INTRODUCTION & DEFINITION

Radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that creates electromagnetic
energy is called solar radiation. (Ambientweathercom, 2017). The energy emitted by it is our
primary source that drives our environment to what we have today. Solar energy is important in
maintaining the temperature of a planet that supports life, like the Earth for example. It is also
one of the many necessities for plants as it responsible for photosynthesis and human are likely
to be doomed without the sun.

Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves. The radiation is produced directly
from the source outward in all directions. These waves do not need a material medium to
propagate, can travel through interplanetary space and reach Earth from the sun. (Solar energy,
2017).

Figure 1: Global modification of incoming solar radiation by atmospheric and surface processes.

Figure above describes the modification of solar radiation by atmospheric and surface processes
for the whole Earth over a period of one year. Of all the sunlight that passes through the
atmosphere annually, only 51% is available at the Earth's surface to do work. This energy is used
to heat the Earth's surface and lower the atmosphere, which then also melt and evaporate water,
and run photosynthesis in plants. Of the other 49%, 4% is reflected back to space by the Earth's
surface, 26% is scattered or reflected to space by clouds and atmospheric particles, and 19% is
absorbed by atmospheric gases, particles, and clouds.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOLAR RADIATION
Solar energy is both radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed from a range of ever-
evolving technology like electromagnetic radiation. It is a vital source and is renewable. The
technologies are broadly categorized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how
they capture and distribute the solar energy and convert it to solar power. The energy is mainly
used for heating, drying, distillation or power generation.

The energy radiated from the sun is electromagnetic waves that reaches the planet in three
spectral regions which are ultraviolet, visible and infrared.

There are 3 types of radiation. First is known as direct radiation which a solar radiation that reach
the surface of the Earth without being diffused. Second is called diffused radiation which when
the sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered and reflected by air
molecules, water vapor, cloud, dust and certain pollutants from the environment. The last one is
known as global solar radiation which are the sum of direct radiation and diffused radiation
together. (Su-per-borg, 2017)

The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differ according to the amount of solar
energy present near the surface of the planet because of factors such as geography, time
variation, cloud cover, season and the land available to humans limit the amount of solar energy
we can acquire. Figure below lightly explains the solar radiation principles.
Figure 2: Solar radiation principles
WHY CIVIL ENGINEERS NEED TO HAVE KNOWLEDGE ON
SOLAR RADIATION
Being a civil engineer does not only involves on constructing buildings, bridges, roads or water
resource plant. It also involves in knowing the right way and the right condition to construct it.
Having knowledge on solar radiation helps to better understand the hydrological cycle as it is
involves in controlling the cycles, such as evaporation and precipitation. Hydrological cycle can
affect the location of the construction and the process of construction itself. Thus, the knowledge
on solar radiation helps the massing, orientation and the details of the designed buildings. These
all are important in the context of optimizing the solar gain in both wanted and unwanted, thus
reducing the energy demand.

Solar energy are typically used for low temperature heating, commonly as domestic hot water,
but it is also important for space heating. There are two basic designs: flat plate collectors and
evacuated tube collectors. Hybrid panels are also available, combining PV and thermal reaching
a cogeneration efficiency of 80% (IEA, 2011). A heat transfer fluid which consists of air, water,
antifreeze fluid and mixture circulates through the collector where it is warmed and a heating
coil that usually in the domestic hot water tank. The collector and the tank are usually configured
to achieve natural convection but a pump is generally needed too. This is where the engineers
come to help because the controls are needed to ensure that the transfer fluid is only circulated
when the tank temperature will be raised and excessive tank temperature must also be prevented.
The risk of Legionella pneumophila must be considered. One solution may be to ensure that the
storage temperature is raised to more than 60C at least daily by supplementary heating when
there is inadequate solar energy. This is why, not only civil engineers should be familiar on the
knowledge of solar radiation, and they should master it so there will be no complication later in
the future.

Solar energy offers a promising prospect. Raw solar energy is rich and its life cycle carbon
emissions are very low. The International Energy Agency has suggested that solar technologies
could provide a third of the world's energy by 2060 (IEA, 2011). The technological difficulty of
storing, transmission and transporting to facilitate the energy are undeniably challenging but
given the political will address the long term security of the most favorable sites of transmission
and transport, solar energy has the potential to make the biggest contribution of any single
energy source to the dilemmas of affordability, security of supply and decarbonisation and the
civil engineers must be all aware of this kind of opportunity in the future so without the
knowledge on solar radiation and its importance, everything will go to waste.

Figure 3: Malaysias annual average daily global solar irradiation.

APPLICATION FOR SOLAR RADIATION (related to civil
engineering)
Various countries around the globe has been emphasizing on research about saving and the usage
of green energy. Taiwan is not excluded, being an island located nation in a subtropical zone
with more than 80% of the population living in regions with mean sea level of at least 400 m or
lower. Geological factors and climatic condition are limiting the people of Taiwan of using too
much space, hence causing most of the population to be crowded in buildings that are
concentrated in the metropolitan areas.

Surrounded by tall and gigantic buildings covered by a glass shell, they have been heavily
dependent on artificial air conditioning system to resist the outstanding heat outside the
buildings. Too much buildings are taking a toll on the energy consumptions. Most buildings in
Taiwan are experiencing with poor indoor circulation thus making them to import most of their
energy that is up to 98% are imported.

It has become an urgent necessary to develop sustainable energy that is not only renewable but
also inexhaustible and abundant. The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy. It
offers enough energy in 60 seconds to supply the world's energy needs for 365 days. Hence how
to efficiently use solar energy is becoming an active research topic in various countries today.

Solar energy can either be used as light or heat energy, majority of studies and research are
focusing on photoelectrical conversion of light energy to electricity. Using special material of
semi-conductor, the solar beam can directly be converted into electricity. The semi-conductor
industries are booming in the recent years that led to rapid advancement in manufacturing thus
making solar energy project more cost efficient.

Hence, in this research, three types of integrated solar panel system will be developed for the
buildings covered with glass panels and cooled with central air conditioners. The results of
analyzing changing climates and examining building materials are used to propose the
replacement of traditional glass plate by solar photoelectric panels to be an integrated part of the
building shell proposed as the BIPV (Building-Integrated Photovoltaic) system in building
architecture.
Results of laboratory research proved that using solar photoelectric panels to provide electrical
energy to the building, as well as using the BIPV building shell are worthy in thermally shielding
the building.

The BIPV system proposed in this research will greatly improve the electricity burden during
peak hours, its application will promote the development of sustainable energy sources.
Comparisons of these solar panels to be used on buildings will be conducted based on their
material, angle, temperature, and panel clarity. The results will be used to access the actual cost-
effectiveness of installing and using these solar panels on existing buildings. (Intechopencom,
2017)

The basic principle of solar electricity generation is to convert solar light with wavelengths
between 0.7 to 0.9 micrometer irradiating on a semiconductor. Electromotive difference is
produced when the negatively charged electron and the positively charged electron holes are
generated and accumulated at the P-type and the N-type layer regions, respectively depending on
their unique characteristics, all is happening inside the semi-conductor. If connected to an
external loading, the semiconductor cell produces electricity that can be used for a variety
application in the building.

The integrated photoelectrical solar panels used in this experiment have 30kW capacity
consisting of 8.58kW, 8.82kW, and 12.6kW panels. Figure 4 shows the system (System I)
equipped with multiple crystal silica arrays. (Intechopencom, 2017)
Figure 4: Integrated photoelectrical solar panel System I of 8.58kW
Figure 5 shows the system (System II) equipped with multiple silica and single silica solar
energy photoelectrical panels.

Figure 5: Integrated photoelectrical solar panel System II of 8.82kW

Figure 6 shows the system (System III) with single silica solar photoelectrical panels only
installed.

Figure 6: Integrated photoelectrical solar panel System III of 12.6kW

The integrated solar energy panel planned in this studies consists of shielding and solar panels.
Initially, the experimental room is only equipped with the proposed shielding panels for
comparing variations of the room temperature, humidity, and energy consumption of air
conditioning before and after installing the shield panels. Solar energy panels are then installed
for reviewing the performance and proficiency of solar photocells made of different materials
under various environmental conditions, comparing the effectiveness of solar photoelectrical
systems equipped with or without the battery module, analyzing the various methods to connect
the current converters, studying the effect of solar panel installation angles on the efficiency
under solar radiation.

The experimental site is located in Tainan City, Taiwan; the experimental installations are shown
in Figures 7 and 8. The solar panel system is attached on an existing building in order to assess
on-site the systems proficiency under natural solar radiation conditions. The assessment is also
carried out using a system facing east, south, and west so that yearly performance and efficiency
of the solar system anticipated in this research can be measured.

The on-site experimental results obtained with three experimental rooms are shown in Figure 7.
The room equipped with a shading board shows lower temperature of 2.6C to 2.7 C in August
and 1.8 C to 2.1 C in September.
Figure 7: The temperature variation of various test rooms before and after they were equipped
with a shading board
Figure 8 shows the analyses on energy consumption in August and September for the three
rooms. Savings on air conditioning energy air consumptions for the two-year study period were
9.17% to 31.95% in August and 18.30% to 29.05% in September.

Figure 8: The power consumption in August and September for the three rooms before and after
they were equipped with a shading board.
SOLAR RADIATION MEASUREMENT
Visible and near-visible which are also known as ultraviolet and near-infrared respectively, that
have different regions described by their wavelength within the broad range of 0.20 to 4.0 m
(microns). The term used to describe radiation emitted from the atmosphere is called terrestrial
radiation. The components of solar radiation and their own respective approximate wavelength
ranges are listed below.

Ultraviolet: 0.20 0.39 m

Visible: 0.39 0.78 m

Near-Infrared: 0.78 4.00 m

Infrared: 4.00 100.00 m

Approximate value of almost 99% of solar radiation belong on the region ranging from 0.3 to 3.0
m while most of terrestrial radiation contained in the region from 3.5 to 50 m.

To measure the ultraviolet radiation of which its wavelength lies in the range of 0.295 to 0.385
m, Total Ultraviolet Radiometer (Model TUVR) was specifically designed and developed. The
radiometer utilizes a photoelectric cell protected by a quartz window.

A specially designed Teflon diffuser not only reduces the radiant flux to acceptable levels but
also provides close adherence to the Lambert cosine law. An encapsulated narrow bandpass
(interference) filter limits the spectral response of the photocell to the wavelength interval 0.295-
.0385 m. (Eppleylabcom, 2017)

The TUVR is a simple detector measurement for the solar UV radiation. Its friendly operation
combined with the accurate performance that is quite comparable with a pyranometer is intended
to record a total shortwave radiation which ranging within (0.295 to 0.385 m) makes this
instrument attractive for UV measurement.
 Figure 9: Total ultraviolet radiometer

Figure 10: specifications for total ultraviolet radiometer

As solar radiation passes through the earths atmosphere, some of it may be absorbed and some
may scattered by water vapor, aerosol or clouds. The solar radiation that passes directly to the
earths surface is called Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI). The radiation that has been scattered
out of the direct beam is called Diffuse Irradiance. The direct component of sunlight and the
diffuse component of skylight falling together on a horizontal surface make up Global Irradiance.

Direct radiation is best measured by using a pyrheliometer, which measures radiation at normal
incidence. The Normal Incidence Pyrheliometer (Model sNIP) consists of a wirewound
thermopile at the base of a tube with a viewing angle of approximately 5 which limits the
radiation.

The pyrheliometer is mounted on a solar tracker to measure the radiation from the sun.
Generally, the field of view for pyrheliometers was based on a 10:1 ratio which equated to
approximately 5.7. Due in part to the commercialization of the Eppley AHF Cavity Radiometer
as a primary standard and advances in accuracy of automatic solar trackers such as the (Eppley
SMT Tracker), the preferred field of view for pyrheliometers is now 5. The new Eppleys sNIP
has a 5 field of view. In fact, it has the exact same geometric dimensions as used in the AHF.
Additionally, internal changes were employed to increase the response time and reduce
conduction with the convection issues and a thermistor is included for those to measure the
apparatus temperature.

Figure 11: normal incidence pyrheliometer

Figure 12: specifications for normal incidence pyrheliometer
Global radiation is measured by a pyranometer. The modern pyranometer is manufactured by the
Eppley Laboratory using wirewound plated thermopiles. Measuring global radiation can be used
with one of three models: the Standard Precision Pyranometer (Model SPP), the Global Precision
Pyranometer (Model GPP), and the Black & White Pyranometer (Model 8-48). The SPP has a
black sensor protected by two precision ground, polished hemispheres and is a better device for
global measurements. Based on the SPP, the GPP is specifically designed as a lower cost
alternative for the photovoltaic industry. The model 8-48 has a black and white sensor that is
protected by a single polished hemisphere and is the ideal apparatus for diffuse radiation
measurements.

1) Standard Precision Pyranometer (Model SPP)

2) Global Precision Pyranometer (Model GPP)
3) The Black & White Pyranometer (Model 8-48)

The Black & White Pyranometer is most often used in the highest quality networks as a diffuse
radiation apparatus. While all black pyranometers such as the SPP, GPP and PSP are preferred
for Global, Reflected or TPA measurements due to their better cosine response and time
response (Eppleylabcom, 2017). These do not significantly matter to a shaded pyranometer as
the black & white has no offset that naturally occur in the all-black pyranometers, it makes it
more suitable for diffuse measurements.
SOLAR RADIATION DATA
Raw data

Analyze data
COOL FACTS ABOUT SOLAR RADIATION
1) Solar radiation power is the most sustainable, one of the cleanest and the most renewable
resources we can find in the world.
2) Nevada, Las Vegas is the biggest city in the country to operate 100% renewable sources
that is using solar power.
3) The first solar-powered calculators were invented in 1978.
4) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has currently been working on
developing solar-powered aircrafts.
5) Sunlight takes around eight minutes to reach Earth and a few seconds longer to make
contact with our solar panels. It is amazing how 8 minutes few second could stop
pollution for 100 years if everyone is using solar panels.
SELF REFLECTION ON THE CREATION OF SOLAR RADIATION

A village in Kelantan, a farm in New Zealand, an office buildings in Kuching, satellites floating
around in the earths orbit all of these examples have one similarities in it, all rely on the sun as
the primary source of power. Our sun and its ray is not something we should take for granted.
Because every life begins with the sun. Without the sun shining its bright sunlight, plants, animal
and human would not be here in the first place. Our earth is just this cold live less planet in this
universe. The opportunity that is given by the solar power is abundant if only we know how to
seize them. Be it job opportunities, less pollution or even help to improve in our economy. We
should come to realize that the fuel power is decreasing day by day and it is a non-renewable
source of energy. It keeps on depleting that maybe by 2040 there will be no ocean enough to be
drill to sustain our fuel needs. So while we still have the chances, we should invest and keep on
developing solar panel system or fully using our solar sources to replace fuel.
REFERENCES
1) Ambientweathercom. (2017). Ambientweathercom. Retrieved 23 September, 2017, from
http://www.ambientweather.com/solarradiation.html
2) Eppleylabcom. (2017). The Eppley Laboratory, EPLAB. Retrieved 23 September,
2017, from http://www.eppleylab.com/introduction-to-solar-radiation-measurements/
3) Iceorguk. (2017). Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE). Retrieved 23 September,
2017, from https://www.ice.org.uk/knowledge-and-resources/briefing-sheet/solar-energy
4) Intechopencom. (2017). Intechopencom. Retrieved 23 September, 2017, from
https://www.intechopen.com/books/solar-radiation-applications
5) Intechopencom. (2017, no-date). Development of Novel Building-Integrated Photovoltaic
(BIPV) System in Building Architectural Envelope. [Weblog]. Retrieved 23 September
2017, from https://www.intechopen.com/books/solar-radiation-applications/development-
of-novel-building-integrated-photovoltaic-bipv-system-in-building-architectural-envelope
6) Slidesharenet. (2017). Slidesharenet. Retrieved 23 September, 2017, from
https://www.slideshare.net/saranraj107/principles-of-solar-radiation
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https://www.researchgate.net/figure/280534651_fig6_Figure-6-Annual-anomalies-of-
surface-incident-solar-radiation-Rs-averaged-from-105
8) Alliedacademiesorg. (2017). Alliedacademiesorg. Retrieved 23 September, 2017, from
http://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/implementation-analysis-of-technicaleconomic-
solar-and-wind-energy-potential-for-small-homes-a-case-study.html