Milling cutter

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Milling cutters are cutting tools typically used in milling machines or machining centres
(and occasionally in other machine tools). They remove material by their movement within
the machine (e.g., a ball nose mill) or directly from the cutter's shape (e.g., a form tool such
as a hobbing cutter).

Contents
[hide]

1 Features of a milling cutter

2 Types
o 2.1 End mill
o 2.2 Slot drill
o 2.3 Roughing end mill
o 2.4 Ball nose cutter
o 2.5 Slab mill
o 2.6 Side-and-face cutter
o 2.7 Involute gear cutter
o 2.8 Hob
o 2.9 Face mill
o 2.10 Fly cutter
o 2.11 Woodruff cutter
o 2.12 Hollow mill
o 2.13 Dovetail cutter
3 Using a milling cutter
o 3.1 Chip formation
o 3.2 Conventional milling versus climb milling
o 3.3 Swarf removal
4 Selecting a milling cutter
5 History
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography

[edit] Features of a milling cutter

An End Mill cutter with two flutes

Milling cutters come in several shapes and many sizes. There is also a choice of coatings, as
well as rake angle and number of cutting surfaces.

Shape: Several standard shapes of milling cutter are used in industry today, which are
explained in more detail below.
 Flutes / teeth: The flutes of the milling bit are the deep helical grooves running up the
cutter, while the sharp blade along the edge of the flute is known as the tooth. The
tooth cuts the material, and chips of this material are pulled up the flute by the
rotation of the cutter. There is almost always one tooth per flute, but some cutters
have two teeth per flute.[1] Often, the words flute and tooth are used interchangeably.
Milling cutters may have from one to many teeth, with 2, 3 and 4 being most
common. Typically, the more teeth a cutter has, the more rapidly it can remove
material. So, a 4-tooth cutter can remove material at twice the rate of a 2-tooth cutter.
Helix angle: The flutes of a milling cutter are almost always helical. If the flutes were
straight, the whole tooth would impact the material at once, causing vibration and
reducing accuracy and surface quality. Setting the flutes at an angle allows the tooth
to enter the material gradually, reducing vibration. Typically, finishing cutters have a
higher rake angle (tighter helix) to give a better finish.
Center cutting: Some milling cutters can drill straight down (plunge) through the
material, while others cannot. This is because the teeth of some cutters do not go all
the way to the centre of the end face. However, these cutters can cut downwards at an
angle of 45 degrees or so.
Roughing or Finishing: Different types of cutter are available for cutting away large
amounts of material, leaving a poor surface finish (roughing), or removing a smaller
amount of material, but leaving a good surface finish (finishing). A roughing cutter
may have serrated teeth for breaking the chips of material into smaller pieces. These
teeth leave a rough surface behind. A finishing cutter may have a large number (4 or
more) teeth for removing material carefully. However, the large number of flutes
leaves little room for efficient swarf removal, so they are less appropriate for
removing large amounts of material.
Coatings: The right tool coatings can have a great influence on the cutting process by
increasing cutting speed and tool life, and improving the surface finish.
Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) is an exceptionally hard coating used on cutters
which must withstand high abrasive wear. A PCD coated tool may last up to 100
times longer than an uncoated tool. However the coating cannot be used at
temperatures above 600 degrees C, or on ferrous metals. Tools for machining
aluminium are sometimes given a coating of TiAlN. Aluminium is a relatively sticky
metal, and can weld itself to the teeth of tools, causing them to appear blunt. However
it tends not to stick to TiAlN, allowing the tool to be used for much longer in
aluminium.
Shank: The shank is the cylindrical (non-fluted) part of the tool which is used to hold
and locate it in the tool holder. A shank may be perfectly round, and held by friction,
or it may have a Weldon Flat, where a grub screw makes contact for increased torque
without the tool slipping. The diameter may be different from the diameter of the
cutting part of the tool, so that it can be held by a standard tool holder.

[edit] Types
[edit] End mill

Slot, end mill, and ballnose cutters

Main article: End mill

End mills (middle row in image) are those tools which have cutting teeth at one end, as well
as on the sides. The words end mill are generally used to refer to flat bottomed cutters, but
also include rounded cutters (referred to as ball nosed) and radiused cutters (referred to as
bull nose, or torus). They are usually made from high speed steel (HSS) or carbide, and have
one or more flutes. They are the most common tool used in a vertical mill.

[edit] Slot drill

Slot drills (top row in image) are generally two (occasionally three or four) fluted cutters that
are designed to drill straight down into the material. This is possible because there is at least
one tooth at the centre of the end face. They are so named for their use in cutting keyway
slots. The term slot drill is usually assumed to mean a two fluted, flat bottomed end mill if no
other information is given. Two fluted end mills are usually slot drills, three fluted sometimes
are not, and four fluted usually are not.

[edit] Roughing end mill

Roughing end mills quickly remove large amounts of material. This kind of end mill utilizes
a wavy tooth form cut on the periphery. These wavy teeth form many successive cutting
edges producing many small chips, resulting in a relatively rough surface finish. During
cutting, multiple teeth are in contact with the workpiece reducing chatter and vibration. Rapid
stock removal with heavy milling cuts is sometimes called hogging. Roughing end mills are
also sometimes known as ripping cutters.

[edit] Ball nose cutter

Ball nose cutters (lower row in image) are similar to slot drills, but the end of the cutters are
hemispherical. They are ideal for machining 3-dimensional contoured shapes in machining
centres, for example in moulds and dies. They are sometimes called ball mills in shop-floor
slang, despite the fact that that term also has another meaning. They are also used to add a
radius between perpendicular faces to reduce stress concentrations. There is also a term bull
nose cutter, which refers more to a cutter having a corner radius less than half the cutter
diameter; e.g. a 20 mm diameter cutter with a 1 mm radius corner.

[edit] Slab mill

HSS slab mill

Slab mills are used either by themselves or in gang milling operations on manual horizontal
or universal milling machines to machine large broad surfaces quickly. They have been
superseded by the use of carbide-tipped face mills which are then used in vertical mills or
machining centres.

[edit] Side-and-face cutter

Side and face cutter

The side-and-face cutter is designed with cutting teeth on its side as well as its circumference.
They are made in varying diameters and widths depending on the application. The teeth on
the side allow the cutter to make unbalanced cuts (cutting on one side only) without
deflecting the cutter as would happen with a slitting saw or slot cutter (no side teeth).

Cutters of this form factor were the earliest milling cutters developed. From the 1810s to at
least the 1880s, they were the most common form of milling cutter, whereas today that
distinction probably goes to end mills.

[edit] Involute gear cutter

Involute gear cutter number 4:

10 diametrical pitch cutter
Cuts gears from 26 through to 34 teeth
14.5 degree pressure angle

There are 8 cutters (excluding the rare half sizes) that will cut gears from 12 teeth through to
a rack (infinite diameter).

[edit] Hob

Hobbing cutter
Main article: Hob

Aluminium Chromium Titanium Nitride (AlCrTiN) coated Hob using Cathodic arc
deposition technique

These cutters are a type of form tool and are used in hobbing machines to generate gears. A
cross section of the cutters tooth will generate the required shape on the workpiece, once set
to the appropriate conditions (blank size). A hobbing machine is a specialised milling
machine.

[edit] Face mill

Carbide tipped face mill

A face mill consists of a cutter body (with the appropriate machine taper) that is designed to
hold multiple disposable carbide or ceramic tips or inserts, often golden in color. The tips are
not designed to be resharpened and are selected from a range of types that may be determined
by various criteria, some of which may be: tip shape, cutting action required, material being
cut. When the tips are blunt, they may be removed, rotated (indexed) and replaced to present
a fresh, sharp face to the workpiece, this increases the life of the tip and thus their economical
cutting life.

[edit] Fly cutter

A fly cutter is composed of a body into which one or two tool bits are inserted. As the entire
unit rotates, the tool bits take broad, shallow facing cuts. Fly cutters are analogous to face
mills in that their purpose is face milling and their individual cutters are replaceable. Face
mills are more ideal in various respects (e.g., rigidity, indexability of inserts without
disturbing effective cutter diameter or tool length offset, depth-of-cut capability), but tend to
be expensive, whereas fly cutters are very inexpensive.

[edit] Woodruff cutter

Woodruff key cutters and keys

Woodruff cutters are used to cut the keyway for a woodruff key.

[edit] Hollow mill

Hollow milling cutters, more often called simply hollow mills, are essentially "inside-out
endmills". They are shaped like a piece of pipe (but with thicker walls), with their cutting
edges on the inside surface. They are used on turret lathes and screw machines as an
alternative to turning with a box tool, or on milling machines or drill presses to finish a
cylindrical boss (such as a trunnion).

[edit] Dovetail cutter

A dovetail cutter is an endmill whose form leaves behind a dovetail slot.

[edit] Using a milling cutter

[edit] Chip formation

Although there are many different types of milling cutter, understanding chip formation is
fundamental to the use of any of them. As the milling cutter rotates, the material to be cut is
fed into it, and each tooth of the cutter cuts away small chip of material. Achieving the
correct size of chip is of critical importance. The size of this chip depends on several
variables.

Surface cutting speed (Vc): This is the speed at which each tooth cuts through the
material as the tool spins. This is measured either in metres per minute in metric
countries, or surface feet per minute (SFM) in America. Typical values for cutting
speed are 10m/min to 60m/min for some steels, and 100m/min and 600m/min for
aluminum. This should not be confused with the feed rate.
 Spindle speed (S): This is the rotation speed of the tool, and is measured in
revolutions per minute (rpm). Typical values are from hundreds of rpm, up to tens of
thousands of rpm.
Diameter of the tool (D):
Feed per tooth (Fz): This is the distance the material is fed into the cutter as each
tooth rotates. This value is the size of the deepest cut the tooth will make.
Feed rate (F): This is the speed at which the material is fed into the cutter. Typical
values are from 20mm/min to 5000mm/min.
Depth of cut: This is how deep the tool is under the surface of the material being cut
(not shown on the diagram). This will be the height of the chip produced. Typically,
the depth of cut will be less than or equal to the diameter of the cutting tool.

The machinist needs three values: S, F and Depth when deciding how to cut a new material
with a new tool. However, he will probably be given values of Vc and Fz from the tool
manufacturer. S and F can be calculated from them:

Spindle Speed Feed rate

The formula for the
Looking at the
feed rate, F shows that
formula for the
increasing S or z gives
spindle speed, S, it can
a higher feed rate.
be seen that larger
Therefore, machinists
tools require lower
may choose a tool
spindle speeds, while
with the highest
small tools may be
number of teeth that
able to go at high
can still cope with the
speeds.
swarf load.

[edit] Conventional milling versus climb milling

Conventional milling. Point A may become work hardened.

Chip formation during climb milling.

A milling cutter can cut in two directions, sometimes known as conventional or up and climb
or down.

Conventional milling (left): The chip thickness starts at zero thickness, and increases
up to the maximum. The cut is so light at the beginning that the tool does not cut, but
slides across the surface of the material, until sufficient pressure is built up and the
tooth suddenly bites and begins to cut. This deforms the material (at point A on the
diagram, left), work hardening it, and dulling the tool. The sliding and biting
behaviour leaves a poor finish on the material.

Climb milling (right): Each tooth engages the material at a definite point, and the
width of the cut starts at the maximum and decreases to zero. The chips are disposed
behind the cutter, leading to easier swarf removal. The tooth does not rub on the
material, and so tool life may be longer. However, climb milling can apply larger
loads to the machine, and so is not recommended for older milling machines, or
machines which are not in good condition. This type of milling is used predominantly
on mills with a backlash eliminator.

[edit] Swarf removal

Another important quality of the milling cutter to consider is its ability to deal with the swarf
generated by the cutting process. If the swarf is not removed as fast as it is produced, the
flutes will clog and prevent the tool cutting efficiently, causing vibration, tool wear and
overheating. Several factors affect swarf removal, including the depth and angle of the flutes,
the size and shape of the chips, the flow of coolant, and the surrounding material. It may be
difficult to predict, but a good machinist will watch out for swarf build up, and adjust the
milling conditions if it is observed.

[edit] Selecting a milling cutter

Selecting a milling cutter is not a simple task. There are many variables, opinions and lore to
consider, but essentially the machinist is trying to choose a tool which will cut the material to
the required specification for the least cost. The cost of the job is a combination of the price
of the tool, the time taken by the milling machine, and the time taken by the machinist. Often,
for jobs of a large number of parts, and days of machining time, the cost of the tool is lowest
of the three costs.

Material: High speed steel (HSS) cutters are the least-expensive and shortest-lived
cutters. Cobalt steel is an improvement on HSS and generally can be run 10% faster.
Carbide tools are more expensive than steel, but last longer, and can be run much
faster, so prove more economical in the long run. HSS tools are perfectly adequate for
many applications. The progression from HSS to cobalt steel to carbide could be
viewed as very good, even better, and the best.
Diameter: Larger tools can remove material faster than small ones, therefore the
largest possible cutter that will fit in the job is usually chosen. When milling an
internal contour, or concave external contours, the diameter is limited by the size of
internal curves. The radius of the cutter must be less than or equal to the radius of the
smallest arc.
Flutes: More flutes allows a higher feed rate, because there is less material removed
per flute. But because the core diameter increases, there is less room for swarf, so a
balance must be chosen.
Coating: Coatings, such as Titanium nitride, also increase initial cost but reduce wear
and increase tool life.
Helix angle: High helix angles are typically best for soft metals, and low helix angles
for hard or tough metals.

[edit] History
The history of milling cutters is intimately bound up with that of milling machines. Milling
evolved from rotary filing, so there is a continuum of development between the earliest
milling cutters known, such as that of Jacques de Vaucanson from about the 1760s or
1770s,[2][3] through the cutters of the milling pioneers of the 1810s through 1850s (Whitney,
North, Johnson, Nasmyth, and others),[4] to the cutters developed by Joseph R. Brown of
Brown & Sharpe in the 1860s, which were regarded as a break from the past[5][6] for their
large step forward in tooth coarseness and for the geometry that could take successive
sharpenings without losing the form of the cut. De Vries (1910)[6] reported, "This revolution
in the science of milling cutters took place in the States about the year 1870, and became
generally known in Europe during the Exhibition in Vienna in 1873. However strange it may
seem now that this type of cutter has been universally adopted and its undeniable superiority
to the old European type is no longer doubted, it was regarded very distrustfully and
European experts were very reserved in expressing their judgment. Even we ourselves can
remember that after the coarse pitched cutter had been introduced, certain very clever and
otherwise shrewd experts and engineers regarded the new cutting tool with many a shake of
the head. When[,] however, the Worlds Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, exhibited to
European experts a universal and many-sided application of the coarse pitched milling cutter
which exceeded even the most sanguine expectations, the most far-seeing engineers were
then convinced of the immense advantages which the application of the new type opened up
for the metalworking industry, and from that time onwards the American type advanced,
slowly at first, but later on with rapid strides".[7]
Woodbury provides citations[8] of patents for various advances in milling cutter design,
including irregular spacing of teeth (1867), forms of inserted teeth (1872), spiral groove for
breaking up the cut (1881), and others. He also provides a citation on how the introduction of
vertical mills brought about wider use of the endmill and fly cutter types.[9]

Scientific study by Holz and De Leeuw of the Cincinnati Milling Machine Company[10] made
the teeth even coarser and did for milling cutters what F.W. Taylor had done for single-point
cutters with his famous scientific cutting studies.

[edit] See also

Mortiser

[edit] References
1. ^ Rapid Traverse: More Teeth Per Flute
2. ^ Woodbury 1972, p. 23.
3. ^ Roe 1916, p. 206.
4. ^ Woodbury 1972, pp. 5152.
5. ^ Woodbury 1972, pp. 5155.
6. ^ a b De Vries 1910, p. 15.
7. ^ De Vries 1910, pp. 1516.
8. ^ Woodbury 1972, p. 54.
9. ^ Woodbury 1972, pp. 5455.
10. ^ Woodbury 1972, pp. 7981.

[edit] Bibliography
De Vries, D. (1910), Milling machines and milling practice: a practical manual for
the use of manufacturers, engineering students and practical men, London: E. & F.N.
Spon,
http://books.google.com/books?id=d0rOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse. Coedition, New York, Spon & Chamberlain, 1910.
Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven,
Connecticut, USA: Yale University Press, LCCN 16-011753,
http://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage. Reprinted
by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN 27-024075); and by Lindsay
Publications, Inc., Bradley, IL, USA (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7).
Woodbury, Robert S. (1972) [1960], History of the Milling Machine. In Studies in the
History of Machine Tools, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, and London, England:
MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-73033-4, LCCN 72-006354. First published alone as a
monograph in 1960.

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[show]v d eTypes of tools

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Cutting fluid
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Thin-wall milling of aluminum using a water-based cutting fluid on the milling cutter.

Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for metalworking and
machining processes. There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils, oil-water
emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists), and air or other gases. They may be made from
petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils, water and air, or other raw ingredients.
Depending on context and on which type of cutting fluid is being considered, it may be
referred to as cutting fluid, cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant, or lubricant.

Most metalworking and machining processes can benefit from the use of cutting fluid,
depending on workpiece material. A common exception to this is machining cast iron or
brass, which are machined dry.

The properties that are sought after in a good cutting fluid are the ability to:

keep the workpiece at a stable temperature (critical when working to close

tolerances). Very warm is OK, but extremely hot or alternating hot-and-cold are
avoided.
maximize the life of the cutting tip by lubricating the working edge and reducing tip
welding.
ensure safety for the people handling it (toxicity, bacteria, fungi) and for the
environment upon disposal.
prevent rust on machine parts and cutters.

Contents
[hide]

1 Functions
o 1.1 Cooling
o 1.2 Lubrication
2 Delivery methods
3 Types
o 3.1 Liquids
o 3.2 Pastes or gels
o 3.3 Aerosols (mists)
o 3.4 Air or other gases (e.g., nitrogen)
o 3.5 Past practice
4 Safety concerns
 5 Degradation, replacement, and disposal
6 References

[edit] Functions
[edit] Cooling

Metal cutting operations involve generation of heat due to friction between the tool and the
pieces and due to energy lost deforming the material. The surrounding air alone is a rather
poor coolant for the cutting tool, because the rate of heat transfer is low. Ambient-air cooling
is adequate for light cuts with periods of rest in between, such as are typical in maintenance,
repair and operations (MRO) work or hobbyist contexts. However, for heavy cuts and
constant use, such as in production work, more heat is produced per time period than
ambient-air cooling can remove. It is not acceptable to introduce long idle periods into the
cycle time to allow the air-cooling of the tool to "catch up" when the heat-removal can
instead be accomplished with a flood of liquid, which can "keep up" with the heat generation.

[edit] Lubrication

Besides cooling, cutting fluids also aid the cutting process by lubricating the interface
between the tool's cutting edge and the chip. By preventing friction at this interface, some of
the heat generation is prevented. This lubrication also helps prevent the chip from being
welded onto the tool, which interferes with subsequent cutting.

Extreme pressure additives are often added to cutting fluids to further reduce tool wear.

[edit] Delivery methods

Every conceivable method of applying cutting fluid (e.g., flooding, spraying, dripping,
misting, brushing) can be used, with the best choice depending on the application and the
equipment available. For many metal cutting applications the ideal has long been high-
pressure, high-volume pumping to force a stream of liquid (usually an oil-water emulsion)
directly into the tool-chip interface, with walls around the machine to contain the splatter and
a sump to catch, filter, and recirculate the fluid. This type of system is commonly employed,
especially in manufacturing. It is often not a practical option for MRO or hobbyist
metalcutting, where smaller, simpler machine tools are used. Fortunately it is also not
necessary in those applications, where heavy cuts, aggressive speeds and feeds, and constant,
all-day cutting are not vital.

As technology continually advances, the flooding paradigm is no longer always the clear
winner. It has been complemented since the 2000s by new permutations of liquid, aerosol,
and gas delivery, such as MQL and through-the-tool-tip cryogenic cooling (detailed below).

[edit] Types
[edit] Liquids

There are generally three types of liquids: mineral, semi-synthetic, and synthetic. Semi-
synthetic and synthetic cutting fluids try to blend the best properties of oil into the best
properties of water. They basically achieve this by allowing oil to emulsify into water. Some
of these properties are: rust inhibition, tolerance of a wide range of water hardness (maintain
pH stability around 9 to 10), ability to work with many metals, resist thermal breakdown, and
environmental safety.[1]
Water is a great conductor of heat but has drawbacks as a cutting fluid. It boils easily,
promotes rusting of machine parts, and does not lubricate well. Therefore, other ingredients
are necessary to create an optimal cutting fluid.

Mineral oils, which are petroleum-based, began in the late 19th century. They vary from the
thick, dark, sulfur-rich cutting oils used in heavy industry to light, clear oils.

Semi-synthetic coolants are an emulsion or microemulsion of water with mineral oil. They
began in the 1930s. A typical CNC usually uses emulsified coolant, which consists of a small
amount of oil emulsified into a larger amount of water through the use of a detergent.

Synthetic coolants originated in the late 1950s and are usually water-based.

A hand-held refractometer is used to determine the mix ratio (also called concentration) of
water soluble coolants. Numerous other test equipment are used to determine such things as
acidity, and amount of conductivity.

Others include:

Kerosene, rubbing alcohol, and 3-In-One Oil often give good results when working on
aluminium.
WD-40 and straight-weight oils such as way oil or general-purpose motor oil make
perfectly adequate cutting fluids for non-production work. Advanced motor oils are
often considered bad choices for cutting fluid. They usually work "well enough" for
non-production work, but experts consider them the wrong choice.
Dielectric fluid is the cutting fluid used in Electrical discharge machines (EDMs). It is
usually deionized water or a high-flash-point kerosene. Intense heat is generated by
the cutting action of the electrode (or wire) and the fluid is used to stabilise the
temperature of the workpiece, along with flushing any eroded particles from the
immediate work area. The dielectric fluid is nonconductive.
Liquid- (water- or petroleum oil-) cooled water tables are used with the plasma arc
cutting (PAC) process.

[edit] Pastes or gels

Cutting fluid may also take the form of a paste or gel when used for some applications, in
particular hand operations such as drilling and tapping. In sawing metal with a bandsaw, it is
common to periodically run a stick of paste against the blade. This product is similar in form
factor to lipstick or beeswax. It comes in a cardboard tube, which gets slowly consumed with
each application.

[edit] Aerosols (mists)

Some cutting fluids are used in aerosol (mist) form (air with tiny droplets of liquid scattered
throughout). The main problems with mists have been that they are rather bad for the
workers, who have to breathe the surrounding mist-tainted air, and that they often don't even
work very well. Both of those problems come from the imprecise delivery that often puts the
mist everywhere and all the time except at the cutting interface, during the cutthe one place
and time where it's wanted. However, a newer form of aerosol delivery, MQL (minimum
quantity of lubricant), [2][3] avoids both of those problems. The delivery of the aerosol is
directly through the flutes of the tool (it arrives directly through or around the insert itself
an ideal type of cutting fluid delivery that traditionally has been unavailable outside of a few
contexts such as gun drilling or expensive, state-of-the-art liquid delivery in production
milling). MQL's aerosol is delivered in such a precisely targeted way (with respect to both
location and timing) that the net effect seems almost like dry machining from the operators'
perspective.[2][3] The chips generally seem like dry-machined chips, requiring no draining,
and the air is so clean that machining cells can be stationed closer to inspection and assembly
than before.[2][3]

[edit] Air or other gases (e.g., nitrogen)

Ambient air, of course, was the original machining coolant. Compressed air, supplied through
pipes and hoses from an air compressor and discharged from a nozzle aimed at the tool, is
sometimes a useful coolant. The force of the decompressing air stream blows chips away, and
the decompression itself has a slight degree of cooling action (pV=nRT; lowering the
pressure lowers the temperature).

Liquid nitrogen, supplied in pressurized steel bottles, is sometimes used in similar fashion. In
this case, the decompression is enough to provide a powerful refrigerating effect. For years
this has been done (in limited applications) by flooding the work zone. Since 2005, this mode
of coolant has been applied in a manner comparable to MQL (with through-the-spindle and
through-the-tool-tip delivery). This refrigerates the body and tips of the tool to such a degree
that it acts as a "thermal sponge", sucking up the heat from the toolchip interface.[4] This
new type of nitrogen cooling is still under patent. Tool life has been increased by a factor of
10 in the milling of tough metals such as titanium and inconel.[4]

[edit] Past practice

In 19th-century machining practice, it was not uncommon to use plain water. This
was simply a practical expedient to keep the cutter cool, regardless of whether it
provided any lubrication at the cutting edgechip interface. When one considers that
high-speed steel (HSS) had not been developed yet, the need to cool the tool becomes
all the more apparent. (HSS retains its hardness at high temperatures; other carbon
tool steels do not.) An improvement was soda water, which better inhibited the rusting
of machine slides. These options are generally not used today because better options
are available.
Lard was very popular in the past.[5] It is used infrequently today, because of the wide
variety of other options, but it is still an option.
Old machine shop training texts speak of using red lead and white lead, often mixed
into lard or lard oil. This practice is obsolete due to the toxicity of lead.
From the mid-20th century to the 1990s, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was used as an additive
to make some cutting fluids more effective. In shop-floor slang it was referred to as
"one-one-one". It has been phased out because of its ozone-depleting and central
nervous system-depressing properties.

[edit] Safety concerns

Cutting fluids present some mechanisms for causing illness or injury in workers.[6] These
mechanisms are based on the external (skin) or internal contact involved in machining work,
including touching the parts and tooling; being splattered or splashed by the fluid; or having
mist settle on the skin or enter the mouth and nose in the normal course of breathing.

The mechanisms include the chemical toxicity or physical irritating ability of:

the fluid itself

the metal particles (from previous cutting) that are borne in the fluid
the bacterial or fungal populations that naturally tend to grow in the fluid over time
the biocides that are added to inhibit those life forms
the corrosion inhibitors that are added to protect the machine and tooling
the tramp oils that result from the way oils (the lubricants for the slideways)
inevitably finding their way into the coolant
The toxicity or irritating ability is usually not high, but it is sometimes enough to cause
problems for the skin or for the tissues of the respiratory tract or alimentary tract (e.g., the
mouth, larynx, esophagus, trachea, or lungs).

Some of the diagnoses that can result from the mechanisms explained above include irritant
contact dermatitis; allergic contact dermatitis; occupational acne; tracheitis; esophagitis;
bronchitis; asthma; allergy; hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP); and worsening of pre-existing
respiratory problems.

Safer cutting fluid formulations provide a resistance to tramp oils, allowing improved
filtration separation without removing the base additive package. Room ventilation, splash
guards on machines, and personal protective equipment (PPE) (such as safety glasses,
respirator masks, and gloves) can mitigate hazards related to cutting fluids.[7]

Bacterial growth is predominant in semi-synthetic and synthetic fluids. Tramp oil along with
human hair or skin oil are some of the debris during cutting which accumulates and forms a
layer on the top of the liquid; anaerobic bacteria proliferate due to a number of factors. An
early sign of the need for replacement is the "Monday-morning smell" (due to lack of usage
from Friday to Monday). Antiseptics are sometimes added to the fluid to kill bacteria. Such
use must be balanced against whether the antiseptics will harm the cutting performance,
workers' health, or the environment. Maintaining as low a fluid temperature as practical will
slow the growth of microorganisms.[7]

The discussion above could leave a reader with the mistaken idea that cutting fluid is "often
extremely dangerous". That would be an exaggeration. In reality, cutting fluid exposure is
like many exposures in life, such as second-hand tobacco smoke; ethanol ingestion; paint and
thinner fumes; kitchen or bakery smoke; smoke from smelting, casting, forging, or welding;
contact with animal manure in farming, veterinary work, or pest control work; or contact with
sewage in plumbing or sewer work. Such exposures only cause acute illness or injury in
occasional cases where some situational factor was "out of normal bounds". Rather, the main
health risk is that of chronic illness from long-term occupational exposure. Most machinists
work around cutting fluids for years without adverse effects. They generally don't worry
about casual contact, and they use PPE to minimize it.

[edit] Degradation, replacement, and disposal

Cutting fluids degrade over time due to contaminants entering the lubrication system. A
common type of degradation is the formation of tramp oil, also known as sump oil, which is
unwanted oil that has mixed with cutting fluid. It originates as lubrication oil that seeps out
from the slideways and washes into the coolant mixture, as the protective film with which a
steel supplier coats bar stock to prevent rusting, or as hydraulic oil leaks. In extreme cases it
can be seen as a film or skin on the surface of the coolant or as floating drops of oil.

Skimmers are used to separate the tramp oil from the coolant. These are typically slowly
rotating vertical discs that are partially submerged below the coolant level in the main
reservoir. As the disc rotates the tramp oil clings to each side of the disc to be scraped off by
two wipers, before the disc passes back through the coolant. The wipers are in the form a
channel that then redirects the tramp oil to a container where it is collected for disposal.
Floating weir skimmers are also used in these situation where temperature or the amount of
oil on the water becomes excessive.

Since the introduction of CNC additives, the tramp oil in these systems can be managed more
effectively through a continuous separation effect. The tramp oil accumulation separates from
the aqueous or oil based coolant and can be easily removed with an absorbent.

Old, used cutting fluid must be disposed of when it is fetid or chemically degraded and has
lost its usefulness. As with used motor oil or other wastes, its impact on the environment
should be mitigated. Legislation and regulation specify how this mitigation should be
achieved. Modern cutting fluid disposal involves techniques such as ultrafiltration using
polymeric or ceramic membranes which concentrates the suspended and emulsified oil phase.

One shop's total costs for each instance of cutting fluid replacement came to USD 373, which
included 2 hours of machine downtime (accounted at USD 50 per hour); 2 hours of labor
(accounted at USD 12 per hour); USD 69 worth of new coolant concentrate (which is then
mixed with water); and USD 3 per U.S. gallon for proper disposal of about 60 gallons (about
225 L) of coolant.[8] Clearly, fluid formulations and machining practices that extend the
working lifespan of each batch of coolant can be worth the costs of developing them.[8]

[edit] References
1. ^ OSHA (1999). Metalworking Fluids: Safety and Health Best Practices Manual. Salt Lake
City: U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
2. ^ a b c Zelinski, Peter (2006-08-28), "Toward more seamless MQL", Modern Machine Shop,
http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/toward-more-seamless-mql.
3. ^ a b c Korn, Derek (2010-09-24), "The many ways Ford benefits from MQL", Modern
Machine Shop, http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/the-many-ways-ford-benefits-from-mql.
4. ^ a b Zelinski, Peter (2011-01-28), "The 400 difference", Modern Machine Shop 83 (10),
http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/the-400-difference.
5. ^ Hartness, James (1915). Hartness Flat Turret Lathe Manual: A Hand Book for Operators.
Springfield, Vermont and London: Jones & Lamson Machine Company. pp. 153155.
http://books.google.com/books?id=WbZKAAAAMAAJ&dq=james%20hartness%20flat%20t
urret%20lathe%20manual&pg=PA153#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
6. ^ NIOSH (2007). Health hazard evaluation and technical assistance report: HETA 005-0227-
3049, Diamond Chain Company, Indianapolis, Indiana.
7. ^ a b NIOSH (1998). Criteria for a recommended standard: occupational exposure to
metalworking fluids. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Pub. No. 98-102.
8. ^ a b Modern Machine Shop (2010-10-19), "Long-Lasting Coolant Reduces Costs,
Downtime", Modern Machine Shop, http://www.mmsonline.com/articles/long-lasting-
coolant-reduces-costs-downtime.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutting_fluid"

Categories: Coolants | Metalworking | Lubricants | Petroleum products | Oils

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Cutter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Look up cutter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Cutter may refer to:

Cutter (boat), any of several types of watercraft.

o United States Coast Guard Cutter
o United Kingdom Customs Cutter
Cutter location, the position where a CNC milling machine has been instructed to hold
a milling cutter
Cutter v. Wilkinson, a 2005 United States Supreme Court case
Cutter Expansive Classification, a library classification system
A slang term for a surgeon (largely obsolete).
Cutter (body modification), an underground practitioner who performs surgical tasks
that other surgeons refuse to do.
Someone who practices self-harm
Coors Cutter a discontinued non-alcoholic beverage from Coors

Tools:

Milling cutter, a cutter used in a milling machine

Cookie cutter, used to cut out cookie dough in a particular shape
Box cutter, a utility knife
Glass cutter, a hand tool which aids in the cutting of flat or pane glass
Hydraulic spreader-cutter, an emergency rescue device
Cigar cutter, various types

Businesses and organizations:

Cutter Consortium, an information technology research firm

Cutter Laboratories, a pharmaceutical company in Berkeley, California
Cutter & Buck, a manufacturer of golf apparel
Cutter's Mill, a chain of pet supply stores in New Jersey and Pennsylvania

In sport:

Cutter (baseball), also a cut fastball, a type of fastball pitch

Cutter Bill, a quarter horse stallion
Off cutter and leg cutter, types of delivery in the sport of cricket
Cutter (professional wrestling), a professional wrestling move

In entertainment:

John Cutter, in Passenger 57, a 1992 movie. Played by Wesley Snipes

John Cutter is an American computer game designer
Nick Cutter, a character from the 2007 ITV science fiction series Primeval
Cutter to Houston, a 1983 television series
Cutter and Bone, a 1976 thriller novel
Cutter John, a character in the comic strip Bloom County by Berkeley Breathed
Cutter, the protagonist of the Elfquest series of graphic novels
 Cutter (G.I. Joe), a fictional Coast Guard member in the G.I. Joe universe
"The Cutter (song)", a 1983 single by Echo & the Bunnymen
"Cutters", in the 1979 cycling movie "Breaking Away", an initially derogatory term
used to refer to the local youths living in Bloomington, Indiana, by the resident
Indiana college students. 'Cutters' is a reference to the local stone cutting industry of
the town.
"Cutter", nickname of fictional character Captain Spaulding (Rob Zombie)
The Cutter, a 2005 direct-to-video film starring Chuck Norris
Sol Cutter, main character in the 1994 computer game Burn:Cycle.

[edit] See also

All pages beginning with "Cutter"
All pages with titles containing "Cutter"
Cut (disambiguation)
Cutting (disambiguation)
Qatar
Woodcutter (disambiguation)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutter"
Categories: Disambiguation pages
Hidden categories: All article disambiguation pages | All disambiguation pages

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Boring (manufacturing)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A part's-eye view of a boring bar.

In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled (or cast),
by means of a single-point cutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), for
example as in boring a cannon barrel. Boring is used to achieve greater accuracy of the
diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut a tapered hole.

There are various types of boring. The boring bar may be supported on both ends (which only
works if the existing hole is a through hole), or it may be supported at one end. Lineboring
(line boring, line-boring) implies the former. Backboring (back boring, back-boring) is the
process of reaching through an existing hole and then boring on the "back" side of the
workpiece (relative to the machine headstock).

Contents
[hide]

1 Machine tools used

o 1.1 Boring mills and milling machines
o 1.2 Lathes
2 See also
3 References
4 Bibliography

[edit] Machine tools used

A horizontal boring mill, showing the large boring head and the workpiece sitting on the
table.
Boring head on Morse taper shank. A small boring bar is inserted into one of the holes. The
head can be shifted left or right with fine gradation by a screw, adjusting the diameter of the
circle that the cutting tip swings through, thus controlling the hole size, even down to within
10 micrometres if all machining conditions are good.

The boring process can be executed on various machine tools, including (1) general-purpose
or universal machines, such as lathes (/turning centers) or milling machines (/machining
centers), and (2) machines designed to specialize in boring as a primary function, such as jig
borers and boring machines or boring mills, which include vertical boring mills (workpiece
rotates around a vertical axis while boring bar/head moves linearly; essentially a vertical
lathe) and horizontal boring mills (workpiece sits on a table while the boring bar rotates
around a horizontal axis; essentially a specialized horizontal milling machine).

[edit] Boring mills and milling machines

The dimensions between the piece and the tool bit can be changed about two axes to cut both
vertically and horizontally into the internal surface. The cutting tool is usually single point,
made of M2 and M3 high-speed steel or P10 and P01 carbide. A tapered hole can also be
made by swiveling the head.

Boring machines come in a large variety of sizes and styles. Boring operations on small
workpieces can be carried out on a lathe while larger workpieces are machined on boring
mills. Workpieces are commonly 1 to 4 metres (3 ft 3 in to 13 ft 1 in) in diameter, but can be
as large as 20 m (66 ft). Power requirements can be as much as 200 horsepower (150 kW).
Cooling of the bores is done through a hollow passageway through the boring bar where
coolant can flow freely. Tungsten-alloy disks are sealed in the bar to counteract vibration and
chatter during boring. The control systems can be computer-based, allowing for automation
and increased consistency.

Because boring is meant to decrease the product tolerances on pre-existing holes, several
design considerations must be made. First, large length-to-bore-diameters are not preferred
due to cutting tool deflection. Next, through holes are preferred over blind holes (holes that
do not traverse the thickness of the work piece). Interrupted internal working surfaces
where the cutting tool and surface have discontinuous contactshould be avoided. The
boring bar is the protruding arm of the machine that holds cutting tool(s), and must be very
rigid.[1]

Various fixed cycles for boring are available in CNC controls. For mills, these are called
using G-codes such as G76, G85, G86, G87, G88, G89, and other codes specific to particular
control builders or machine tool builders.

[edit] Lathes

Lathe boring[2] is a cutting operation that uses a single-point cutting tool or a boring head to
produce conical or cylindrical surfaces by enlarging an existing opening in a workpiece. For
nontapered holes, the cutting tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation. For tapered holes, the
cutting tool moves at an angle to the axis of rotation. Geometries ranging from simple to
extremely complex in a variety of diameters can be produced using boring applications.
Boring is one of the most basic lathe operations next to turning and drilling.

Lathe boring usually requires that the workpiece be held in the chuck and rotated. As the
workpiece is rotated, a boring bar with an insert attached to the tip of the bar is fed into an
existing hole. When the cutting tool engages the workpiece, a chip is formed. Depending on
the type of tool used, the material, and the feed rate, the chip may be continuous or
segmented. The surface produced is called a bore.
The geometry produced by lathe boring is usually of two types: straight holes and tapered
holes. Several diameters can also be added to each shape hole if required. To produce a taper,
the tool may be fed at an angle to the axis of rotation or both feed and axial motions may be
concurrent. Straight holes and counterbores are produced by moving the tool parallel to the
axis of workpiece rotation.

The three most commonly used workholding devices are the three-jaw chuck, the four-jaw
chuck, and the face plate. The three-jaw chuck is used to hold round workpieces because the
work is automatically centered. The four-jaw chuck is used to hold irregular shapes because
of its independent action on each jaw. The face plate is also used for irregular shapes that
need to be through-bored.

For most lathe boring applications, tolerances are held within 0.002 in (0.05 mm) for deep
holes. For precision applications, tolerances can be held within 0.0005 in (0.013 mm) only
for shallow holes. Surface finish may range from 8 to 250 microinches, with a typical range
between 32 and 125 microinches.

[edit] See also

Horizontal boring machine
Jig borer
Single-pass bore finishing

[edit] References
1. ^ Kalpakjian 2001
2. ^ Todd & Allen 1994

[edit] Bibliography
Kalpakjian, Schmid (2001), Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Upper
Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall
Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K. (1994), Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide,
New York, NY, USA: Industrial Press

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)"

Categories: Hole making

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Ting Vit

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