SENSORS

(FLOW AND TEMPERATURE)

 Most Common industrial sensors:
Pressure
Flow
Temperature
Level
 Flow
Engineering units of
volumetric flowrate: ft3/s, m3/hr, gpm
Mass flowrate: kg/hr, lb/min
Velocity: m/s, ft/s

Flow is usually measured indirectly by first

measuring a differential pressure or the fluid
velocity. This measurement is then related to
the volume rate electronically.
 Flow sensor
Orifice meter

flat disk with a machined hole

The disk is inserted in the process line
perpendicular to the fluid motion with the
intention to produce a pressure drop, P
 - The tap upstream the orifice is called the high pressure tap
- The tap downstream the orifice is called the low pressure
tap
- a differential pressure sensor is used to measure the
pressure drop across the orifice
- the output signal from the orifice is the pressure drop not
the flow
 - The pressure drop across the orifice is a
nonlinear function of the volumetric flow
rate through the orifice

Where
f = volumetric flow rate
po =pressure drop cross orifice
Ao =area of orifice
Co =orifice coefficient
= fluid density
= dimensionless ratio of the diameter of the orifice, d to
the diameter of the pipe, D
 The equation derives from the application and a
mechanical energy balance (Bernoulli).

The equation shows that the pressure drop is related

to the square of the volumetric flow rate
po f2

Density constant

Density not constant

 Most orifice diameter vary between 10 to 75% of the pipe
diameter 0.1 < < 0.75

the pressure drop cross the orifice is measured with taps:

Flange taps - line taps
Radius taps - vena contracta taps
Corner taps
- Several condition may prevent use of orifice sensor:
- Not enough available pressure drop e.g gravity flow
- Flow of corrosive fluid
- Fluids with suspended solids plug the orifice
- Fluid that close to their saturated vapor pressure may flash when
subjected to a drop in pressure
 Magnetic flow

Operating principle of this element is Faradays law

A conductive material (a fluid e.g water that contains ion)
moves at right angles through a magnetic field and induces
an electromotive force (E) in unit volt
The value of E is proportional to the conductor (fluid)
velocity (V) , magnetic flux density (B) , and the conductor
width (pipe inner diameter,D).
EMF = D V B
 The velocity measured is the average velocity
This sensor can be used for turbulent and laminar flow
This sensor is suitable to measure slurry flow and flow of
fluids close to their vapor flow
However, the fluid must have a minimum required
conductivity of about 10 ohm/cm2 . Not suitable for gases
and hydrocarbon liquids (nonconductive).
 Turbine meter

- most accurate and commercially available flowmeters.

- the working principle : consists of a rotor that the fluid
velocity causes to spin.
-the rotation of the blades is detected by a magnetic pickup
coil that emits pulses the frequency of which is proportional
to the volumetric flow rate.
- pulse is equally converted to a 4 to 20 mA
-problem: bearing require clean fluids with some lubricating
properties
 VORTEX FLOWMETER
Vortex flowmeters, also know as vortex shedding flowmeters or oscillatory
flowmeters
Vortex flowmeters utilize the vortex-shedding phenomenon known as the von
Karman effect.
When a vortex shedder (barrier) is installed in a process flow line, Karman
vortices appear downstream of the shedder. (vibrations of the downstream
vortexes)
The vibrating frequency of vortex shedding can then be related to the velocity
of flow.
The vortex generation frequency is directly proportional to fluid velocity - so by
measuring this frequency, fluid velocity can be determined.

* Vortex = A spiral motion of fluid within a limited area

 The relationship between vortex frequency (f), width of the vortex
shedder (d), and flow velocity (V) is given by,

f = St.V / d
* St is a non-dimensional constant called the Strouhal
number determined by the shape and dimensions of the vortex
shedder.

The vortex frequency f is proportional to the flow velocity V, and is

not affected by factors such as the fluid density and viscosity.
Not for slurry or fibrous fluid.
VORTEX FLOWMETER
Vortex flowmeters, also know as vortex shedding flowmeters or
oscillatory flowmeters
Vortex flowmeters utilize the vortex-shedding phenomenon known
as the von Karman effect.
When a vortex shedder (barrier) is installed in a process flow line,
Karman vortices appear downstream of the shedder. (vibrations of
the downstream vortexes)
The vibrating frequency of vortex shedding can then be related to
the velocity of flow.
The vortex generation frequency is directly proportional to fluid
velocity - so by measuring this frequency, fluid velocity can be
determined.

* Vortex = A spiral motion of fluid within a limited area

 The relationship between vortex frequency (f), width of the vortex
shedder (d), and flow velocity (V) is given by,

f = St.V / d
* St is a non-dimensional constant called the Strouhal number
determined by the shape and dimensions of the vortex
shedder.

The vortex frequency f is proportional to the flow velocity V, and is not

affected by factors such as the fluid density and viscosity.
Not for slurry or fibrous fluid.
 Ultrasonic flowmeter
Working principle
ultrasonic waves are generated in the fluid from outside the pipeline
the flow rate is determined by detecting externally the change in the
transmitted waves or the reflected waves caused by the flow velocity.
At this time, they are mainly used to measure the flow of water.
 There are two typical methods in practical use,
classified broadly by the principle of measurement
they employ.

Doppler effect.
measuring the difference in frequencies of the transmitted
waves and those reflected back from foreign objects in the
fluid, the velocity of those objects, and thus the velocity of
the fluid, can be determined.

transit time differential method

obtains the flow rate by measuring the difference in arrival
times of ultrasonic pulses between detectors set facing
each other obliquely to the pipe axis on the outside pipe
walls.
 Characteristics of ultrasonic flowmeters

The detectors are attached to the outside walls of the pipe, requiring no
alterations of the existingpiping. Furthermore, they allow measurement of
the flow rate without stopping the flow.

The detectors do not come in contact with the fluid, so there is no concern
for corrosion or material adhering to them. Also, there is nothing to
obstruct the flow, so no pressure loss results from their use.

Disturbances in the flow velocity distribution affects measurement

accuracy, so an appropriate length of straight pipe is required upstream
and downstream of the place where the detectors are installed.
 The usage of these two types of ultrasonic flowmeters is
differentiated according to the characteristics of the fluid
measured in the following way.
Transit time differential flowmeters: Mainly clean water, water for
industrial use, raw water for water purifying plants, water for
agricultural use, and other types of clean water.
Doppler flowmeters: Mainly drain water, factory effluent, and other
such dirty water which contains foreign particles.
TEMPERATURE
 Temperature sensor
one of the most frequent measured variable
in the process industries.
very few physical phenomena are not affected
by temperature
temperature is also often used to infer other
process variables.

Engineering units: oC, oF, K, R

Popular sensors for temperature
measurement
Expansion thermometer
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
Solid-expension thermometer (bimetallic strip)
Filled-system thermometers (pressure thermometers)
Gas-filled
Liquid-filled
Vapor-filled

Resistance-sensitive devices
Resistance thermometers
Thermistor elements
Thermocouples
 Liquid in glass termometer

indicate temperature change caused by difference between

the temperature coefficient of expansion for glass and the
liquid employed.
mercury and alcohol are the most widely used liquids
mercury in glass thermometer made from ordinary glass are
useful between -35 and 600 oF
lower limit :due to freezing point of mercury
upper limit: due to boiling point of mercury
upper limit can be extended by filling with inert gas
 For temperature below the freezing point of mercury
(-38 oF), another liquid must be employed.
Alcohol is widely used for temperatures down -80 oF
Pentane for temperatures down -200 oF
Toluene for temperatures down -230 oF
 Bimetallic strip thermometer
Bimetallic strip thermometer
-the working principle based on facts that:
the metal expand with temperature
the expansion coefficient are not the same for all
metals

The temperature sensitive element is a composite

of two different metals fastened together into a
strip.
One metal has a high thermal expansion
coefficient
One has low thermal expansion coefficient
 Since the metals have distinctly different coefficients of
thermal expansion one material will attempt to expand
more than the other as the device is heated.

This will cause a deformation from the reference position.

The composite strip is preformed into a coil in which

heating the device will cause the coil to unwind and cooling
will cause the coil to contract.

A dial is attached to the coil, which moves relative to a

scale as the coil winds and unwinds.

The dial indicates temperature of the system

 - common combination
Nickel-iron which has low coefficient and another nikel-
iron alloy with high coefficient
 Filled system thermometer

Temperature variations cause the expansion or

contraction of the fluid in the system
Liquid-filled (-125 oF to + 600 oF - slowest)
Gas-filled (-450 F to +1400 F fast)
Vapor-filled (-40 to 32 or 32 to 600 Fastest)

The expansion and contraction is sensed by Bourdon

spring and transmitted to an indicator
 Liquid Filled Systems Temperature Sensors

The steel bulb, stem and

indicator (Bourdon tube) are
completely filled under pressure
with a liquid.
The system is totally filled to
provide a constant volume.
Expansion of the fluid in the
tube is converted to a pressure.
This pressure expands the
Bourdon tube which moves the
pointer on the scale.
 Gas Filled Systems Temperature Sensors

The change in pressure with

temperature (as described by
the Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT)
allows us to sense the bulbs
temperature.
As the volume is kept
constant, the pressure varies
in direct proportion to the
absolute temperature.
This type of measurement is
quite simple and low cost.
 Vapor Filled Systems Temperature Sensors

The vapour filled system uses a

volatile liquid/vapor
combination to generate a
temperature-dependent fluid
expansion.
If the temperature is raised,
more liquid will vaporise and the
pressure will increase.
A decrease in temperature will
result in condensation of some
of the vapour, and the pressure
will decrease.
Resistance Temperature Devices
(RTD)
working principle :
determine a temperature by measuring electrical
resistance.
the electrical resistance of pure metals increases with
increase in temperature.
T R
The RTDs are characterized by a linear change in
resistance with respect to temperature.
A wheatstone bridge is usually to measure the
resistance.
RTD: metal i.e Pt, Ni, Copper
 When a current flows in a resistor, the voltage between the
ends of the resistor is given by the following relationship,
according to Ohm's law.
V=IR
Y =voltage (V),
I=current (A),
R = resistance ()

If I is fixed and V is measured, we can determine R, and thus

measure the temperature of the resistance temperature
detector.
 Relation between resistance with temperature
Rt ()=Ro (1+t(oC)+t2)
Measurement:
Rt ()=Ro (1+t(oC))
t= temperature,
R0 = the RTDs resistance at reference temperature, and;
= the resistance temperature coefficient for the RTD metal.

Temperature measurement:
between -20oC to 600oC.
RTD with protecting tube.

RTD with protecting tube.

 Thermocouple
Discovered by T.J. Seedback
Seedback states that an electric current flows in a circuit of
two dissimilar metals if the two junctions are at different
temperatures.
Therefore, If two dissimilar metals, A and B, are joined at
point n, and are left free at the other end, point m, the
difference in temperature at the two points (T2-T1) generates
the electromotive force E(T2,T1).
 When heat is applied to the junction, a voltage, in the range
of milli-volts (mV), is generated.
Principle of measurement: measure thermocouple voltages,
mV to get temperature
V (Tp-Tr)
is seedback coefficient in V/oC or mV/oC
Temperature measurement:
between -200oC to 1400oC.
 Tr must be known and constant. Normally Tr=0oC
Features of base metal thermocouples (K, E, J, and T)
K-type (chromel-alumel)
E-type (chromel-constantan)
J-type (iron-constantan)
T-type(copper-constantan)
The thermoelectromotive force for each type of thermocouple.
Structure of thermocouple
 Thermistor elements

Detect very sensitive temperature changes.

Made of sintered combination of
Ceramic material
Semiconducting metallic oxide e.g nickel, copper, iron

The semiconductor resistivity is especially sensitive to

temperature
the resistance of a thermistor decreases with increasing
temperature
Main disadvantage lie in their nonlinear temperature versus
resistance relationship
The resistance of the thermistor at
temperature is represented by

RT () = resistance of thermistor at temperature T

Ra () = resistance at temp Ta
B (K)= thermistor constant
Compared with platinum resistance temperature detectors, thermistors,
have the following
characteristics:
(1) Large electrical resistance
(2) High sensitivity
(3) Poor linearity of resistance
(4) Fast response due to small size