have a more complex and
multidimensional personality that someone with an IQ of 80
Presented evidence to suggest that 80% of our intelligence is
inherited, 20% social/environmental forces
-Some research indicates that inheritance may account for as
much as 50% of personality; with evidence being greatest for the
factors of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, but
virtually every other dimension investigated by personality
researchers displays a strong biological component
CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFYING FACTORS
Must be based on strong psychometric evidence
Fit an acceptable genetic model
Make sense theoretically
Possess social relevance
4 LEVEL HIERARCHY OF BEHAVIOR ORGANIZAITON
Specific behaviors or cognitions
Habitual acts or cognitions
Traits or personal dispositions
Types or superfactors
DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY
Environmental-mold traits: Source traits that are learned from
social and environmental interactions.
ERGS AND SENTIMENTS
Ergs: Permanent constitutional source traits that provide energy
for goal-directed behavior. Ergs are the basic innate units of
motivation; instinct or drive
Erg derives from the Greek ergon, meaning work or energy
Cattells factor-analysis research identified 11 ergs:
Anger, appeal, curiosity, disgust, gregariousness, hunger,
protection, security, self-assertion, self-submission, sex
Sentiments: To Cattell, environmental-mold source traits that
motivate behavior; a pattern of learned attitudes that focuses on
an important aspect of life
sentiments, because they are resultant from learning, can be
unlearned to disappear
Cattell later called these SEMS, which stands for Socially Shaped
Ergic Manifolds
Attitudes: attitudes are our interests in and emotions and
behaviors toward some person, object, or event. This is a broader
definition that typically used in psychology
ASSESSMENT
L-data (life records): Life-record ratings of behaviors observed in
real-life situations, such as the classroom or office; they involve
overt behavior that can be seen by an observer and occur in a
naturalistic setting
Q-data (questionnaires): Self-report questionnaire ratings of our
characteristics, attitudes, and interests; Cattell warned that Q-data
must not be assumed to be accurate because some responses may
be deliberately falsified
T-data (tests): Data derived from personality tests that are
resistant to faking; objective tests in which a person responds
without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated
CRITICISMS
Cattells view admits little spontaneity; prediction is considered
predictable if it is lawful and orderly
Deterministic view
Accepted both nature and nurture; constitutional traits and ergs
are innate, whereas environmental-mold traits are learned
Uniqueness/universality: Cattell took a moderate position, noting
the existence of common traits, and unique traits
Ultimately believed that human nature and society had regressed
Eysenck has been a critic of Cattells research because of the
potential subjectivity in the technique and the difficulty of
replication
Personality theory based on three dimensions, defined as
combinations of traits or factors, or superfactors:
o P: PSYCHOTICISM VS. IMPULSE CONTROL
o E: EXTRAVERSION VS. INTROVERSION
o N: NEUROTICISM VS. EMOTIONAL STABILITY
EXTRAVERSION
People who score highly on extraversion on the Eysenck
Personality Inventory have been found to experience more
pleasant emotions than those who score low on extraversion
Eysenck found that extraverts have a lower base level of cortical
arousal and introverts do
NEUROTICISM
Eysenck suggested that neuroticism is largely inherited, a product
of genetics rather than learning or experience
Increasing satisfaction gained from work and social relationships
was associated with a lower level of neuroticism and a higher level
of extraversion
People high in neuroticism seem to have greater activity in the
brain areas that control the sympathetic branch of the autonomic
nervous system
Eysenck argued that in neurotics, the sympathetic nervous system
overreacts even to mild stressors, resulting in chronic
hypersensitivity
PSYCHOTICISM
People who scored high in psychoticism are aggressive, antisocial,
tough-minded, cold, and egocentric; also cruel, hostile, insensitive
to needs of others; reported to have greater problems with
alcohol and drug abuse
 People who score high in psychoticism can also be highly creative
Eysenck suggested that psychoticism may be related to male
hormones
An ideal society affords each person the opportunity to make the
best use of his or her traits and abilities

McCRAE AND COSTA: FIVE FACTOR THEORY

Big Five Factors: Neuroticism, extraversion, openness,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness
-NEO Personality Inventory
-Studies of twins have found that four of the five factors show a
stronger hereditary component: neuroticism, extraversion,
openness, and conscientiousness; Agreeableness was found to
have a stronger environmental component
BASIS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS
FACTORS: factor analysis is a mathematical procedure for reducing
a large number of scores to a few more general variables
FACTOR LOADINGS: Correlations of the original, specific scores
with the factors
UNIPOLAR: scaled from zero to some large amount
BIPOLAR: having two opposing poles.
ORTHOGONAL ROTATION: Eysenck
OBLIQUE ROTATION: Cattell
EMOTIONAL CORRELATES
Extraversion was positively related to emotional well-being
-Neuroticism has been negatively related to emotional well-being
-People high in extraversion and low in neuroticism were
genetically predisposed to emotional stability
-The depression facet of neuroticism and the positive
emotions/cheerfulness facet of extraversion are the most
consistent predictors of general life satisfaction and emotional
well-being
-Women who scored high on extraversion and openness to
experience were significantly more likely to experience positive
life events
-Women who scored high on neuroticism were significantly more
likely to experience negative life events
BEHAVIOR CORRELATES
People high in openness tend to have a wide range of intellectual
interests and to seek challenges; they are more likely to change
jobs, try different careers, and expect more varied life experiences
-People high in conscientiousness tend to be reliable, responsible,
punctual, efficient, and dependable, and usually earn better
grades
-People high in agreeableness were found to be cooperative,
helpful, altruistic, honest, and selfless
Factor A: incorporates agreeableness, conscientiousness, and
emotional stability and includes a constellation of traits that are
considered socially desirable in many cultures
-Factor B: includes extraversion and an independent factor
designated as intellect, which refers to creative and divergent
thinking and openness to new ideas
ALBERT BANDURA: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY CHANCE ENCOUNTERS & FORTUITOUS EVENTS
Enter the triadic reciprocal causation paradigm at the
Criticized Skinners emphasis on individual animal subjects rather environment point, after which they influence behavior in much
than on human subjects interacting with one another the same way as do planned events
Investigates behavior as it is formed and modified in a social HUMAN AGENCY
context The essence of humanness; humans are defined by their ability to
Virtually all forms of behavior can be learned without directly organize, regulate, and enact behaviors that they believe will
experiencing any reinforcement produce desirable consequences
Recognizes that chance encounters and fortuitous events often Core features:
shape ones behavior o Intentionality
Places more emphasis on observational learning o Foresight
Stresses the importance of cognitive factors in learning o Self-reactiveness
Suggests human activity is a function of behavior and person o Self-reflectiveness
variables as well as the environment SELF-EFFICACY:
Believes that reinforcement is mediated by cognition o Beliefs that they can or cannot exercise those
People learn through observing others and people can learn in the behaviors necessary to bring about a desired
absence of reinforcement and even of a response consequence. Differ from outcome expectations
The focus on learning by observation or example, rather than o Four sources:
always by direct reinforcement is a distinctive feature of Banduras Mastery experiences
theory Social modeling
-Bandura believes that internal cognitive (thought processes) or Social persuasion
cognitive processes can influence observational learning Physical and emotional states
-We do not automatically imitate the behaviors we see other o High self-efficacy and a responsive environment are the
people displaying; rather, we make a deliberate, conscious best predictors of successful outcomes
decision to behave in the same way PROXY AGENCY
-No direct link exists between stimulus and response or between Through which people exercise some partial control over everyday
behavior and reinforce; our cognitive processes mediate between living
the two COLLECTIVE EFFICACY
-Banduras theory is based on rigorous laboratory research with Level of confidence that people have that their combined efforts
normal people in social interaction will produce social change
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 4 factors can lower collective efficacy:
Learning new responses by observing the behavior of other Events in other parts of the world can leave people
people with a sense of helplessness
Modeling: simple imitation. Complex technology can decrease peoples perceptions
o Adding subtracting from observed behavior of control over their environment
3 principles influence modeling: Entrenched bureaucracies discourage people from
o Model high-status people attempting to bring about social change
o People who lack skill/status are most likely to model Size and scope of worldwide problems contribute to
o People tend to model behavior they see as being peoples sense of powerlessness
rewarding to the model EXTERNAL FACTORS IN SELF REGULATION
4 processes that govern observational learning: Standards of evaluation
o Attention noticing what a model does External reinforcement
o Representation symbolically representing new External factors affect self-regulation by providing people with
response standards for evaluating their own behavior
o Behavior production producing the behavior that one INTERNAL FACTORS IN SELF REGULATION
observes Self-observation of performance
o Motivation observer must be motivated to perform Judging or evaluating performance
the observed behavior Self-reaction
ENACTIVE LEARNING o Self-reinforcement/ self-punishment
Whether that consequence reinforces the behavior depends on SELF REGULATION THROUGH MORAL AGENCY
the persons cognitive evaluation of the situation Internalized self-sanctions prevent people from violating their own
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT moral standards either through:
Learning or strengthening a behavior by observing the behavior of o Selective activation notion that self-regulatory
others and the consequences of that behavior, rather than influences are not automatic but operate only if
experiencing the reinforcement or consequences directly activated. People react differently in different situation
MODELING o Disengagement of internal control
earning can occur through observation or example rather than People are capable of separating
solely by direct reinforcement themselves from the negative
-He argues that operant conditioning, in which trial-and-error consequences of their behavior.
behavior continues until the person happens upon the correct
response, is an inefficient and potentially dangerous way to learn DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR
skills such as swimming/driving. DEPRESSION
o Underestimate their successes and overestimate their
-To Bandura, most human behavior is learned through example,
either intentionally or accidentally; we learn by observing others failures
and patterning our behavior after theirs o Set personal standards too high
DISINHIBITION: the weakening of constraints by observing the o Treat themselves badly for their faults
behavior of a model PHOBIAS
TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION o Direct contact
Human functioning is molded by: o Inappropriate generalization
o Behavior o Observational experiences
o Personal factors AGGRESSION
o Environment events o Tends to foster more aggression
GOAL OF THERAPY High on practicality
To learn to self-regulate Very high on internal consistency
3 levels of treatment: Very high on parsimony
o Induction of change CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
o Generalization of change to other appropriate Freechoice
situations Optimism
o Maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors Equal causality and teleology
o Systematic desensitization Conscious
CRITICISMS Social factors
Very high on generating research Uniqueness
High on falsifiability (good construct)
High on organizing data
GEORGE KELLY: PSYCHOLGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS FRAGMENTATION
Peoples behavior can be inconsistent because their
Kellys description of personality in terms of cognitive processes. construct systems can readily admit incompatible
We are capable of interpreting behaviors and events and of using elements
this understanding to guide our behavior and to predict the 4 COMMON ELEMENTS IN HUMAN DISTURBANCES
behavior of other people THREAT
We interpret and organize the events and social relationships of Ones basic constructs may be drastically changed
our lives in a system or pattern; within this pattern, we make FEAR
predictions about ourselves and about other people and events, Incidental rather than comprehensive restructuring of
and we use these predictions to formulate our responses and ones construct system
guide our actions ANXIETY
Our interpretation of events is more important than the events One cannot adequately deal with a new situation
themselves GUILT
Kelly was opposed to the behavioral and psychoanalytic Sense of having lost ones core role structure
approaches to the study of personality; behaviorism viewed ASSESSMENT
people as merely passive responder to events in their FIXED ROLE THERAPY
environment, psychoanalysis viewed people as passive responders o Clients act out a predetermined role for several weeks,
to their unconscious forces by playing the part of a psychologically healthy person,
Kellys personality theory derived from his clinical experience; client may discover previously hidden aspects of
people function in the same way scientists do: themselves
Like scientists, all of us construct theories, which Kelly called REP TEST
personal constructs, by which we try to predict and control the o To discover ways in which clients construe significant
events in our lives people in their lives
Kellys theory had little influence on cognitive psychology; not part o Clients place names of people they now on a repertory
of the mainstream cognitive psychology grid in order to identify both similarities and
CONSTRUCTIVE ALTERNATIVISM differences among these people.
Believed that all our interpretations of the world are subject to REFLECTIONS
revision or replacement His theory did not build on or derive from other theories
Observations that are valid at one time may be false at a later time Emerged from his interpretation of data from his clinical practice
PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS Kellys system focuses on intellectual and rational aspects of
Believed that people look at their world through templates that human functioning to the exclusion of emotional aspects
they create and then attempt to fit over the realities of the world To other psychologists, Kellys rational being seems to be an ideal
This shape our behavior that exists in the abstract but not in reality
BASIC POSTULATE: His viewpoint was unrepresentative: it was limited largely to
o HUMAN BEHAVIOR IS SHAPED BY THE WAY PEOPLE Midwestern young adults in the process of defining a construct
ANTICIPATE THE FUTURE system that would help them cope with college life
11 COROLLARIES Kellys work was unpopular in the U.S.:
CHOICE Too different from prevailing ideas
Choose alternative dichotomized construct Published few books, articles, case studies, devoting most of his
COMMONALITY time to clinical work
Tend to be similar to the construction systems of other CRITICISMS
CONSTRUCTION Moderate to strong on generating research
Construe similar events as if they were the same Low on falsifiability
MODULATION Low on organizing data
Only permeable constructs are subject to change Low on guiding action
ORGANIZATION High internal consistency
Organize in hierarchical system High parsimony
DICHOTOMY CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
People construe in either/or manner Freedom
EXPERIENCE Optimism
Continually revise personal constructs as the result of Teleological
their experiences Conscious
SOCIALITY Social
Communicate with other people because they can Uniqueness
construe those peoples constructions
INDIVIDUALITY
Construe the same event in different ways
RANGE
Constructs are limited to a particular range of
convenience
JULIAN ROTTER: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Youngest of three brothers
The Depression instilled in him a lesson about personality and
behavior and how they were affected by situational conditions
After reading about psychoanalysis by Freud and Adler he would
interpret the dreams of his friends and decided he wanted to
become a psychologist
Met Adler at Brooklyn College
Accepted a position at Ohio State under George Kelly
Rotter advanced his social-learning approach to personality
Large-scale research program reported a strong relationship
between Rotters concept of locus of control and Banduras
concept of self-efficacy
A major difference between the two concepts is that locus of
control can be generalized over many situations whereas self-
efficacy tends to be specific to a particular situation
INTERACTIONIST THEORY
Humans interact with their meaningful environments
Human personality is learned, which is subject to change or can be
modified as long as people are capable of learning
Personality has a basic unity, which suggest that personality has
some basic stability
Motivation is goal directed
People are capable of anticipating events, thus they are capable of
changing their environments and their personalities
PREDICTING SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS FACTORS
BEHAVIOR POTENTIAL
o The possibility that a particular response will occur at a
given time and place in relation to its likely
reinforcement
EXPECTANCY
o Peoples expectancy in any given situation is their
confidence that a particular reinforcement will follow a
specific behavior in a specific situations
o Can either be general or specific and the overall
likelihood of success is a function of both generalized
and specific expectancies
REINFORCEMENT VALUE
o Is a persons preference for any particular
reinforcement over other reinforcement if all are
equally likely to occur
o Internal reinforcement individuals perception of an
event
o External reinforcement societys evaluation of an
event
o Reinforcement-reinforcement sequences the value
of an event is a function of ones expectation that a
particular reinforcement will lead to future
reinforcements
PSYCHOLOGICAL SITUATION
o Part of the external and internal world to which a
person is responding
o Behavior is a function of the interaction of people with
their meaningful environment
BASIC PREDICTION FORMULA
o The potential for a behavior to occur in a particular
situation in relation to a given reinforcement is a
function of peoples expectancy that their behavior will
be followed by that reinforcement in that situation
PREDICTING GENERAL BEHAVIORS
GENERALIZED EXPECTANCIES
o Their expectations based on similar past experiences
that a given behavior will be reinforced
o Ex. Peoples needs that is, behaviors that move them
toward a goal
NEEDS
o Recognition-status the need to excel, achieve and
recognize ones worth
o Dominance need to control the behavior of others,
gain power
o Independence free from domination of others
o Protection-dependence the need to have others take
care of us and to protect us from harm
o Love and affection needs to be warmly accepted by
others
o Physical comfort aimed at securing food, good
health, physical security
o Need potential possible occurrences of a set of
functionally related behaviors directed toward the
satisfaction of similar goals
o Freedom of movement persons overall expectation
GENERAL PREDICTION FORMULA
o need potential is a function of freedom movement and
need value
o internal-External Control Scale
measure the degree to which people
perceive a causal relationship between their
own efforts and environmental
consequences
o Interpersonal Trust Scale
Measures the extent to which a person
expects the word or promise of another
person to be true.
MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Any persistent behavior that fails to move a person closer to
desired goal
The result of unrealistically high goals in combination with low
ability to achieve them
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Change the clients goals
Eliminate the clients low expectations for success
WALTER MISCHEL: COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM
Believes that cognitive factors are important in shaping
personality
He advanced the notion that behavior is also a function of
relatively stable cognitive-affective units
CONSISTENCY PARADOX
o Although both lay people and professionals tend to
believe that behavior is quite consistent, research
suggests that it is not
o There is little evidence to suggest that traits are
consistent from one situation to another
PERSON SITUATION INTERACTION
o He believes that behavior is best predicted from an
understanding of the person, situation and the
interaction between person and situation
COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM
He recognizes that inconsistent behaviors reflect stable patterns of
variation within a person.
If A, then X; but if B, then Y.
Peoples pattern of variability behavioral signature/ unique and
stable pattern of behaving differently in different situation
Peoples behavior may vary as situations vary
COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE UNITS
Encoding strategies
Competencies and self-regulatory strategies
Expectancies and beliefs
Subjective goals and values
Affective responses
B.F SKINNER: BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
Skinner argued that psychologists must restrict their investigations
to facts, to what they can see, manipulate, and measure in the
laboratory
Exclusive emphasis on the overt responses a subject makes and
nothing more
Psychology is the science of behavior, of what an organism does
The research for his behavioral approach used rats and pigeons
Edward L. Thorndike
o Has roots in modern learning theory
o Law of effect: responses followed by a satisfied tend to
be learned, a concept that anticipated skinners use of
positive reinforcement to shape behavior
John B. Watson
o Psychology must deal with the control and prediction
of behavior and that behavior is the basic data of
scientific psychology
LIFE OF SKINNER
Adult behaviors were determined by the rewards and
punishments (the reinforcements) he had received as a child
Viewed people as machines
Went through Eriksons identity crisis
His fundamental idea is that behavior can be controlled by its
consequences
BEHAVIORISM
Believed that human behavior is subject to the laws of science
Argued psychologists should be concerned with determining the
conditions under which human behavior occurs
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE:
o Findings are cumulative
o Rests on attitude that values empirical observation
o It searches for order and reliable relationships
RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR
o Responses made to or elicited by specific
environmental stimuli (knee jerk)
REINFORCEMENT
o The act of strengthening a response by adding a
reward, thus increasing the likelihood that the
response will be repeated
o PAVLOV: Pavlovs fundamental law of learning: A
conditioned response cannot be established in the
absence of reinforcement ; The act of reinforcing a
response strengthens it and increases the likelihood
that the response will be repeated
EXTINCTION
o The process of eliminating a behavior by withholding
reinforcement
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
A conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus
until is capable of bringing about a previously unconditioned
response.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
The procedure by which a change in the consequences of a
response will affect the rate at which the response occurs
Skinner believed that most human and animal behavior is learned
through operant conditioning
Skinner conceived of personality as a pattern or collection of
operant behaviors
3 FACTORS ESSENTIAL IN OPERANT CONDITIONING:
o ANTECEDENT/ENVIRONMENT which behavior takes
place
o BEHAVIOR/RESPONSE
o CONSEQUENCE
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
o Stimulus that when added to a situation increases the
probability that a given behavior will occur
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
o Strengthening of behavior through the removal of an
aversive stimulus
PUNISHMENT
o Any event that decreases a behavior either by
presenting an aversive stimulus or by removing a
positive one
CONDITIONED REINFORCERS
o Those stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but can
become so when they are associated with primary
reinforcers
GENERALIZED REINFORCERS
o Conditioned reinforcers that have become associated
with several primary reinforcers
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
FIXED INTERVAL
o the reinforcer is presented following the first response
that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
o The shorter the interval between presentations of the
reinforce, the greater the frequency of response; The
response rate declined as the interval between
reinforcements lengthened
FIXED RATIO
o Reinforcers are given only after the organism has made
a specific number of responses; the presentation of
reinforcers depends on how often the subject responds
and this reinforcement schedule brings about a faster
response than does the fixed-interval schedule
VARIABLE INTERVAL
o he reinforce might appear after 2 hours in the first
instance, 1.5 hours the next time, and 2.5 hours the
third time. The reinforcement schedule is determined
by the random appearance of reinforcers
VARIABLE RATIO
o based on the average number of responses between
reinforcers; effective in bringing about high and stable
response rates
o Variable reinforcement schedules result in enduring
response behaviors that tend to resist extinction
SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION
Successive approximation (shaping): An explanation for the
acquisition of complex behavior. Behavior such as learning to
speak will be reinforced only as it comes to approximate or
approach the final desired behavior
SELF-CONTROL OF BEHAVIOR
Self-control: The ability to exert control over the variables that
determine our behavior; acting to alter the impact of external
events
o Stimulus avoidance: By avoiding a person or situation
that makes you angry, you reduce the control that
person or situation has over your behavior
o Self-administered satiation: We exert control to cure
ourselves of bad habits by overdoing the behavior
o Adverse stimulation: Involves unpleasant or repugnant
consequences
o Self-reinforcement: we reward ourselves for displaying
good or desirable behaviors
HUMAN ORGANISM
NATURAL SELECTION
o Our behavior is shaped by the contingencies of
survival that were beneficial to the human species to
survive
CULTURAL EVOLUTION
o Those societies that evolved certain cultural practices
tended to survive
INNERSTATES
o Drives effects of deprivation and satiation and thus
are related to the probability of certain behaviors, but
they are not the causes of behavior
o Emotions accounted for by the contingencies of
survival and the reinforcement
o Purpose and intention not causes of behavior
although they are felt
APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Behavior modification: A form of therapy that applies the
principles of reinforcement to bring about desired behavioral
changes
Token economy: A behavior modification technique in which
tokens, which can be exchanged for valued objects or privileges,
are awarded for desirable behavior
QUESTIONS ABOUT HUMAN NATURE
Nature/Nurture: people are primarily products of learning, shaped
more by external variables than genetic factors
We may infer that childhood experiences are more important in
Skinners view than are later life experiences because our basic
behaviors are formed in childhood
Unique/Universal: Skinners belief that behavior is shaped by
learning also leads us to conclude that each person is unique
because we are shaped by experience and we all have different
experiences, particularly in childhood
No ultimate and necessary goal
Free will/Determinism: People function like machines, in lawful,
orderly, predetermined ways
We are not victimsalthough controlled by our environment, we
are responsible for designing that environment
HENRY MURRAY: PERSONOLOGY
Designed an approach to personality that includes conscious and
unconscious forces; the influence from the past, present, and
future; and the impact of physiological and sociological forces
The influence of Freudian psychoanalysis can be seen in Murrays
recognition of the effect on adult behavior of childhood
experiences and in his notions of the id, ego, and superego.
His system is classified within the neo-Freudians
Two distinctive features:
sophisticated approach to human needs: proposed list of needs is
widely used in personality research and assessment in clinical
treatment
data source on which he based his theory: come from so-called
normal individuals instead of those undergoing psychotherapy;
some data were derived from more empirically based laboratory
procedures rather than from case histories
LIFE OF MURRAY
Contained maternal rejection
Elements of Adlerian compensation for physical defect
Supernormal sensitivity to the sufferings of others
Some of his earliest recollections focused on his privileged
background
Insisted that his mothers actions of weaning him too early led to
his lifelong depression, a condition that formed the core of his
personality
Referred to his depression and a source of misery and melancholy
Murray was afflicted with crossed eyes
Murrays physical ineptness and a speech impediment drove him
to compensate for his limitations
Was influenced by Carl Jung
1927 Morton Prince offered Murray an appointment
1930s: Murray and Morgan developed the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT), still one of the most widely used
projective measures of personality
Initially it was thought was primarily Murrays work, but in 1985,
Murray revealed that Morgan had done most of the work to
develop the test. The original idea for the test had come from one
of his women students
Morgan was dropped from the publication of the TAT, leaving
Murray as the sole author
1938: Murray published Explorations in Personality: A Clinical and
Experimental Study of Fifty Men of College Age
This book assured his almost instant success as a leading
personality theorist; boosted the efforts begun by Gordon Allport
the year before to make the study of personality an academically
respectable part of American psychology
PRINCIPLES OF PERSONOLOGY
PERSONOLOGY (Murrays system of personality
1. Personality is rooted in the brain
the individuals cerebral physiology guides and governs
every aspect of the personalitya simple example is
that certain drugs can alter the functioning of the brain
and thus the personality
2. Involves the idea of tension reduction.
Murray agreed with Freud that people act to reduce
physiological and psychological tension, but this does
not mean we strive for a tension-free state
It is the process of acting to reduce tension that is
satisfying, rather than the attainment of a condition
free of all tension
Murray believed that a tension-free existence is itself a
source of distress; we need excitement, activity, and
movement, all of which involve increasing, not
decreasing tension. We generate tension in order to
have the satisfaction of reducing it.
Murray believed the ideal state of human nature
involves always having a certain level of tension to
reduce
3. An individuals personality continues to develop over time
is constructed of all the events that occur during the
course of that persons life, therefore the study of a
persons past is of great importance
4. Involves the idea that personality changes and progresses; it is
not fixed or static
5. Murray emphasized the uniqueness of each person while
recognizing similarities among all people. The individual human
being is like no other person, like some people, and like every
other person.
DIVISIONS OF PERSONALITY
ID
o Contains desirable impulses such as empathy and love
o Provides energy and direction to behavior and is
concerned with motivation
SUPEREGO
o Not only shaped by parents and authority figures but
also from the peer group and culture
o Not rigidly crystallized by age 5 but it continues to
develop throughout life
o Not always conflict with the ID because ID contains
good forces as well as bad ones
o Thus superego must try to thwart the socially
unacceptable impulses
o Ego ideal: A component of the superego that contains
the moral or ideal behaviors for which a person should
strive. The ego-ideal represents what we could become
at our best and is the sum of our ambitions and
aspirations
EGO
o Conscious organizer of behavior
o Broader conception than Freuds
o Rational governor of the personality that tries to
modify or delay the ids unacceptable impulses
o Consciously plans courses of action
o Foster by organizing and directing the expression of
acceptable id impulses
NEEDS
Murrays most important contribution to theory and research in
personality is his use of the concept of needs to explain the
motivation and direction of behavior
A need involves a physiochemical force in the brain that organizes
and directs intellectual and perceptual abilities.
Needs may arise either from internal processes such as hunger or
thirst, or from event in the environment
Needs arouse a level of tension; the organism tries to reduce this
tension by acting to satisfy needsneeds energize and direct
behavior; they activate behavior in the appropriate direction to
satisfy the needs
ABASEMENT TO SUBMIT PASSIVELY TO EXTERNAL FORCE
ACHIEVEMENT TO ACCOMPLISH SOMETHING DIFFICULT
AFFILIATION TO ADHERE AND REMAIN LOYAL TO A FRIEND
AGGRESSION TO FIGHT, ATTACK, INJURE OR KILL
AUTONOMY TO GET FREE, SHAKE OFF RESTRAINT OR BREAK OUR OF
CONFINEMENT
COUNTERACTION TO MASTER OR MAKE UP FOR A FAILURE BY RESTRIVING
DEFENDANCE TO DEFEND THE SELF AGAINST ASSAULT, CRITICISM AND
BLAME
DEFERENCE TO ADMIRE AND SUPPORT A SUPERIOR OTHER
DOMINANCE TO CONTROL ONE'S ENVIRONMENT
EXHIBITION TO MAKE AN IMPRESSION
HARMAVOIDANCE TO AVOID PAIN, INJURY, ILLNESS AND DEATH
INFAVOIDANCE TO AVOID HUMILIATION
NURTURANCE TO GIVE SYMPATHY TO AND GRATIFY NEEDS OF HELPLESS
OTHER
ORDER TO PUT THINGS IN ORDER
PLAY TO ACT FOR FUN WITHOUT FURTHER PURPOSE
REJECTION TO EXLUDE, ABANDON, EXPEL, OR REMAIN INDIFFERENT
SENTIENCE TO SEEK AND ENJOY SENSUOUS IMPRESSIONS
SEX TO FORM EROTIC RELATIONSHIP
SUCCURANCE TO BE NURSED, SUPPORTED, SUSTAINED ETC.
UNDERSTANDING TO BE INCLINED TO ANALYZE EVENTS AND TO
GENERALIZE
TYPES OF NEEDS:
PRIMARY NEEDS (VISCEROGENIC NEEDS)
 Survival and related needs arising from internal bodily
processesfood, water, air, harm avoidance, sex,
sentience
SECONDARY NEEDS (PSYCHOGENIC NEEDS)
Emotional and psychological needs, such as
achievement and affiliation
They arise indirectly from primary needs, indescribably,
but have no specifiable origin within the body
They are called secondary not because they are less
important but because they develop after the primary
needs
REACTIVE NEEDS
Needs that involve a response to a specific object in
the environment and are aroused only when that
object appears
PROACTIVE NEEDS
Needs that arise spontaneously that elicit appropriate
behavior whenever they are aroused, independent of
the environment
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEEDS
NEEDS PREPOTENCY: needs differ in terms of the urgency with
which they impel behavior; if the needs for air and water are not
satisfied, they come to dominate behavior, taking precedence over
all other needs
FUSION OF NEEDS: Some needs are complementary and can be
satisfied by one behavior or a set of behaviors
SUBSIDIATION: To Murray, a situation in which one need is
activated to aid in the satisfaction of another need.
PRESS: The influence of the environment and past events on the
current activation of a need; Murray recognized that childhood
events can affect the development of specific needs and, later in
life, can activate those needs
THEMA: A combination of press (the environment) and need (the
personality) that brings order to our behavior.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
CLAUSTRAL STAGE
The simple claustral complex is experienced as a desire
to be in small, warm, dark places that are safe and
secluded. People with this complex tend to be
dependent on others, passive, and oriented toward
safe, familiar behaviors that worked in the past.
The insupport form of the claustral complex centers on
feelings of insecurity and helplessness that cause the
person to fear open spaces, falling, drowning, fires,
earthquakes, or simply any situation involving novelty
and change
The anti-claustral or egression form of the claustral
complex is based on a need to escape from restraining
womblike conditions; it includes a fear of suffocation
and confinement and manifests itself in a preference
for open spaces, fresh air, travel, movement, change,
and novelty
ORAL STAGE
The oral succorance complex features a combination of
mouth activities, passive tendencies, and the need to
be supported and protected. Behavioral manifestations
include sucking, kissing, eating, drinking, and a hunger
for affection, sympathy, protection, and love.
The oral aggression complex combines oral and
aggressive behaviors, including biting, spitting,
shouting, and verbal aggression such as sarcasm.
Behaviors include vomiting, being picky about food,
eating little, fearing oral contamination, desiring
seclusion, and avoiding dependence on others.
ANAL STAGE
In the anal rejection complex, there is a preoccupation
with defecation, anal humor, and feces-like material
such as dirt, mud, plaster, and clay. Aggression is often
part of this complex and is shown in dropping and
throwing things, firing guns, and setting off explosives.
Persons with this complex may be dirty and
disorganized.
The anal retention complex is manifested in
accumulating, saving, and collecting things, and in
cleanliness, neatness, and orderliness.
URETHRAL STAGE
The urethral complex is associated with excessive
ambition, a distorted sense of self-esteem,
exhibitionism, bedwetting, sexual cravings, and self-
love. It is sometimes called the Icarus complex, after
the mythical Greek figure. Persons with this complex
aim too high, and their dreams are shattered by failure
GENITAL OR CASTRATION STAGE
Murray disagreed with Freuds contention that fear of
castration is the core of anxiety in adult males.
The castration complex was viewed by Murray in a
narrower and more literal fashion as a boys fantasy
that his penis might be cut off. Murray believed such a
fear grows out of childhood masturbation and the
parental punishment that may have accompanied it.
ASSESSMENT
THE OSS ASSESSMENT PROGRAM
o Murray directed an assessment program for the OSS
o His goal was to select people to serve as spies and
saboteurs
o Potential candidates were given interviews and given
the Rorschach and the TAT projective tests and
questionnaires
o They were also given situational tests
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST
o The assessment technique most often associated with
Murray
o Consists of a set of ambiguous pictures depicting
simple scenes
o The person taking the test is asked to compose a story
that describes the people and objects in the picture,
including what might have led up to the situation and
what the people are thinking and feeling
o Murray derived this projective technique from Freuds
defense mechanism of projection
o The TAT is a device for assessing unconscious thoughts,
feelings, and fears
o Interpreting the responses is very subjective
o The information obtained should be used to
supplement data from more objective methods rather
than as a sole means of diagnosis.
o TAT criticisms: Lack of standardized procedures for
administration, scoring, and interpreting, low criterion-
related validity
Questions About Human Nature
-The ultimate and necessary goal in life (the reduction of tension) is
considered from a different perspective; our goal is not a tension-free state
but rather the satisfaction derived from acting to reduce the tension
-Murray argued that personality is determined by our needs and by the
environment; he accorded us some free will in our capacity to grow and
change; each person is unique, but there are also similarities in the
personalities of all of us
-Murray believed we are shaped by our inherited attributes and by our
environment
-Optimistic view of human nature; He criticized a psychology that projected a
negative and demeaning image of human beings
-He argued that, with our vast powers of creativity, imagination,
and reason, we are capable of solving any problem we face.
-Our orientation is largely toward the future
-Although Murray recognized the imprint of childhood
experiences on current behavior, he did not envision people as captives of
the past
-We can change through our rational and creative abilities and can reshape
our society as well
MELANIE KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
ORT
 Outgrowths of psychoanalytic theory that focus more on MARGARET MAHLER
relationships with the objects (such as the mother) that satisfy Normal autism:
instinctual needs, rather than on the needs themselves o 3 to 4 wks. of life
Although drive satisfaction is important, it is secondary to the o Infants satisfy their needs within the all-powerful
establishment of interrelationships. protective orbit of their mothers care
Object relations theorists accept social and environmental factors Normal symbiosis
as influences on personality, unlike Freud o Infants behave as if they and their mother were an
Place a particular emphasis on the mother-child relationship, omnipotent, symbiotic unit
suggesting that the core of personality is formed in infancy Separation individuation
Object relations theorists tend to agree that the crucial issue in o 4 months until 3 years
personality development is the childs growing ability to become o Children are becoming psychologically separated from
increasingly independent of its primary object: the mother. their mothers and achieving individuation or a sense of
They also see the emergence in the early years of a strong sense personal identity
of self and the maturing of relations with objects other than the HEINZ KOHUT
mother. His emphasis is on the formation of the nuclear self, which he
MELANIE KLEIN described as the foundation for becoming an independent person,
Believed that infants begin life with an inherited predisposition to capable of taking initiative and integrating ambitions and ideals.
reduce the anxiety that they experience as a consequence of the The nuclear self develops from the relationships that form
clash between the life instinct and death instinct between the infant and so called self objects in the environment
FANTASIES These self objects are the people who play such a vital role in our
Very young infants possess an active, unconscious fantasy life lives that, as infants, we believe they are part of our selves
Good and bad breast Typically the mother is the infants primary self object; suggests
OBJECTS that her role is to gratify not only the childs physical needs but
Klein agreed with Freud that drives have an object but also the psychological needs
emphasized more the childs relationship with these objects which Viewed his work as an expansion or extension of Freuds
she saw as having a life of their own within the childs fantasy
world JOHN BOWLBYS ATTACHMENT THEORY
POSITIONS PROTEST
PARANOID-SCHIZOID APATHY AND DESPAIR
A desire to harbor the beast and a desire to bite or EMOTIONAL DETACHMENT
destroy it
Tendency to see the world as having both destructive MARY AINSWORTH
and omnipotent qualities SECURE ATTACHMENT
DEPRESSIVE o show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are
The anxiety that infants experience around 6 months of able to compose themselves knowing that their
age over losing their mother and yet at the same time, caregiver will return
wanting to destroy her ANXIOUS RESISTANT
PSYCHIC DEFENSE MECHANISIMS o distressed when the mother disappears, but angry
INTROJECTION when she reappears in the room
Fantasy of taking into ones own body the images that ANXIOUS AVOIDANT
one has of an external object o They do not seek contact with the attachment figure
PROJECTION when distressed.
Ones feelings and impulses reside within another
person
SPLITTING
Tolerate good and bad aspects of themselves and of
external objects by splitting incompatible images
PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION
Infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves,
project them onto another object and finally introject
them in
INTERNALIZATIONS
EGO
Ego emerges only after first splitting itself into the two
parts- those that deal with the life instinct and those
that relate to the death instinct
SUPEREGO
Emerged much earlier than Freud
Superego preceded rather than followed the Oedipus
complex
OEDIPUS COMPLEX
Begins during the first few months of life
3-4 years of age
Much of Oedipus complex is based on childrens fear
that their parents will seek revenge against them for
their fantasy of emptying the parents body
Male Oedipus complex: little boy adopts a feminine
position and projects his destructive drive onto his
father whom he fears will bite or castrate him
Female Oedipus complex: little girl adopts a feminine
position toward both parents, sometimes develop
hostility toward her mother whom she fears will
retaliate against her and rob her of her babies.