CLE RESEARCH BRIEF

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext

begin, as it does in Harvey, Godshalk, and Milheims (2004)
sexual harassment CFH, with the user entering the site,
encountering an introduction to the problem or task, and then
What is it? navigating among the themes and perspectives in all cases or
Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext (CFH) is a web-based
choosing instead to utilize one actors viewpoint within a specific
constructivist learning environment that supports self-directed,
case (p. 216). In a CFH on climate change, for example, CFH
case-oriented exploration of a complex subject. The pedagogical
structure and learning activities might encourage learners to
model stems from Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT), which aims
explore the differing perspectives of a scientist and a politician,
to help learners gain depth of understanding of ill-structured
access articles that present an economic or an ecological view of
domains and apply knowledge flexibly to real-world problems,
the problem, move in a nonlinear manner accessing content, and
through exposure to multiple perspectives. The model grew out of
construct knowledge through activities such as writing an analysis
work by Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich, and Anderson in the late 1980s
from the point of view of a political aide.
preparing medical students for the problems of real-world practice.
The researchers, concerned by students tendency to oversimplify
complex domains, proposed CFH as a model with the structural
and technological capacity to support CFT principles.
Hypermedias non-linear presentation of knowledgeand its Who is doing it?
capacity for selection of multiple isolated facets of a conceptual Spiros and his colleagues experimentation with CFHs began 30
landscapeprovided the needed flexibility (Spiro & Jeng, 1990; years ago using self-contained media such as videodiscs (Spiro,
Jacobson & Spiro, 1995). Godshalk, Harvey, and Moller (2004) Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1992, 1992, pp. 68-70). Followers
extended that work by showing the potential impact of a CFH on like Godshalk (and her colleagues) published research on website-
learners beliefs and attitudes. The CFH model thus centers on based projects in 2001 and 2004 with CFHs centered on jury
building nuanced intellectual and affective understanding of decision-making, policy dilemmas, and the issue of sexual
complex subjects and facilitating transfer to a range of real-world harassment (Harvey, Godshalk, & Milheim, 2001; Godshalk,
contexts (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1992). As users Harvey, & Moller, 2004). The maturity of broadband internet and
navigate hypermedia content, they construct domain knowledge user-friendly CMSs has ushered in many more recent CFH
and may at the same time test existing beliefs. While traversing the initiativesas well as efforts to define and standardize how a CFH
CFH landscape, learners assemble thematic views that emphasize website should be developed (Chiu, 2007). From the mid-aughts to
common structures of cases, as well as accessing actor perspectives the present, examples of CFHs span an array of domains and
that show disparate viewpoints. In a well-constructed CFH, the educational settings. Experimentation and scholarship related to
many navigation paths and views mirror the myriad ways of CFHs include the following broad spectrum of projects:
understanding thorny, real-world problems and dilemmas (Peng & A Brazilian business school project, Panteon,
Fitzgerald, 2006; Spiro, 1995). demonstrated how hypermedia could contribute to the
Harvard Business School case-based model (Lima,
Koehler, & Spiro, 2004).
Peng and Fitzgerald (2006) documented robust
How does it work? applications for cognitive flexibility in teacher training.
A CFH serves up a relevant, case-based content repository Cernusca (2007) adapted the CFH model to provide
according to criss-crossed navigation that allows learners to scaffolding for the alternative interpretations proposed by
access themes and perspectives common across cases (Harvey, biblical criticism methodologies.
Godshalk, & Milheim, (2001), pp. 214-215). Chiu (2007), Jonassen (2011) developed CFH programs for geography
attempting to transform pedagogical principles into operational and sociology coursesthe courses included role-playing
criteria for website development, drew from the work of Spiro and simulations in which learners accessed cases and
his followers. He observed that a well-functioning CFH is perspectives to solve a series of domain-related problems.
architected around two principal functions: multiple modes of Barhoumi and Rossi (2013) advocated for CFH course
learning (MM) and multiple perspectives on learning (MP) (pp. 34- design over direct (non-hypertext) instruction in technical
35). MM requires that the same learning content presenting e-learning courses for university undergraduates.
concepts and their relationships [be] represented in different Korean dental students learned tenets of dental
forms, while MP dictates that the same abstract concept is anesthesiology through a CFH featuring case studies and
explained, used, and appliedin a diversity of examples of use, expert modeling processes (Choi, Hong, Park, & Lee,
exercises, and case studies (Chiu, 2007, p. 35). Learning might 2013).
GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY

Maureen Hannan EDIT730

CLE RESEARCH BRIEF
Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
How effective is it?
Early research on CFH points to the models effectiveness for
helping learners avoid oversimplification of complex subject
matter (Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich, & Anderson, 1992). Regarding
CFHs effectiveness for facilitating knowledge transfer, : Jacobson
and Spiro (1995) presented early compelling findings of increased
transfer of new knowledge and skills, while Harvey, Godshalk, and
Milheim (2001), without disputing those findings, suggested
CFHs greatest effectiveness may lie in the affective domain of
beliefs and attitudes. Those who use CFHs most successfully tend
to be advanced learners adept at finding information (Shapiro &
Niederhauser, 2003). Some interesting research findings on
hypermedias effectiveness relate to its use within a problem-based CFHs effectiveness in altering learner beliefs suggests pre- and
learning environment, with ample scaffolding of content (Su &
Klein, 2010).
The research on CFHLs effectiveness beg the question, what
measures are best applied to a model designed to build depth of
understanding, affective change, and engagement with learning
materials? In their 2013 study, Dabbagh and Dass offered time
spent navigating content as one metricand showed learners spent reflection on their learning.
significantly longer navigating heterarchical (networked as
opposed to hierarchical) case designs (p. 162). They also
summarized CFHs peculiar kind of effectiveness, noting CFH
case problems did not lead to concrete solutions or products.
Instead, CFH case problems evoked internal or tacit outcomes and The following CFH concept is based on the Effective Altruism
changes in understandings that cannot be readily detected or
measured. Those changes relate to raised awareness and the
ability to develop informed opinions on difficult issues (p. 172).
What are the implications for
instructional design?
The purpose of a CFH is to provide an interactive, multi-faceted
learner experience via the presentation of cases, themes, and
perspectives, therefore, the instructional design of a CFH
environment should reflect that function. Below is an outline
presenting hallmarks of CFH (adapted from Dabbagh and Bannan- a website whose content consists of different charitable
Ritlands 2005 summary), followed by a number of learning
outcomes and activities those characteristics suggest:
Provides multiple perspectives. Learning outcomes
should focus on building an appreciation for both
similarities and differences in perspective. Activities
should be character-based, offering realistic narratives or
summaries of particular characters points of view.
Content should provide plenty of room for comparison
and contrast of character perspectives.
Promotes theme-based and case-based learning via
hypermedia. Provides learning of complex content and
March 26, 2017
concepts. Learning outcomes should relate to synthesis
using the thematic slices of cases to try to build
conceptual schemas that can inform and guide the
problem-solving process. Activities should involve
application of higher-order cognitive skills from Blooms
Taxonomy (e.g., analysis, synthesis) to combinations of
case narratives and isolated thematic views.
Encourages cognitive flexibility by varying the
temporal and conceptual presentation of the content.
Promotes transfer of knowledge to real-world
contexts. Learning outcomes should center on negotiating
solutions relevant to real-world problems and developing
a flexible understanding of the subject, with time for
reflection and re-engaging with material of interest.
Activities might include proposing and exploring
additional research topics or composing discussion forum
posts on solutions from varying perspectives.
post-assessments should be administered to document attitude
change. As a yardstick, responses to the same survey by an outside
expert practitioner may be helpful (Godshalk, Harvey, & Moller,
2004, p. 520). Since CFH is largely a self-guided experience,
knowledge-related assessments should be done in relation to the
learners own concerns, individual learning objectives, and
Scenario
movement led by philosopher William MacAskill, with
proposed cases based upon the cases and arguments he
presents in his 2015 book Doing Good Better.
Adults seeking to begin or expand charitable giving plans are
accustomed to consulting popular charity report cards that
focus on overhead-to-impact ratios but fail to give a holistic,
nuanced understanding of the relative importance of the
charitable mission itself and the potential impact of each dollar
donated. At a one-day community education seminar, the
seminar leader asks participants to prepare an argument for
giving to one of a dozen or so possible charities.
In order to accomplish this task, participants are invited to visit
mission cases, perspectives of multiple donor characters of
different ages and situations, links to data on current high-
priority relief efforts, and detailed charity profiles.
Participants will also be provided with links to the charities
websites, the Twitter feeds of their leaders, and relevant
hashtags for current high-priority international relief efforts.
After outlining an argument for a particular charity,
participants will engage in discussion with one another. By the
end of the session, each will present a brief oral argument for
their winning charity.
CLE RESEARCH BRIEF March 26, 2017

Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext

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