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NEPAl-Telecom [,ngineerii l Ggiiiral Module Chapter 4 ICT
( omputcr architcclure is it> abstract model rnJ is.the programmer's vielv in terms bf
ryistrucdons, .addrepsing modes and Legisters. A. computer's .organization -cxpresses the
realization of thc architeclurc. ArchitcctLrrc dcscribes what ihe computer_does an$ organiiation
'describei
hou it dbcs it.
.Aiehitecture. irnd organization: are mdeperrdeirtl you czrn change dfi orgartiiatibn 6ia igrilputer
. u,ithout changing iti architccrure. For examplc. a 64-bit ar'chitecture czin be intemafiy organized

asatrue64-bitmachineprdsal6-bitmaehinethatusesfourcyclcstohandle64.bitvalues..
The diflerence bct\\ecn architeirrrre and organizaliUn is b-est illrrstratcd hy a non-compuler
cramplc. [s tlie gear lever in'a car parl ol its architecture ur urganization? The architeciurc ol-.a
car is simple; it iransports you liom A to B.'l'he gear lc-vcr bclongs to the car's organization
'because it implements the function of a car but is not prrt of thrt function 1a car does not
intrinsicatly need a gear levert. r

MICROPROCESSOR 8085:-
The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1977. It was binary.compatible
with the mere-famous Intel 8080 but rcquircd less supporting hardware, thus allowing simpler
and less expensive microcomputer systems to be built.
The "5" in the model number came from lhe fact thal the 8085 requires only a +5-volt (V) power
supply rather than the +5V, -5V and +12V supplies the 8080 needed. Both processors were
sometimes used in computers rurming the CP/M operating system. and the 8085 later saw use ias
a microcontroller, by virtue of its low componcnl count. Both designs were eclipsed lor desktop
computers by the compatible Zllog 280, which took over most of the CP/M computer market as
r'vell as taking a share of the booming home computer markel in the early{o-mid- 1980s.
'I'he 8085 had a long life as a controllcr. Oncc designed into such products as _

the DECtape controller and -the VTl00 video terminal in the late 1970s. it continued to serve frir
new production throughout the lifb span ofthose products (generally longer than the product life
ol dcsktop computers).
Add CB and ES
CD: 11OO1 O11
E9 : 111Ol OO,l
10110100
Result is non zero
The re is a carry ZissettoO
CS is Set to 1 There are 4 number of f i
MSB of the sum Pibsettol
S is set to "1" There is a carry lrom 3rd
Bit to 4th bit
As is set to 1-
I)l -fX, t)5 l)1 lr.; t)t I)l t:r)
s iZ; .,t{.' I' ('\', l

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PIN DIAGRAM OF 8085

I .rr*.-,
r()u)'";^ffBiiiN

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 8085

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Fig 8086 microprocessor

r-Frag 3-rrox Tlre [lngs Register

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Memory: The hierarchical arrangement of storage in current computer architectues is called the
memory hiemrchy. It is designed to take advantage of memory locality in computer programs.
Each level of the hierarchy is of higher speed and lower latency, and is of smaller size, than
lower levels.Most modern CPUs are so fast that for most program workloads the locality of-
reference of memory aiiesses, and thd efficiency of the caching and memory transfer between
different levels of the hierarchy, is the practical ljmitation on processing speed. As a result, the
CPU spends much of its time idling, waiting for memory I/O to complete.
The memory hierarchy in most computets is as follows:
ProcesSor registers - fastest possible access (usually I CPU cycle), only hundreds ofbltes in size
Level I (Ll) cache - often accessed ur just a few cycles. usually tens of kilobytes
Level 2 (L2) cache - higher latency than Ll by 2,. to 10x, often 512KB irr more

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L,:rel ., rl.ir cache - topri,rnal; hishef. lrtencr rhan L2. ohen mtrltiple MAt
Nlain m?morr' (DRAM) - ma1 takt- hundreds of o cles. bufcan be mulrii,le gigab)'tes
Disk storage - hirndreds ofthousands of cycles latencv. but very large.

.Auxiliarv memo4.'also knoun as:auriliary storage. secgndary storage. secontlary.memory

or'external memory..is.rl-sed to store a large amount of data at lqsser cost ptir b).te than.primary
memorv.'The v are rwo orders of masnitude less exbensive than brimarv storase.'ln addition.
'**nairy sio.age do.s rio, loi. ir',;talia *henilie cti,viie i's
i,"*&a dolwn*it'is ,on-ro'lu,il..
Anothe_r tliflelence lrom primary storage in that it isnot directly accessible b1 rhe- CfU. they are
accesse? via the input/tiutput channels. The most common form of auxiliary memory deviceS
used ih consumer systems is flash memory.optical discs, and magn-etic- disks. The late.st addition
to the auxiliary memory family. is flash memory. This form is muih faster as compared to
predecessors. as. this form olauxilian memory does not involve any moving.

. Flash memorv: An electronic non-r,olatiler .computer storage device that can be

- electricalll erased and reprogrammed. and works without any movipg pans. A version ol
this is implemented in manl Apple notebooks.
. . Optical ttisc: It's a storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by
lasers. Optical disks can store much more data-up to 6 gigabytes (6 billion bytes)-than
most portable magnetic media, such as floppies. There are three baiic types of optical
disks: CD-ROM (read-only), WORM (write-oncd read-many) & EO (erasable -optical
disks).

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. Malnefic Disk: A magnetic disk is a circular plate constructed of metal or plastic coated
' with magnetized material. Both sides of the disk are used and several disks may be
slacked on one spindle with read/write heads available on each surface. Bits are stored in
magnetised surlace in spots along concenrric circles called traiks. Tracks are commonly
divided into sections called sectors. Disk that are permanently attached and cannot

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' removed bypccasional user arelC.allbd.hai'a disks. A disk drive rvith removable disks js
called a floppy disk drive.
. Magnetic tapes: A magnetic tape transport consists ofelectric. mechanical and electrbnic
. componen-ts to provide the pafls and conrr.ol mechanism for a magneric tape unit.- The .
lape itself is a stdp of phitic coated with a magnetic recbrding medium. Bits arerecorded '.
' . as magnetia spots onlapb alopg
'several
tracks Seven.oi Niire bits are recordbd to forin. a
'-j '
. chaiacter tqlther with a parity fit Ryy heads are,mounred in each trdck so tfiet data tofl -'
' 'be recorded and r6ad ai a sequence. oi characiers..

Cachi memory"is a high speed.memory kept in between processor and RAM to increade the
dataexecutionspeedltiskeptneartotheprocessor.Therearedillerenilevelsolcache.Ll-caohe:'
is the fastest cache and it uiuatly comes wiihin the processor chip itself.The Ll cache typically
rtinges in,-size from 8KB to 64KB and usei the high.speed SRAM lstatic-RAM) iirstead of the
slower and cheaper DRAM (dynaniic RAM) used foqmain memory.The lntel Celeron processor
uses two separate l6KB Ll caches, one for ihe instructions and one for the data.
L2 cache comes between Ll and RAM(processor-Ll -L2-RAM ) and is bigger than the primary.
cache (typically 64KB to 4MB).L3 cirche is not found nowadays as its function is replaced by L2
cache. L3 caches are -found on the motherboard rather than the processor. It is.kept between
RAM and L2 cache.So if your system has L1,L2 and L3 cache data fetching will be L1->L2-
>L3->RAM ie. If data is noi there in Ll ir ryill check L2 then L3 then RAM.

The Internet in simple terms'is a network of the interlinked computer networking worldwide,
which is accessible to the general public. These interconnected compulers work by transmitting
data through a special type ofpacket switching which is known as the IP or the intemet protocol.
Intemet is such a huge network of several different interlinked networks relating to the business,
government, academic, and even smaller domestic networks, therefore intemet is known as the
network of all the other networks. Tlrese networks enable the intemet to be used for various
important firnctions which include the-several means of communications like the file transfer, the
online chat and even the sharing of the documents and web sites on the WWW, or the World
Wide Web.
It is always misraken said that the intemet and the world wide web ur. both the sanie terms, or
are synonymous. Actualiy there is a very significant difference between the two which has to be
clear to understand bothrhe terms. The intemet and World Wide Web are borh the nelworks yet; -
the intemet is the network of the several different computers which are connected through.the
linkage of the'accessories like the copper wires, the fiber optics and even the latest wireless
connections. However, the World Wide Web consists of ihe interlinked collection of the
information and documents which are taken as the resource by the general public. These are then
linked by the website URLs . and the hype-rlinks. Therefore World Wide Web is one of the
services o lfered by the whole complicated and huge network bf the intemet.
The use of IP in the Internet is the integral part oflhe network, as they provide the services of the
intemet, through differeni layers organization through the IP data packets. There are other
piotocols that are the sub:classeg ofthe IP itself, like the TCP, and the HTTP.

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 Inlemet wilh a capilal "l" rEl-ers ro the entire Internet (rlreaning lhe biggest collection of nelworks
^on the planet) . lnternet u'ith a lowercase "i" refers to any group of netw-brks that are co-nnected
. together. -

- Intraner iefers to a single iirrei-cbnnected: net\4 ork rvithin one crrganization that lsds HTTP/Web
; technoltigies for the. shar:ing of jnlormation intemally. In other words you could. siiing together
. _intragets.to malie your own privatq internet. You coul{ theri conceivably connec-! your interrlet to

BUT: The WW\V is not the same thing as the lnlernet. WWW only refers to sewers rumiqg the

-
E-mnil
tia of rhe POP3 e-rnail syslem are the POP3 e-mail clieirt, the -simple Mail
three. componenti
Trans'fer Protocol (SMf P; service. and .the POP3 service. These are each described in the
follorving table.
Component Description I

: The POPI e-mail client software that. is used ro read. conqpose,-and manage e-
PoP3 e-mail
' "'*" T.ail* ^ - -
,:' ;
cltertt
The POPS e-mail client retrieves e-mail from the mail server and transfers it to the

' - user's local computer so it can then be managed by the user. An example ofan e-
mail client that supports the POP3 protocol is Microsoft Outlook Express.
- The e-mail transfer system that routes e-mail
from the sender to the recipient using
the SMTP prorocol.
SMTP The POP3 service uses the SMTP service as the e'-mail transfer system. E-mail is
service composed by the user on a POP3 e-mail client. Then, after the user connects to the
' mail server using an Internet or network connection, the SMTP service picks up
and transfers the e-mail across the Intemet to the recipient's mail server.
The e-mail retrieval system that downloads e-mail from the mail ierver {o the
user's local computer using.the POP3 protocol.
POP3. service
The POP3 protocpl conlrols the comection between a user's POP3.e-mail client
- and the server where e-mail is stored.
Administiators manage the POP3 service on three organizational levels: mail seivers, e-mail
domains, and mailboxes. These are described in the following table.

Category Deseription
The computer where the POP3 service is installed. Users cormect tri it to retrieve.
Mail server
their e-mail.
E-mail . The e-mail domain must be a registered domain name and it must match the Mail_
domains eXcharger (MX) record crbated by your Internet Service Provider (lSP.1.
.

. Each mailbox corresponds to a user who is a niember of the e-mail domain, such as
Mailboxes someone@example.com. The user's mailbox correFponds to a dtectory in the mail
store in which the user's e-mai1 is stored until it is retrieved.

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A POP-3 e-mail system

^
Toi someone@
example.com

.E
Mail server with SMTP
-service and POP3
service
(mailser,ier .exailrple,mm)

POP3
Drotocol

E
Tor someone@
mail sto re lJser: someone
' Cr\inetpub\mailroot\ E example,ciom
Password:< xxxxxx >
exdmple.com\P3_someone,mbx- e.
_

POP 3
protocol
*'"ii"t"?S'*:;?""

In the diagram, e-mail is sent to someone6"ru*pt"(ffiX"firT:l:.?8, step l. The e-mait is

picked up by the SMTP service anil is sent out on the Intemet (step 2).The e-mail domain,
example.com, is then resoived to a mail server on the Intemet, mailserverl.example.com (step
3)' Mailserverl.example.com is d mail server running the POP3 service that receives incoming e-
mail for the e-mail domain, example.com.In step 4, the e-mail for someone@example.com is
received by.mailserverl.example.com and is moved into the mail slore directory (step 5), where
e-mail intended for iomeone@example.com is stored. In step 6, the user, someone, checis for e-
mail by connecting to the mail server running the POP3 service. The POP3 protocol transmits the
user and password authentication credentials for the user, someone. The POP3 service verifies
these credentials, anil then either accepts or denies the connection. -
If the connection is accepted, all of the e-mail for the user, someone, that is being stored in the
mail store is downloaded from the mail server to someone's local computer (step 7). The mail is
usually then deleted from the maifstore.
Network security
The POP3 and SMTP protocols are hot encrypted. If someOne gains.access to the network on
which the servermnning the POP3 service is running, they could potentially read users' e-mail.
To increase network security, implement Intemet Piotocol security (lPSec).

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IPSec is a liarneriorl ol opcn stantlards tbr cnsuring prirate. secure communications orer
Inl&net Protocol (IP) networks.through the use of cryprographic security Srvices. For mdre
information about IPSec. se'e Intemet Protog,ol Securit), ( IPSec)

. A data-chanriel- over which a sigiral is s'ent. can operate in one oF three -ways: - silnpiex. half-
dqplex. or full-duplex. full-duplex is often jus.t called duplex. The dis-tinctiqn is in the'way that . .

Simplex Transmission.
.Simplex transmission is a singli: one-waj, base band transmisiion. Simplex transmission, aithe
name implies. is simple. It is also called unidirectional because the signal trave-ls in only one
' direttioh. An examplebf simplex transmission is the, signal sent from the TV statibn to the home
television..
Half-Duplex Transmission.
Half-duplex trarismission is an improvement over sirnplex because the traffic can travel iir both
directions. Unfortunately, the road is not wide enough to dccommodate bidirebtional signals
simultaneously. This means that only one side can trans-it at a time. Two-waj, radios,'suih as
police or emergency communications mobile radios, work with half-duplex transmissions. When
' pressing the button on the microphone to tiansmit. nothing being said on the other end can be
heard. Ifpeople at both ends try to lalk at the same time, neither transmission gets through.
' Note: Modems are half-duplex devices. They can send and receive,'but not at the same
time. However, it is possible to create a full-duplex modem connection with two
telephone lines and two modems.
Full-Duplex Transmissioh.
Full-duplex transmission operates like a two-way, two-lane street. Traffic can travel in.both
directions at the same time.
A land-based telqphone conversation is an example of full-duplex communication. Both parties
can talk at the same time, and the person talking on the other end can still be heard by the other
party while they are talking. Although both parties talking at the same time might be difficult to
understand what is being said.
Full-duplex networking technology increases performance because d4ta can be sent and'received
at the iame time. Digital subscriber line (DSL), rwo-way cable modem, and oiher broadbarrd
technologies operate in ful}-duplex mode. with DSL, for example, users can download data to
their computer at the same time they are sending a voice message over the line
The ttrree modes of channel operation are simplex, half-duplex and fullduplex.
Simplex is a one way communication and there is no means of informing the sender to retransmit
data in case of errors. There is however a good example ofrhe reransmission oldata, and that is
TeleText, which sends text based data on top of a Television signal. A special decoder displays
the Teletext data a's a series of pages. These pages are sequenced. and repeated, so if a page _
arrives corrupted, the usi:r jus needs to wait a little while till it is resent.
Half-dupl.ex arid full-duplex are the other two methods. As telephone companies become more
aware Qf the added services that customers require, such as Internet-access and Television, i1 is
probable that a single corinection to your home will provide you with a range of services; which
you can use. This would require a full-duplex comection.

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