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450
Lesson 5: Heated Tank
5.0 context and direction
From Lesson 3 to Lesson 4, we increased the dynamic order of the
process, introduced the Laplace transform and block diagram tools, took
more account of equipment, and discovered how control can produce
instability. Now we change the process: our system models have
previously depended on material balances, but now we will write the
energy balance. We will also introduce the integral mode of control in the
algorithm.
F1 T1
F2 T2
F To
Tc
F1 + F2 = F (5.1-1)
This is not yet the time for complications: we will approximate the
physical properties of the liquid (density, heat capacity, etc.) as constants.
We will also simplify the problem by assuming that the flow rates remain
constant in time. The energy balance is
d
(VC p (To Tref )) = F1C p (T1 Tref ) + F2C p (T2 Tref ) + UA(Tc To ) FCp (To Tref ) (5.1-2)
dt
d
(VC p (Tor Tref )) = 0 = F1C p (T1r Tref ) + F2C p (T2r Tref ) + UA(Tcr Tor ) FCp (Tor Tref )
dt
(5.1-3)
VC p dTo' F1C p F2 C p UA
+ To' = T1' + T2' + Tc' (5.1-4)
FC p + UA dt FC p + UA FC p + UA FC p + UA
To make some sense of the equation coefficients, define the tank residence
time
V
R = (5.1-5)
F
and a ratio of the capability for heat transfer to the capability for enthalpy
removal by flow.
UA
= (5.1-6)
FC p
thus indicates the importance of heat transfer in the mixing of the fluids.
We now use (5.1-5) and (5.1-6) to define the dynamic parameters: time
constant and gains.
R
= (5.1-7)
1+
F1
K1 = F (5.1-8)
1+
F2
K2 = F (5.1-9)
1+
K3 = (5.1-10)
1+
dTo'
+ To' = K1T1' + K 2 T2' + K 3Tc' (5.1-11)
dt
dT '
{
L o + To' = L K1T1' + K 2 T2' + K 3Tc' }
dt
dT '
{ } { } { }
L o + L To' = K1L T1' + K 2 L T2' + K 3 L Tc' { } (5.2-1)
dt
( )
sTo' (s) To' (0) + To' (s) = K1T1' (s) + K 2 T2' (s) + K 3Tc' (s)
K1 ' K K
To' (s) = T1 (s) + 2 T2' (s) + 3 Tc' (s)
s + 1 s + 1 s + 1
T1 t d1s T2 t d 2s
T1' (s) = e T2' (s) = e Tc' (s) = 0 (5.3-2)
s s
K1 T1 t d1s K 2 T2 t d 2s K3
To' (s) = e + e + 0 (5.3-3)
s + 1 s s + 1 s s + 1
We must invert each term; this is most easily done by processing the
polynomial first and then applying the time delay. Thus
1 1 t
L1 = 1 e (5.3-4)
s + 1 s
1 1 t d1s ( t t d1 )
L1 e = U(t t d1 )1 e (5.3-5)
s + 1 s
and finally
( t t d1 )
( ttd 2 )
To* = K1T1U(t t d1 )1 e
+ K 2 T2 U ( t t )
d2 1 e (5.3-6)
0
T'o (K)
-1
-2
-3
-4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
t (s)
% INPUT variables
% tauR residence time in seconds
% beta heat transfer significance parameter
% F1frac fraction of flow in stream 1
% OUTPUT variables
% To the deviation in outlet temperature is plotted
end % heated_tank
y yb
y* 100% (5.6-1)
y max y min
If the bias value yb is set to the minimum ymin, then y* varies between 0
and 100%. This is the typical control room presentation. If instead the
bias value is set to the reference value yr, then y* varies from
The scaled range is still 100% wide, but includes both positive and
negative regions, depending on where yr lies between ymin and ymax. Of
course, yb may be set to any arbitrary value between the limits, but ymin
and yr are generally the most useful.
We will use primes () to denote deviation variables and asterisks (*) for
scaled variables. Unadorned variables will be presumed to be physical.
To convert a deviation variable y (from an analytical solution, e.g.) for
presentation as a scaled variable y*, the definitions are combined:
y*
(y + y ) y
'
r b
100% (5.6-3)
y max y min
T(C)
43
40
T'(C)
-3
100
T*(%)
30
0
t
Figure 5.6-1 Expressing the variable in physical, deviation, and scaled forms
CONTROL SCHEME
By the model, we are left with the condensing vapor temperature as the
manipulated variable. But what sort of valve adjusts temperature? We
will discuss this below when we select equipment.
1
t
x *co x *co , b = K *c * + *dt (5.10-1)
TI 0
where x*co is the controller output and the controlled variable error is
* = y*sp y* (5.10-2)
Integral mode integrates the error, so that the controller output x*co, which
drives the manipulated variable in the loop, increases with the persistence
of error *, in addition to its severity. The influence of the integral mode is
set by the magnitude of the integral time TI. In the special case of a
constant error input to the controller, TI is the time in which the controller
output doubles. Thus decreasing TI strengthens the controller response.
Very large TI disables the integral mode, leaving a proportional controller.
The dimensionless controller gain K*c acts on both the proportional and
integral modes.
y*(%)
60
40
*(%)
0
-20
x*co(%)
50
30
10
t
Figure 5.10-1: response of isolated PI controller to an input pulse
For our analytical work, we will want to express the controller algorithm
in deviation variables. We proceed by substituting from definition (5.6-1)
into the algorithm (5.10-1) and (5.10-2).
= (y sp y )
100%
y max y min
(5.10-3)
(
= y y '100%
sp
'
y max y min
)
100%
=
y max y min
x co 0% x 0%
x *co x *co ,b = 100% co ,b 100%
100 0% 100 0%
= x co x co ,b (5.10-4)
= x co x co ,r
= x 'co
100%
t
1
TI 0
x =K
' *
+ dt
y
co c
(5.10-5)
1
t
= K c + dt
TI 0
The dimensionless controller gain K*c (the setting that would actually be
found on the controller itself) is multiplied by the ratio 100% y-1 to
produce a dimensional quantity Kc. Kc converts the dimensions of the
error to the % units of controller output xco. If the error were expressed
in the units of a physical variable (a liquid level, for example), y would
perhaps be some number of centimeters. If error were instead expressed
in terms of the output of a signal transducer on the measuring instrument,
y might be in volts or milliamps.
Limits placed on temperature can be both high and low, depending on the
process. Reasons for imposing high limits are often undesirable chemical
changes: polymerization, product degradation, fouling, side reactions.
Both high and low limits may be imposed to avoid phase changes: boiling
and freezing for liquids.
EQUIPMENT
Ts = K s To + b s (5.12-1)
The sensor range is adjusted by varying Ks and bs. For example, suppose
that we wish to follow To over the range 50 to 100C. Then
(4) mA = K s (50)D C + bs
(20) mA = K s (100)D C + bs (5.12-2)
K s = (0.32 ) mA K 1 b s = ( 12 ) mA
Ts (4)mA T (50)D C
Ts* = 100% = o 100% (5.12-4)
(20 4)mA (100 50)D C
From (5.12-4), we see that the scaled sensor output may be defined in
terms of the sensor reading or the controlled variable itself. A temperature
of 75C causes a sensor output of 12 mA, or 50% of range.
Ks
Ts' (s) = To' (s) (5.12-5)
ss + 1
heat exchanger
bundle in tank
steam trap
condensate return
Kv
Tc' (s) = x 'co (s) (5.13-1)
vs + 1
We understand that our process is actually a tank, but what does the
controller look like? For many years, the controller was a physical box
that manipulated air flow with bellows and dampers; its output was an air
pressure that positioned a valve stem. Coughanowr and Koppel (chap.22)
describe such mechanisms.
initialization
set up arrays to hold variables
set controller parameters (Kc*, TI)
process
x'd1(s)
Gd1(s)
x'd2(s)
Gd2(s)
final
control Gv(s) Gs(s)
controller
element
y's (s)
x'co(s) ' (s) -
Gc(s)
y'sp(s)
Gsp(s) y'sp,s(s)
G d1 Gd2 G m G v G c G sp
y 'c (s) = x 'd1 (s) + x 'd 2 (s) + '
y sp (s) (5.15-1)
(1 + G m G v G c G s ) (1 + G m G v G c G s ) (1 + G m G v G c G s )
We apply (5.15-1) to our heated tank by inserting the particular transfer
functions from Sections 5.2, 5.12, 5.13, and 5.14. Thus the disturbance
transfer function is
K1TI
'
s
T (s) KsKcK vK3
o
= (5.15-2)
'
T (s) TI 1 + KsKcK vK3
1 s 2 + TI s +1
KsKcK vK3 KsKcK vK3
(and similarly for disturbance T2) and the set point transfer function is
4
1 K s K c K v K 3 1 + 2 K s K c K v K 3 + (K s K c K v K 3 )
2
TI
s1 , s 2 = (5.16-1)
2
We observe that the poles could be complex, so that the closed loop
response could be oscillatory. The tendency toward a negative square
root, and thus oscillation, is exacerbated by reducing the integral time TI.
We also observe that the real part of the poles is negative, indicating a
stable system.
We illustrate set point step response for real poles, where the set point is
changed by magnitude T:
1 1
TI TI
s1 s2
To' = T 1 + es1t es 2 t (5.16-2)
1 1 1 1
s 2 s1 s 2 s1
The response is written in terms of poles s1 and s2. Because they are
negative, the two exponential terms decay in time, leaving the long-term
change in set point as T. Thus we requested that the tank temperature
change by T, and the tank temperature changed by T. There is no
offset - this is the contribution of the integral mode of control.
y(s) Ms + K
= 2 (5.17-2)
x (s) s + s + 1
2
< (5.17-3)
4
3
unequal, negative
poles: stable, non-
oscillating
2 equal, negative
poles: stable, non-
oscillating
1
complex negative
poles: stable,
unequal poles of
oscillating
opposite sign:
beta
0 excursively
unstable complex positive imaginary poles:
poles: unstable, persistent
-1 oscillating oscillation
equal, positive
poles: excursively
-2 unstable
unequal, positive
poles: excursively
unstable
-3
-1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
alpha
2 4
1 , 2 = (5.17-4)
2
The system will be stable if both 1 and 2 are positive, as they were for the
mixing tanks of Lesson 4. A second-order step response is
(t t d ) (t t d )
M 1 M 2
y ( t ) = AKU (t t d )1 1 e 1
+ 1 e 2
(5.17-5)
K1 1 2 K 2 1 2
1 =
1 2
(
= + 2 1 ) (5.17-6)
2 =
+ 1 2
(
= 2 1 ) (5.17-7)
= 1 2 (5.17-8)
1 + 2
= (5.17-9)
2 1 2
1 + 2 = 2 (5.17-10)
1 2 = 2 2 1 (5.17-11)
( ) + 1 1 ( t t d )
2 2
M
1 2 1 e
( t t d ) K 2 2 1
y( t ) = AKU(t t d )1 e
(5.18-1)
( )
1 1 ( t t d )
2 2
M
1 K + 1
2
e
2 2 1
( t t d )
M (t t d )
y( t ) = AKU(t t d )1 e
1 + 1 (5.19-1)
K
1.2
1
1.1
1.5
2
0.8
=3
y(t)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
time
( )
2 1 = 1 2 = j 1 2 (5.20-1)
M
y( t ) = AKU(t t d )1 e
( t t d ) (t t ) K sin 1 2 ( t t )
cos 1 +
2
(5.20-2)
d d
1 2
2
1
2
1 +
2 M
y( t ) = AKU(t t d )1 e
( t t d )
K
sin 1 2 (t t d ) + tan 1 1 2
M
1 2
K
(5.20-3)
Step Response
1.4
1.2
0.8
x(t) and y(t)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-0.2
time
5
4 overshoot
3
2
reciprocal zero*tau
1.8
1.6 p
1.4
normalized response
A
1.2
C
1
0.8
0.6
B
0.4
0.2
0 rise time response time
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
normalized time
1 2
overshoot = e
1 2 2
p = = =
f 1 2
TI
cl = (5.25-1)
KsKcK vK3
1 + KsKcK vK3 TI
= (5.25-2)
2 K s K c K v K 3
From (5.25-1) we see that increasing controller gain Kc and decreasing the
integral time TI tend to speed the loop response. Both these adjustments
move the controller in the direction of aggressive tuning. The results of
aggressive tuning are mixed on the damping coefficient - decreasing TI
increases oscillation, but increasing Kc suppresses it. The lower limit of ,
however, is zero, so our second-order closed loop can be unstable
(theoretically) only in the limit of zero integral time.
K1TI
s
K s K c K v K 3 T
To (s) = 2 2
'
(5.25-3)
cls + 2 cls + 1 s
t
K1TI T 1 t
To' ( t ) = e cl sin 1 2 (5.25-4)
K s K c K v K 3 cl 1 2 cl
Equation (5.25-4) shows that the response oscillates about, and decays to,
zero; as with the set point response we calculated in (5.16-2), there is no
offset in the controlled variable, in spite of the permanent change in input.
Thus integral-mode control has improved our ability to control the outlet
temperature.
Figure 5.25-1 shows responses for several controller tunings that is,
several choices of parameters Kc (represented within the loop gain K) and
TI (scaled to the process time constant). Upon reducing the integral time,
we reduce the amplitude of the error but undergo more oscillation. By
increasing the gain, we speed the decay and thus reduce both the
1.5
1
T'o (K)
0.5
-0.5
0 100 200 300 400
t (s)
IE = ( t )dt (5.26-1)
0
IAE = ( t ) dt (5.26-2)
0
ITAE = t ( t ) dt (5.26-4)
0
Of course, these integral error measures can be defined for scaled error *,
as well. The latter three will always increase as the controlled variable
spends time away from the set point, so in general, smaller means better
control. The measures can be calculated from plant data to compare the
results of different tunings. They can also be used to compare the results
of simulations. For example, we could calculate IAE for the three traces
in Figure 5.25-1.
KsK cK vK3 1
GL = 1 + (5.26-1)
s + 1 TIs
and
1
= tan 1 ( ) + tan 1 (5.26-3)
TI
The Bode plot is made for three ratios of tank time constant to controller
setting TI. For the least aggressive tuning with large TI, the response
resembles that of a first order system, although we notice different
behavior at low frequencies, due to the integral controller. Decreasing the
integral time depresses the phase angle toward a uniform -90 and
increases the low-frequency amplitude ratio. The amplitude ratio on the
plot is normalized by the loop gain; high controller gain settings would
directly increase the amplitude of low-frequency disturbances.
100
amplitude ratio/gain
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0
-30 0.01
phase angle (deg)
0.1
-60
-90
/TI = 1
-120
-150
-180
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
(radians)
Because the phase lag never reaches -180, the closed loop will remain
stable. However, we see that the integral mode contributes phase lag at
low frequencies, as well as boosts the amplitude ratio. Combined with
other lags in a closed loop, integral control would tend to destabilize the
loop.
5.30 references
Coughanowr, Donald R., and Lowell B. Koppel. Process Systems Analysis and Control.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1965. ISBN: 0070132100.
Marlin, Thomas E. Process Control. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2000. ISBN: 0070393621.