Chapter 4.

3 541

Conveying Systems

by Leslie C. Bartholomew*

The cement industry relies heavily on conveyers for effective transportation of materials between
different workstations and unit operations at a given plant site. The transportation typically
includes:
raw materials to mill processing and blending silos
raw feed to the kiln operation
clinker from the clinker cooler to finish milling (or to storage areas), and
cement from the mill to storage silos

Selection of the correct conveying system for a specific application in the cement manufacturing
process is complicated by the large number of interrelated factors that must be considered. A
typical belt conveyer transporting limestone from a quarry is shown in Figure 4.3.1. Conveyor
selection is more of an art than a science; problems involving material characteristics should be
approached with caution. This chapter will introduce the various types of conveyors, their
selection process, operational considerations, and future trends in the industry.

Figure 4.3.1. View of belt conveyer transporting limestone form quarry with close-up of belt
configuration.

*Technical Applications Manager, F.L.Smidth Inc., Pneumatic Transport Systems, 2040 Avenue C,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18017, (610) 264-6563
542 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

CRITERIA FOR CONVEYOR TYPE SELECTION

Some individuals try to limit the selection criteria only to power consumption and initial cost, but
there are a number of other important criteria that must be considered when designing and select-
ing the proper conveying equipment.

Mode of Operation
When specifying a conveying system it is important to understand the mode of operation. Typical
modes are as follows:

Batch. Typically, the conveyor is not operated for a large percentage of time and does not have to
start under full load. This is the least demanding of all modes.

Intermittent. Here, the conveyor starts and stops in a repetitive fashion; therefore, it is normally
started under full load.

Continuous. Here, the conveyor will operate for long intervals of time without stopping.
Although it should not normally start under full load, it must be able to do so in the event of an
unplanned shutdown.

Feeder. A feeder controls the feed rate from a hopper or bin and has increasing capacity per unit
length, whereas a conveyor simply conveys whatever is fed onto it, and has a constant capacity per
unit length. Both belts and screws can be used as feeders. Both are inherently volumetric, but both
can be made into gravimetric devices with the addition of load cells. Material characteristics are
particularly important in the selection and design of feeders. Feeders typically have variable speed
drives.

Capacity Requirement
The capacity requirement of a specific application is a primary factor in conveyor selection. Belt
conveyors, for example, can be manufactured in large sizes and operate at high speed to provide
high capacities economically. However, screw conveyors can become cumbersome as they get larger
and cannot be operated at high speeds without causing serious maintenance problems.

Conveying Distance
The conveying distance is most definitely limited for certain types of conveying equipment. With
the latest technology in belt conveyor design, the length limits on belts can be a matter of kilome-
ters. Pneumatic conveyors are limited by the available power and air. Screw conveyors are manu-
factured to any length; however they are limited in length to 45 meters or so. In general, as the
required length of a conveyor increases, the choice among conveyors becomes smaller.
Conveying Systems 543

The Lift
Lift can usually be handled most economically by vertical or inclined bucket elevators or pneu-
matic lifts. However, when lift is combined with a horizontal travel requirement, other types of
conveyors must be considered, such as special belt conveyors. Conveyors that combine several
directions of travel in a single unit are generally more expensive; however, since they can save
space, reduce electrical wiring and provide the greatest flexibility, these features often compensate
for the additional base cost.

Material Characteristics
Material characteristics, both physical and chemical, must be considered. These include flowability,
abrasiveness, friability, lump size, density, temperature, and explosiveness. In some cases, corrosive
effects of the material may dictate the materials out of which the conveyor structure and/or
components are fabricated. Moisture effects from exposure to the atmosphere may affect how
material is conveyed. Obviously, certain types of conveyors lend themselves to special requirements
better than others.

Flexibility
Layout flexibility is a major consideration when choosing the right conveyor. Screw conveyors do
not handle changes in direction or elevation very well. Belt conveyors have the capability to change
direction and elevation within limits. Here a pneumatic system provides the type of layout flexibil-
ity required. Screw conveyors are well suited for multiple inlets and/or discharges. Through the use
of special skirtboard designs and discharge devices such as plows or trippers, flexibility can be
accomplished with belt conveyors but at much greater expense.

Environmental Considerations
All too often we overlook the environmental element when choosing a conveying system.
Conveyors requiring high capacity and/or long distance transfer may produce a dusting situation
creating an environmental problem, depending on the system location. Conveyors offering a
totally enclosed solution are the best choice. Screw conveyors are inherently enclosed, and can even
hold pressure to some extent. Belt conveyors can be completely enclosed, but this can be expensive
on long conveyors. Pneumatic pipeline conveying provides a means of transferring material with-
out the potential of material spillage.

Process Requirements
Since belt conveyors move material en masse, they are usually used strictly as conveyors and have
very limited use as processing equipment. Screw conveyors, however, can be used for such process
requirements as mixing, blending, heating, cooling, drying, and size reduction.
544 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

Safety Considerations
Personnel safety is something that must be considered with all rotating equipment. Screw convey-
ors typically are completely enclosed, so only drives and shaft extensions must be guarded. Screw
conveyors can also be designed to contain explosions when handling hazardous material such as
pulverized coal. Belt conveyors are generally open, and must be fitted with pinch point guards and
emergency pull chord switches.

As a general guide to select a conveyor, Table 4.3.1 indicates conveyor choices on the basis of some
common functions.

Table 4.3.1. Conveyors for Bulk Materials

Function Conveyor type
Conveying materials horizontally Belt, bucket, screw, pneumatic
Conveying materials up or down an incline Belt, screw, pneumatic
Elevating materials, vertically Bucket elevator, pneumatic
Handling materials over a combination horizontal
and vertical path Pneumatic, belt
Distributing materials to or collecting materials from
bins, bunkers, etc. Belt, screw, pneumatic
Removing material from rail cars, trucks, etc. Screws, belt, pneumatic

Selection of the correct conveyor is very important. Selection should be based on knowledge and
experience. The experience is gained in the cement industry and the plant in which the individual
is employed. For example, conveyor selection in the petrochemical industry and the cement indus-
try will be different based on different experiences.

The experience may even vary from cement plant to cement plant. Often, a plant will use only
specific types of conveyors, the selection being based on past successes or failures, or a desire to
standardize equipment. This practice is acceptable and even recommended, as long as the individ-
ual making the selection remembers that each type of conveyor has its proper application.

TYPES OF CONVEYORS
There are two classifications of conveyors used in the production of cement: mechanical conveyors
and pneumatic conveyors. Within each classification there are numerous types of conveyors, which
must be considered when designing the best operating system.
Conveying Systems 545

BELT CONVEYORS
One of the most widely used mechanical conveyors today is the conventional troughed belt
conveyor. Advances in belting, bearings, idlers, and pulleys have made the belt conveyor an
economic, reliable method of conveying materials. The advent of the troughing idler made it possi-
ble for belt conveyors to carry large loads.

Belt conveyors are best suited for conveying medium to high quantities of bulk materials. With
advances in high-tension belting, capacities of up to 20,000 tons per hour have been handled
successfully. The distance one can convey with a belt conveyor is limited only by the ingenuity of
the designer. Conveyors have been designed to span up to 11 kilometers.

The cement industry relies heavily on belt conveyors handling crushed rock from the quarry to the
raw milling department. In terms of capacity and distance, the only other system capable of
matching the belt conveyor is a fleet of trucks. The belt conveyor began to increase in popularity in
the 1970s. This was due to increasing fuel costs and changing political and environmental consid-
erations with respect to trucking.

In the mining industry where material handling is similar, hauling by truck represents as much as
50% of the cost. The ratio of payload to net weight of a truck is 0.8 to 1 compared to 3 to 1 for a
belt conveyor. Fuel for a truck represents approximately 62% of the total cost of transport, whereas
power for a conveyor represents only 30% of the total transfer cost.

Among the advantages of the belt conveyor is its excellent terrain-following capability. The stan-
dard belt is capable of traversing grades up to 32% (18) or higher, depending on the material,
compared to 10%-12% (6) for trucks. Many quarries are located in areas where the material must
pass through populated areas. Belt conveyors require light foundations with minimal support
structures. Trucks require the construction of appropriately graded roads. If the quarry operation
is in a remote area related to the plant, the construction of heavy duty roads is also necessary. This
can be very expensive.

In the past, a factor that hindered belt conveyors was their lack of flexibility. Standard belt convey-
ors were generally limited to relatively straight paths. Once a conveyor was installed, it became
prohibitively expensive to move. Now modular conveyors designed specifically for the mining
industry are available. Special types of belt conveyors are available for applications that require
sharp bends in the vertical or horizontal plane, or steep inclines up to vertical. These include flexi-
ble wall, tube, fold, and sandwich belts.
546 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

The Layout
Belt conveyors offer a large flexibility in layout arrangements. Once the material has been success-
fully loaded onto the belt, the belt can be arranged in various ways to achieve its final destination.
Figure 4.3.2 show typical belt arrangements. Being able to traverse 32% (18) grades gives belt
conveyors excellent vertical flexibility.

Horizontal belt Horizontal and ascending path

single flight with vertical concave curve

Ascending and horizontal path, Horizontal and ascending path

single flight with vertical convex curve two flights, no curves

Horizontal and ascending path, Compound path with both concave

when space will not permit and convex vertical curves
vertical curve but belt strength
will permit single belt

Figure 4.3.2. Typical conveyor belt arrangements (left), Vertical application of belt conveyer
(right).

The layout of the belt conveyor does not have to maintain a constant grade; horizontal sections can
be combined with concave and convex curves. This feature allows the conveyor to cross over roads,
railways, and waterways with little difficulty (Figure 4.3.3).

Figure 4.3.3. Belt conveyor crossing over road (left), and over waterways (right).
Conveying Systems 547

Changing directions in the horizontal plane with a belt conveyor has always been a problem. This
is dealt with by using two or more straight belt conveyors. The first belt unloads onto a successive
belt at some angle to achieve the correct horizontal path. This, of course, involves one or more
transfer points.

It is best to avoid transfer points when possible as they can create problems and usually require a
high degree of servicing and maintenance.
However, advances in transfer point technol-
ogy can greatly improve the situation as long
as proper attention is paid to these areas
during design and maintenance. New envi-
ronmental regulations dictate that belt trans-
fer points be supplied with systems to control
the dust and fugitive materials. As a result, the
number of transfer points in a system should
be kept to a minimum. When using two or
more conveyors to effect a change in direc-
tion, separate belts with separate drives are
required. This not only adds to the cost, it
also reduces the operational reliability of the
Figure 4.3.4. A transfer point in belt conveyer
system. system. A typical transfer point in belt
conveyer system is shown in Figure 4.3.4

Belt conveyors do have the ability of making horizontal curves. This is achieved by banking the
idlers. When banking the idlers, the conveyor must be designed to avoid lateral slipping of the belt
off the idlers. In the past, curves were limited to a radius of about 1000 meters. New belt designs
which reduce the radius to 350 meters have been successfully applied on standard belt systems.

The belt conveyor offers a variety of loading and unloading possibilities. A belt can be loaded from
one or more points through loading chutes. Material can also be loaded at several points simulta-
neously as long as the maximum allowable design load is not exceeded. A traveling loading chute
may also be used to load material at any point on a belt conveyor.

Material is usually unloaded from the belt conveyor over the head pulley. Discharging material
along the belt path can also be accomplished using a belt tripper. This device consists of a set of
pulleys that lift the belt off its regular path and discharge the load to side chutes or back onto the
belt for an end discharge. The tripper can be fixed or the entire assembly can ride on tracks along-
side the belt to desired discharge locations. Plows can be set up on the belt to force off some or all
of the material on the belt. Plows can also be fixed or traveling.
548 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

Material Loading
Proper loading of the belt conveyor is very important and can be a difficult and involved process.
Belt conveyor problems can usually be attributed to problems with the loading or unloading
system. Some of the symptoms of a problem loading system are:
decreased belt life
accelerated top cover wear
seized idlers
decreased idler life
belt mistracking
clogging or jamming of the conveyor
spilled material
dust generation

These symptoms are expensive and can be dangerous to plant personnel. Often a properly designed
loading system will fall prey to neglect, resulting in the above problems. Regular maintenance of
the loading system is necessary for prolonged effectiveness. A properly designed and maintained
belt transfer point should:
load the material on the belt at a uniform rate
load the material on the center of the belt
load the material on the belt in the direction of travel and at a velocity close to the belt speed
protect the belt from impact damage from large pieces of material
support the belt so that the load zone can be properly sealed
contain the material, including fines, until the material has accelerated to the speed of the belt
and settled on the belt
contain excessive amounts of dust generated
facilitate easy maintenance and repair of all the components

Dust Control
Assuming the belt conveyor is within an enclosed area, the main concern with dusting is at mate-
rial transfer points. Skirtboard and rubber edging are commonly used at transfer points to contain
the dust. Depending on the material characteristics, flow conditions, and load zone design, some
dust may settle back onto the belt before leaving the loading area. This is the ideal situation. In
reality, this rarely is the case. Transfer points are notorious for being surrounded in clouds of dust.
Environmental laws are putting a stop to systems operating with unsightly dust clouds around the
conveyor transfer points. More and more transfer points are being required to have not only dust
containment systems, but also dust collection or suppression systems.
Conveying Systems 549

Properly designed enclosures at belt transfer points can be sealed and equipped with filters for
removing dust from feed chutes and skirting systems. The size and cost of the required vent system
are proportional to the volume of air to be processed. The amount of dust generated is dependent
on the material characteristics and the method by which the material is loaded on to the belt.
When designing a transfer point, this is a very important consideration. It is easier to reduce dust
generation in the design phase than it is after the system is in operation.

Belt Cleaning
Many materials, particularly fines, will cling to the belt surface beyond the discharge point. If this
is not dealt with, this material will cause a variety of problems that can result in an expensive and
inefficient operation.

Material dropping off the belt may not sound like a major problem. However, consider a conveyor
losing 5 grams of material per minute. If the conveyor belt operates for 2 shifts per day, 5 days a
week, and 45 weeks per year, the resulting loss of product will be more than 1 ton per year. This is a
conservative estimate. In addition to the loss of material, there can be considerable cleanup costs.

More important than the additional lost material cost due to material cling is the detrimental
effect it may have on the belt itself. The carrying side of the belt will return over the return idlers.
Material clinging to the belt can result in the following conditions:
Accelerated wear of the idler surfaces.
A buildup of encrusted material on the idlers. This can result in mistracking of the belt since
the idler is no longer circular.
Continuous exposure of bearings to the conveyed material can result in decreased bearing life
or bearings becoming seized. A seized bearing can cause severe belt damage.

These conditions will result in unscheduled shutdowns and damaged components.

Many times belt cleaning equipment is considered an optional accessory. Often during the equip-
ment selection process the belt cleaning equipment is cut from the project to reduce the cost of the
equipment. This will result in undersized systems, or the most inexpensive systems available, which
will, more than likely, fail prematurely.

A properly designed and maintained belt cleaning system is essential for prolonged continuous
service and maximum belt life. The additional cost required to provide the appropriate belt clean-
ing system will save costs in cleanup, product loss, component replacement, and system downtime.
The cost generated by spillage, in the form of increased maintenance and replacement, will depend
on each individual system design. However, the value will be far greater than the cost of an
adequate belt cleaning system.
550 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

The most effective way to clean a belt is with a two-stage system:

First stage cleaning. The primary cleaner should remove any lumps or thick patches of mate-
rial encrusted on the belt. This is best done with the belt cleaning device located on the face of the
discharge pulley.

Second stage cleaning. Secondary cleaners should only have to remove a thin layer of fines
remaining on the belt surface. The secondary cleaner is normally located on the belt just after it
leaves the discharge pulley. It should be located close to the pulley so that any material removed
will fall into the discharge chute.

A single cleaning device can rarely match the performance of a two-stage system. Many times, a
single stage system is used for belt cleaning and overadjusted to increase the cleaning efficiency.
This puts heavier contact on the belt, causing increased wear to the belt surface. A belt cleaning
system should in no way damage the belt surface. Special care must be taken when mechanical belt
fasteners are used and on reversing conveyors. Air and water spray systems are available for special
applications.

SCREW CONVEYORS
The first modern use of a screw conveyor dates back to 1785 in the grain industry of America. The
design was based on a wooden core mounted with a series of wooden plows in a helical pattern.
The assembly revolved in a wooden trough with slide gates on the bottom to allow distribution of
grain where needed. Even though the screw conveyor has made advances in materials of construc-
tion, the modern screw conveyor maintains this design philosophy.

Dimensional standards and tolerances for many components and parts of a screw conveyor have
been established by the Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association. Manufacturers associated
with this organization follow these standards, making components from various manufacturers
interchangeable. It is this high degree of standardization that makes the screw conveyor an
economical and adaptable form of conveyor.

Knowing the operating principle of the screw conveyor will provide an indication of the kind of
materials that can be handled with this type of conveyor. In a standard screw conveyor, a continu-
ous helix is mounted on a pipe in a stationary trough. The face of the helix pushes the material
along the bottom and sides of the trough. The material is sheared from the space between the
bottom of the screw and the trough and tumbled along. The rotating action of the screw also lifts
the material in the direction of rotation. Each rotation of the screw advances the material one pitch
length in a continuous shearing and tumbling motion. It stands to reason that materials that read-
ily tumble and shear are best suited for the screw conveyor.
Conveying Systems 551

Screw conveyors can be supplied to transport materials up to 45 meters using a single conveyor. This
may vary depending on the material being conveyed. Initial cost, maintenance, and power consump-
tion are moderate, assuming the system is properly designed. Screw conveyors have a very small
profile and require no return runs. They have few moving parts, and so are simple and reliable.

Among the advantages of the screw conveyor is the flexibility of numerous feed and discharge
combinations. Figure 4.3.5 shows various inlet and discharge configurations possible with a screw
conveyor. Figure 4.3.5(a) indicates the most common screw conveyor configuration with one inlet
and one discharge. Figure 4.3.5(b) shows a conveyor with multiple discharge points. Discharge
control can be accomplished using slide gates or metering devices which will control the amount
of material removed at each discharge.

a Figures 4.3.5(d) and (e) show material being

transported in two different directions at the
same time. This can be accomplished with a
b
single drive. Finally, Figure 4.3.5(f) indicates the
possibility of having two separate inlets and two
separate discharges using the same screw
c
conveyor.

d Another advantage of the screw conveyor is that

it can be designed to be dust tight, weather-
proof, or inert gas blanketed. This is done by the
e
addition of covers, gaskets, and the appropriate
seal material. Screw conveyors can also handle
very hot materials.
f

In addition to transferring material, screw

Figure 4.3.5 (a-f). Various screw conveyors can be adapted to perform certain
conveyor configurations.
processing of the material as it is conveyed.
The following operations can be performed by the screw conveyor:
cooling and heating
mixing
de-watering
compaction or aeration
particle size reduction (breaking lumps)

A standard screw conveyor application is in the horizontal with the capability of elevating material at
slopes up to and including 15. With modifications to the design, the basic screw conveyor can elevate
materials up to a 45 slope. Special vertical lift screws can be designed to elevate materials at 90.
552 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

Two disadvantages of standard screw conveyors are that they are not self-cleaning, and material is
discharged intermittently rather than continuously. Special designs are available that can address
these problems when required for a particular application.

Figure 4.3.6 illustrates the basic configuration of a screw conveyor.

Standard screw Standard screw Short screw Drive
section section section shaft
End Inlet Bare pipe over
shaft opening Hanger bearing discharge
centers

Material flow Thrust

Flange bearing Support

Coupling
shaft saddles Discharge
spout
Trough
cover
Trough
Trough Screw
flange flight Screw Pipe O.D.
diameter Radial
Screw Support
shaft Clearance
saddles
AA 1/2" Clearance

Figure 4.3.6. Basic configuration of a screw conveyor.

BELT BUCKET ELEVATORS

Another method of mechanical conveyor equipment in the cement plant is the bucket elevator. For
many years pneumatic conveyors were the conventional equipment for feeding blending silos, stor-
age silos, and pre-heater systems. The main advantage of the pneumatic system was the ease of
operation. However, pneumatic systems are big energy consumers. Over the years there has been a
great deal of improvement in the design of the bucket elevator. Development of belt bucket eleva-
tors of high capacity with center distances up to 140 meters show the following advantages
compared to pneumatic conveying equipment:
bucket elevators save up to 23 of the energy required for pneumatic systems
considerable reduction of de-dusting volumes
power savings on exhaust fans by eliminating the air introduced by the pneumatic conveying
equipment
decrease of noise level by eliminating air supply sources
Conveying Systems 553

Maintenance
With the pneumatic conveying system, there is usually not much maintenance work required. The
only maintenance needed is at the level of the air supplies, which if designed properly only need
proper lubrication and filter cleaning.

On the hand, for belt bucket elevators with a steel reinforced belt, the main parameter is the
temperature to which the belt is exposed. The synthetic rubbers start to deteriorate at 130 to 140C.
Staying below this temperature will increase the life of the belt. With belt temperatures below
90 to 100C, belts may reach a life of more than 10 years. A yearly control of shore hardness will
allow the user to determine the belts aging status.

Belt Bucket Elevator Features

High capacity bucket elevators are mainly installed in the cement industry and designed with
regard to:
high availability
long service life of the traction element (chain or belt)
wear behavior, especially in case of clinker transport (chain bucket elevator)
temperature of the material to be conveyed

The central chain bucket elevator set the standard until about 25 years ago when the belt bucket
elevator was introduced.

Most common technical features of belt bucket elevators include:

Buckets and belts. Small buckets and belts with large open-
ing and a close spacing (Figures 4.3.7) are used in order to:
achieve even bucket filling
avoid to a large extent scooping in the elevator boot for
favorable wear behavior and less energy consumption
keep the specific stress of the bucket fixing as low as
possible

Figure 4.3.7. Buckets and belts.

554 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

Steel reinforced belt. The reinforcing belt

(Figure 4.3.8) is typically imbedded with:
longitudinal steel ropes with a narrow
spacing to reduce the belt thickness allow-
ing the bucket elevator to operate with
small drum diameters
cross ropes in order to obtain a high Figure 4.3.8. Reinforced belt.
strength against bucket fixing tear-off

Belt tensioning device. The belt tensioning device (Figure

4.3.9) is used to ensure:
parallel tensioning with a tolerance of less than 1 mm,
consequently preventing off-track run of the belt

Flat drive drum. The flat drive drum (Figure 4.3.10) is used
primarily for:
even load distribution between the belt and the drum where
centering of the belt is achieved with a minimum slope on
both drum ends (both slopes represent approximately 30%
of the drum width).

Figure 4.3.9. Belt tensioning The drive drum is fitted with segmented friction lining that is
device. easily exchangeable.

Design Calculations of Elevator

Belt
The design calculation in accordance with VDI
standard no. 2324 stipulates the nominal
strength as the most important value for deter-
mination of the safety factor. Since the belts
tensile strength depends on the supporting steel
ropes, the belts are available with various tensile
strengths. he nominal strength has to be cal- Figure 4.3.10. Drive drum.
culated under consideration of the areas where
the rope mesh leaves free zones, i.e.:
border area
bucket fixing
bolt holes of the clamping connection
Conveying Systems 555

The given tensile strength is a gross nominal value confirmed by quality tests and takes into
account the rope-free areas on both belt edges. The rope sections which are taken from the mesh
by punching for the bucket fixing are deducted from the belt width in order to determine the net
nominal strength. The specified safety factor always refers to this net nominal strength of a belt.

A safety factor of min. 8 is always applied for the traction element used with bucket elevators.
These very high safety factors result from influences which cannot be determined with accuracy,
such as:
dynamics
temperature
motion
variations of the bulk density, etc.

Experience has demonstrated that these safety factors are largely sufficient and we can assume that
they are considerably overestimated in most cases.

Clamping connection (belt splicing). Proper splicing of the belt is as important as the belt
itself. For this critical component suppliers focus on continuous development of the clamping
connection. Figure 4.3.11 shows the present design for continuous operation. The rope ends are
clamped and additionally poured in a resin compound to protect them against corrosion.

Figure 4.3.11. Clamping connection (belt splicing).

Research and Development

Continuous development is a main issue in order to keep up with the increasing capacities. The
target is to develop:
a) Bucket elevator chains which:
achieve a longer service life with the same chain weight
are lighter despite an unchanged high service life
556 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

b) Steel reinforced belts which:

allow higher temperatures
become lighter for smaller bucket elevators being subject to low stress
do not require a special treatment of the belt ends
c) Clamping connections which:
can easily be opened
have the same strength as the steel ropes themselves

Limitations
Despite successful application, bucket elevators have experienced certain limitations as listed
below. Typical limiting parameters are as follows:

Production size. Belt bucket elevators are mainly used for powdery products, e.g. raw meal or
cement. The particle size should ideally be below 10 mm. Larger particle sizes with possibly sharp
corners could cut into the rubber surface and expose the steel cords which would corrode and lose
their tensile strength.

Temperature tolerance. There are basically three different belt types available for applications
under given temperature condition.
Belts with fabric. These belts have a textile body and can be used for material temperatures of
up to 60C with short peak temperatures of max. 80C.
Steel reinforced belts with standard rubber coating. These are steel cord belts with a normal
rubber cover and are used for product temperatures of 80C with short time peak tempera-
tures of up to 100C.
Steel reinforced belts with high-temperature rubber coating. For these belts the covering
rubber layer has a relatively high butyl content and accepts normal product temperatures of
110C 130C with occasional peak temperatures of 130C 150C.

It is possible to run the different belt types with higher normal temperatures; however, this will
have a negative impact on the achievable lifetime of the belt.

Center distance and capacity. Belt bucket elevators have been installed up to 142m and conveying
capacities up to 1500 t/h. The achievable center distance is always to be seen in relation to the
desired conveying capacity. From a mechanical point of view, even larger capacities or center
distances are already possible with belts having a tensile strength of 3500 N/mm.
Conveying Systems 557

PRESENT AND FUTURE TRENDS

The trend for large belt bucket elevators for raw meal silo and pre-heater feeding continues since
nowadays the kiln capacities are very often in the range of 5,000 7,500 tpd or even up to 10,000 tpd.

Moreover, the center distance is also continuously increasing due to the introduction of 5- and 6-
stage pre-heater/pre-calcination systems.

In general, for the vast majority of green field projects it can be said that belt bucket elevators for
vertical transport are considered the ideal choice. The required initial higher capital investment
costs of the equipment are offset within a very short time by the considerable advantage of lower
operating costs due to reduced energy consumption.

In a recent development, one

European cement industry has intro-
duced a flexible enclosed belt conveyer
system for raw material transportation
(BETA, 2002). The material is
completely enclosed during trans-
portation in both directions of the
travel that prevents spilling and dust-
ing (Figure 4.3.12). The belt is made
of reinforced fabric material, width
and speed of which allows for larger
transport capacities. Drive units are
positioned at regular intervals to
guide the conveyer belt virtually
tension free, which is reported to
result in less maintenance and
prolonged service life. Figure 4.3.12. Flexible enclosed belt conveyor system
(BETA Public, Holland).

PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
Over the years pneumatic conveying has been and continues to be the topic of a wide variety of
discussions comparing it to mechanical systems, as well as comparing different types of pneumatic
conveying systems. Everyone seems determined to replace this technology. Pneumatic conveying is
the perfect way to convey dry bulk solids: cement raw mix, cement, kiln dust, powdered coal, and
fly ash. For this reason, along with pneumatic silo aeration, it played a major role in the conversion
of the cement industry from wet to dry. Pneumatic conveying has been called the arteries of a
cement plant.

Benefits of pneumatic conveying are not researched enough when making key purchasing deci-
sions. Nonetheless, typical nature of the advantages of pneumatic conveying are, 1) environmental
558 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

(no dust due to total containment), 2) contamination prevention (containment goes both ways),
3) low capital cost (a pipe is the primary transport element), 4) reliability and minimal mainte-
nance (few moving parts), and 5) simplistic operation and design. The only disadvantage of pneu-
matic conveying compared to mechanical conveying is power consumption.

Key points to be considered when selecting a pneumatic conveying system are simplistic design,
dependability, and being economically friendly. This chapter discusses the basic types of pneu-
matic systems, the underlying principles, conveying alternatives, system components, and
compares the operational and maintenance benefits from an operating viewpoint. Systems to be
discussed are as follows:
Air gravity conveying
Pipeline conveying
Rotary feeder systems
Screw pump systems
Pressure tank systems
Airlift systems

Air Gravity Conveying

Airslide . The Airslide air activated gravity conveyor is the ultimate of all pneumatic conveying
system applications. This system uses the forces of gravity to do most of the work without any
moving parts. Material is fluidized through a porous media with low pressure air. Material flow is
achieved by sloping the Airslide to match the fluidized material flows with the consistency of a
liquid. Capacities in excess of 1600 m3/hr can be achieved feeding or discharging material from
storage silos, discharging material from trucks or railcars, through general in-plant conveying and
unloading/loading of ships and barges. (Figure 4.3.13)

Open type Airslide conveyor

Rotary valve Side discharge valve

Butterfly flow gate
Rotary flow Observation port
control gate Discharge box
Vent connection
Positive
displacement
blower Fan

Fuller-Kinyon pump
Telescopic Airslide conveyor
A wide range of accessories adapts the Airslide conveying system loading spout swivel assembly
to a variety of applications. These components have a performance-
proven reputation in the conveying of dry, free-flowing solids.

Figure 4.3.13. Typical Airslide application.

Conveying Systems 559

In addition to providing high-capacity material handling, the Airslide air activated gravity
conveyor offers many economical and environmental advantages. Energy requirements are mini-
mal because only a small volume of air at a low pressure is required to move material. Since the
system is installed overhead, valuable floor space and added headroom are available for other
purposes. By eliminating the need for massive support members, it permits a flexibility of plant
design not available with straight-line conveyors.

The Airslide conveyor is dust tight. As a result, the system is extremely friendly to the environ-
ment. The top section of the conveyor acts as a vent duct. As material drops out of the air stream, it
is reintroduced back into the material flow. This reduces the need for costly vent ducting and
multiple dust collectors that may be required with mechanical conveyors.

Noise level is extremely low in the area surrounding the Airslide as the systems air supply is the
only moving part to generate noise, and it is generally located in a remotely insulated area to
further reduce noise.

Maintenance of the Airslide conveyor is very simple. Keep the porous media dry, keep the
Airslide plenum clean, and protect the impact points from abrasive wear and your conveyor will
last a long time.

Pipeline Conveying
Pipeline pneumatic conveying systems can be classified into three basic types:
Dilute phase
Two-phase (medium phase)
Dense phase

Most cement producers are familiar with only Dilute and Two-phase (medium phase) conveying
systems. Dense phase conveying is now being considered seriously, owing to the energy savings it
can potentially offer.

Dilute phase system. In

L V1
Dilute phase conveying,
each particle of the product
drag
being conveyed is in
suspension in the air
V1
G stream and is carried to the
destination (Figure 4.3.14).
If: V1 > V2 particle lifts
LG particle floats In this type of system, the
drag = acceleration in direction of airflow highest starting velocities
Figure 4.3.14. Dilute phase. are required in order to
560 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

entrain the product in the air stream. Velocities are of primary importance in the dilute phase
system with the total system pressure drop being the sum of air friction losses and product convey-
ing losses.

Dilute phase systems depend on the principle that the velocity of air in a pipeline is highest at the
centerline of the pipe and reduces somewhat from the center to the pipe wall. The velocity differ-
ential across each particle then creates a lift force which attempts to lift the particles to the center
of the pipe. If the lift force is great enough to overcome the force of gravity, the particle remains in
suspension in the air system.

Two-phase system
(medium phase).
L V1
Two-phase system, also
referred to as medium
phase system (Figure
4.3.15), operates in a
V1
modified combination of G
the dilute and dense
phase systems. Here a
layer of material settles to
the bottom of the Figure 4.3.15. Two phase (medium phase) flow.
pipeline since the starting
velocities are not high enough to support pure dilute phase flow. This settled material layer
remains fluidized and moves along the bottom of the pipeline in surges or waves, similar to that of
extrusion type dense phase flow. The settled layer also restricts the cross-sectional area of the
conveying pipeline, resulting in higher velocities in the reduced area above it. As a result of higher
velocities in the reduced area, dilute phase conveying takes place.

In two-phase systems, therefore, dilute phase conveying takes place above a settled layer of product
which moves in surges to the destination. If one was to stand at the end of a two-phase-type
conveying system, one would actually hear the surges of the settled layer moving toward the desti-
nation and exiting the pipeline.

Dense phase system. In a dense phase system design, velocities are well below the starting
velocity to maintain particles of product in suspension in the air stream. However, starting velocity
is relatively unimportant as the critical parameter in system design is pressure. It could be said that
dense phase systems move the product to its destination by brute force with this motive brute force
being pressure differential.
Conveying Systems 561

Product in a dense phase

system is conveyed through
P1 P2
the pipeline in the form of
plugs or slugs (Figure
4.3.16). The length of the
plug or slug is primarily
determined by the charac-
teristics of the product
itself. Characteristics such particles contact particles
pressure differential moves material
as particle size, particle velocity (drag) is unimportant and is normally a very low value
pipeline performance does not following traditional rules
shape, bulk density, particle
density (specific gravity), Figure 4.3.16. Dense phase.
and degree of fluidization
have an effect on the length of plug any particular product will form in the pipeline. Each material
performs differently and creates a multitude of different plug shapes and lengths.

The two most common types of dense phase systems available on the market today can be classi-
fied as follows:
Extrusion type Conveys materials which fluidize well and retain their fluidization in the
form of self-forming plugs or slugs of product in the conveying line.
Boost air type Conveys products which de-aerate quickly, are sticky, or are largest in
particle size. These systems sense system pressure by various means and add boost air when-
ever required along the length of the conveying line. This boost air is added in several different
ways depending on the manufacturer.

Typically, dilute phase systems operate at high velocities, low pressures and result in low material
to air ratios in the conveying pipeline. Dense phase systems operate at low velocities, high pres-
sures and result in high material to air ratios. Two-phase (medium phase) systems, which are the
most common in the cement industry, offer velocities, pressures, and material to air ratios some-
where between dilute and dense phase technologies.

In general, most dense phase system designers claim the following advantages: lower velocities, less
abrasion, less product degradation, lower horsepower consumption, smaller line sizes, and higher
material to air ratios.

One of the most important claimed advantages of dense phase technology is lower horsepower
consumption since it has a direct effect on the total operating costs of a plant utilizing this tech-
nology. This is an important point for the cement producer. The cement industry is focused on
modifications capable of reducing production cost. One area of highest priority is the reduction of
power consumption. Expending large quantities of power in the production of cement is a fore-
gone conclusion. New innovations such as dense phase technology can provide a conveying alter-
562 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

native that will give equal performance for power. With significant numbers of material conveying
systems throughout a plant, there is a substantial saving which can be realized through dense phase
conveying systems.

Table 4.3.2 shows an overall comparison of the three modes of conveying, comparing operating
pressure, pick-up velocity, and material to air ratio.

Table 4.3.2. Comparison of Conveying Modes

Conveying Operating Pick-up Material/
mode pressure, kpa velocity (m/min) air ratio
Dilute phase Up to 124 910 to 1500 Up to 22:1
Two-phase 100 to 240 550 to 1070 15 to 30:1
Dense phase 210 to 450 150 to 250 25 to 200:1
Note: The above are general rule of thumb relationships to quantify and define the various
modes of pneumatic.

Rotary Feeder Systems

Rotary feeder pneumatic conveying systems are shown in Figure 4.3.17. These systems are designed
to operate at low line pressures and high velocity. Rotary feeder conveying systems are seldom used
in cement plants. The application of the feeder, if used, is generally restricted to nuisance dust
transfer systems. Reasons why this type OF system is not preferred in cement are as follows:
1. Cement related products are abrasive. Close tolerances of the feeder between the rotor and the
body wear extremely fast under pressure differential conditions.
2. Maximum design pressure differentials of 70 kpa restrict system design. Generally capacity
requirements are too high for economical designs.

Airveyor Pressure System

Conveying
line Vent
Air intake
Feed

Vent

Pressure
feeder
Storage
Blower
Figure 4.3.17. Rotary feeder system.
Conveying Systems 563

Therefore, due to their seldom use and lack of suitability for cement plants, this paper will not
discuss rotary feeders further.

This application uses the dilute phase mode of conveying as described earlier (Figure 4.3.18),
where all the particles are suspended in air stream.

Particles in suspension Pipeline

Figure 4.3.18. Dilute phase conveying.

Screw Pump Systems

Screw pump conveying systems are config-
ured as shown in Figure 4.3.19. This is the
most prevalent type of pneumatic conveying
in a cement plant due to:
1. reliability
2. ease of maintenance
3. capacity
4. flexibility of equipment layout and Figure 4.3.19. Screw pump systems.
future capacity changes
5. simplicity

This is a Two-phase (medium phase) type technology and works according to the precepts in
Figure 4.3.20.

Particles in suspension Moving material

Figure 4.3.20. Two phase (medium phase) conveying.

564 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

The term two-phase (or medium phase) refers to the action of the conveyed material in the
pipeline. There are two distinct conveying principles working together at the same time within the
pipeline. Visualizing a cross section of the pipeline, you would see a wavelike action of material on
the bottom of the pipe, while there is a swift movement of material in the upper section of the
pipe. This action is caused by the changes in velocity within the pipeline. This type of conveying
operates at velocities at or slightly above the saltation velocity of the material. The saltation
velocity is the velocity point at which gravity overcomes the forward momentum of the particle.
The particle falls from the airstream and layers along the pipe bottom. As the layer of material
increases, the area decreases and the velocity increases. At this point, the material becomes re-
entrained in the flow stream. This action continues over and over again, giving the appearance of
a wavelike action in the pipe. Through the pipeline length the conveying gas expands, the back
pressure decreases, and the velocity increases. As this happens, these waves of material give the
appearance of slugs through the pipe at the termination of the conveying system.

The screw pump is actually a line charging device. A properly designed feed hopper brings the
material to the inlet of the screw which advances it, compacts it to provide a material seal (which
prevents the conveying air from blowing back up the feed hopper), and pushes the material
through a mixing chamber where the material and conveying air combine, accelerating into the
conveying line.

The advantages of a screw pump over a rotary feeder are as follows:

1. longer operational life
2. capability of high capacities
3. less conveying air needed (more dense material stream)
4. can operate at a constant speed while the capacity may vary
5. operation at much higher pressure
6. seals against back pressure more effectively

Pressure Tank Systems

The system with lowest power consumption for pneumatic conveying is dense phase. This mode of
conveying is achieved by utilizing high pressure, lower volume air at reduced velocities to transport
powdered materials. Pressure tanks are arranged as shown in Figure 4.3.21. They work by filling up
one pot at a time while the second is being emptied for continuous operation or as a batch opera-
tion with a single operating pot.
Conveying Systems 565

Figure 4.3.21. Pressure tank system.

The behavior of the material in the pipeline is very much different from that of the medium phase
transfer system. As shown in Figure 4.3.22, the material flows in the form of plugs through the pipe.

Because of their lower power consumption, these systems are becoming more popular for trans-
porting material to longer distances and at higher capacities than screw pumps. While these
systems, in most cases, reduce overall power consumption, they are more complicated to operate
and not as reliable as a screw pump.

Dust particles may be

in suspension Moving waves of material

Figure 4.3.22. Dense phase conveying.

566 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing

Airlift System
The Airlift system is a pneumatic elevator capable of conveying dry pulverized materials through a
vertical pipe to discharge into receivers or bins at a substantially higher level. The use of the Airlift
system is suitable for those materials which can be fluidized by aeration without segregation.
Major features of the system and the associated benefits are summarized in the Table 4.3.3 below.

Table 4.3.3. Major Features and Benefits of the Airlift System

Features Benefits
Low maintenance Minimum down time
Minimum spare parts
Almost no moving parts
High capacity range and lift height Large application flexibility
Compact unit Minimum space requirement
Completely closed circuit Dust free system

Aleviator The Airlift system, Figure 4.3.23, is

characteristically a predominantly
Vent filter
maintenance free, reliable, vertical
conveyor. The only moving parts are
Airslide
the material and air supply. The totally
Feed Feed enclosed design provides a completely
Lift
pipe dust-free operation when connected to
a dust collector.

Lift bin
The Airlift system consists of a feed bin,
pipe, disengaging bin (alleviator), and
one or two air supplies. The aeration air
To downstream
process aerates the bottom of the feed bin,
fluidizing the material within. The
primary air conveys the material upward
through the Airlift pipe.
Figure 4.3.23. Airlift system.
In operation, the Airlift system is a self-
compensating system. As the product feed rate increases or decreases, the fluid level and conveying
rate conform to such changes. Therefore, the Airlift system matches the conveying rate to the incom-
ing feed, and compensates for any variations of the feed rate.

With regard to maintenance, the Airlift is much like the Airslide. It is quite simple to maintain
since the only moving part is the conveying air supply.
Conveying Systems 567

THE FUTURE OF THE CONVEYOR

The world of conveying is a complex place. To choose the proper equipment for the correct appli-
cation, there are a great many choices and decisions to be made. Each supplier will provide lists of
why their system is best suited for the application. Each conveyor discussed in this chapter has
both advantages as well as disadvantages; only the end user can determine which conveyor best
supports the application.

The future choice for the method of conveying in new plant designs will lean toward mechanical
systems. New plant layouts are based on compact designs, making the choice of screws and eleva-
tors practical. This choice results in higher initial capital cost while providing a long term reduc-
tion in power cost. Debates will continue over reduced power cost versus higher maintenance cost.
There is no clear answer to this debate. It will vary from plant to plant.

Pneumatic pipeline conveying will maintain a clear advantage for existing plant modernization
projects. Layout flexibility is a key in choosing this method of material handling. Pipeline installa-
tion has a lower capital cost in most cases, compared to mechanical alternatives. The pneumatic
conveying system also provides a clean method of transporting material from point to point. In
light of various environmental regulations, this type of conveyor provides the best solution.

Each producer has certain criteria that must be fulfilled to determine which conveying system is
best for a given application. These criteria include power, capacity, environment, and flexibility.
When deciding what equipment is best suited for your application, know your needs, look at the
entire picture, analyze future needs. Compare all this with true operating costs, then make your
decision!

REFERENCE
BETA Public Relations, B.V., Amaliastraat, The Hague, Holland, 2002.
568 Innovations in Portland Cement Manufacturing