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Geological Society, London, Special Publications

Advances in the study of naturally fractured

hydrocarbon reservoirs: a broad integrated
interdisciplinary applied topic
Guy H. Spence, Gary D. Couples, Tim G. Bevan, Roberto
Aguilera, John W. Cosgrove, Jean-Marc Daniel and Jonathan
Redfern
Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2014, v.374;
p1-22.
doi: 10.1144/SP374.19

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The Geological Society of London 2014

 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Wisconsin - Madison on September 11,
2014

Advances in the study of naturally fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs:

a broad integrated interdisciplinary applied topic
GUY H. SPENCE1*, GARY D. COUPLES2, TIM G. BEVAN3, ROBERTO AGUILERA4,
JOHN W. COSGROVE5, JEAN-MARC DANIEL6 & JONATHAN REDFERN1
1
School of Earth Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester,
Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
2
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, EdinburghEH14 4AS, UK
3
BP Exploration, BP International Centre for Business & Technology,
Chertsey Road, Sunbury-on-Thames, Middlesex TW16 7LN, UK
4
Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Room CCIT 220, 2500 University Drive
NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
5
Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Imperial College London,
South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK
6
IFP Energies Nouvelles, 1 & 4 avenue de Bois-Preau, 92852 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex, France
*Corresponding author (e-mail: Guy.Spence-Geosciences@outlook.com)

Abstract: Naturally fractured reservoirs, within which porosity, permeability pathways and/or
impermeable barriers formed by the fracture network interact with those of the host rock matrix
to influence fluid flow and storage, can occur in sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks.
These reservoirs constitute a substantial percentage of remaining hydrocarbon resources; they
create exploration targets in otherwise impermeable rocks, including under-explored crystalline
basement, and they can be used as geological stores for anthropogenic carbon dioxide. Their
complex fluid flow behaviour during production has traditionally proved difficult to predict,
causing a large degree of uncertainty in reservoir development. The applied study of naturally frac-
tured reservoirs seeks to constrain this uncertainty and maximize production by developing
new understanding, and is necessarily a broad, integrated, interdisciplinary topic. Some of the
methods, challenges and advances in characterizing the interplay of rock matrix and fracture
networks relevant to fluid flow and hydrocarbon recovery are reviewed and discussed via the con-
tributions in this volume.

Global estimates of conventional hydrocarbon have been under-explored as potential hydrocarbon

resources are typically subdivided based on litho-
logical reservoir types for example, carbonate or
siliciclastic (e.g. Roehl & Choquette 1985). How-
ever, many of these sedimentary rock reservoirs
may contain fractures to a greater or lesser degree.
The recent boom of unconventional reservoirs high-
lights once again the key role that natural fractures
can play in helping production of fluids. It also
requires an improved understanding of the geology
and physics of natural fracture networks to meet
public expectations regarding safety issues. More-
over, fracture networks can be present in other-
wise impermeable crystalline basement rocks (e.g.
Sanders et al. 2003; Murray & Montgomery
2012; Slightam 2012) and igneous intrusions
(e.g. Gudmundsson & Ltveit 2012), also allowing
these rocks to form potential fractured reservoirs.
Historically, fractured crystalline basement rocks
reservoirs. Naturally fractured reservoirs constitute
a substantial percentage of remaining hydrocarbon
resources.
Naturally fractured reservoirs
A reservoir fracture is a general term used to
describe a naturally occurring macroscopic planar
discontinuity in rock due to deformation, or phys-
ical diagenesis (Nelson 2001). Reservoir fractures
encompass both extensional ( joints) and shear
(faults) structures. Fractures formed by brittle tec-
tonic deformation are the most common focus
for studies of naturally fractured reservoirs. How-
ever, reservoir fractures may also include struc-
tures that formed by desiccation (e.g. shrinkage
cracks) and syneresis (e.g. chickenwire texture) in
sediments, and structures that formed by thermal

From: Spence, G. H., Redfern, J., Aguilera, R., Bevan, T. G., Cosgrove, J. W., Couples, G. D. & Daniel, J.-M. (eds)
2014. Advances in the Study of Fractured Reservoirs. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 374, 1 22.
First published online July 9, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP374.19
# The Geological Society of London 2014. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Wisconsin - Madison on September 11,
2014
2 G. H. SPENCE ET AL.

contraction during cooling in volcanic rocks (e.g.
columnar joints; Bratton et al. 2006). Naturally
occurring high fluid pressure may also be capa-
ble of creating extensional fractures in a similar
way to hydraulic fracturing (Mandl & Harkness
1987); this may provide a means by which tensile
fractures might form at deeper burial depths.
The distribution of fractures in a reservoir is
sometimes referred to as fracture stratigraphy
(Laubach et al. 2009), joint-network architecture
(Shackleton et al. 2005) or fracture network (e.g.
Lonergan et al. 2007), as used here. Naturally frac-
tured reservoirs are generally defined as such when
the fracture network has a significant influence on
fluid flow in the reservoir such that: (1) the fracture
network provides the main conduits for fluid flow
and is the dominant control on reservoir per-
meability, with the rock matrix acting as the main
control on reservoir storage capacity; (2) fractures
further improve the permeability of a reservoir
that has good matrix porosity and permeability;
(3) the fracture network controls both fluid flow
and storage in crystalline or other tight rocks with
little or no matrix porosity; or (4) mineralization
in fractures (e.g. by clay-fills such as dickite and
calcite-healed and quartz veins) and fine-grained
fault gouges cause them to have low permeability,
allowing these features to act as barriers or baffles
rather than conduits for fluid flow, causing reservoir
anisotropy (Aguilera 1995; Nelson 2001; Lonergan
et al. 2007). The presence of low-permeability frac-
tures can also cause compartmentalization of the
reservoir (e.g. Fernandez et al. 2011). The preceding
criteria have been used to classify naturally frac-
tured reservoirs into a series of different types
(Table 1; Nelson 2001). Hybrids of these naturally
fractured reservoir types may also occur. Each of
these reservoir types will experience different flow
characteristics during production (e.g. Aguilera
1995; Nelson 2001; Bratton et al. 2006).
In addition to characterizing stratigraphic and
spatial variations in the permeability and porosity
of the reservoir matrix through which the fracture
network extends, important fracture attributes
affecting fluid flow pathways include fracture set
orientations, fracture lengths and heights, strati-
graphic distributions, spacing, apertures, fracture-
surface topography and fracture-network connectiv-
ity. These attributes can be quantified using fracture
indices (e.g. Dershowitz & Herda 1992) and used to
construct deterministic and stochastic discrete frac-
ture network (DFN) models to provide inputs to
numerical flow models. However, accurately and
quantitatively characterizing fracture networks in
fractured reservoirs is a challenging enterprise (see
Characterizing fracture networks below).
Fractured reservoirs currently in production are
spread across the globe and are particularly com-
mon in tight (low-matrix porosity and permeability)
carbonate rocks (Aguilera 1995). Usually produc-
tion from non-fractured reservoirs can be predicted
accurately to within an acceptable margin. Histori-
cally however there has been a much larger range
in variability of recovery achieved from fractured
reservoirs (Aguilera 1999). This has traditionally
made it difficult to reliably predict recovery from
fractured reservoirs, leading to a large degree of
uncertainty in reservoir development.
Aguilera (1980, 1995) and Nelson (1985, 2001)
highlighted the necessity of treating fractured re-
servoirs as a distinct category of reservoir. This is
essential in order to optimize well placement to
intersect the greatest number of productive frac-
tures, improve recovery and efficiently manage
fractured reservoirs, including the design of gas/
steam or fluid injection schemes to enhance pro-
duction. Subsequent work has generated continuous
advances in our understanding of fundamental frac-
turing processes, including diagenetic influences,
and the development of methods and applied tech-
niques for characterizing fracture networks and
modelling fluid flow in fractured reservoirs.
Previous relevant themed volumes addressing
various aspects of the theory-based and applied
study of fractured rocks include: Geological
Society of London Special Publications 29 (Jones

Table 1. Classification of fractured reservoir types (definitions from Nelson 2001)

Naturally fractured Classification description

reservoir types

Type 1 Fractures provide the essential porosity and permeability in the reservoir.
Type 2 Fractures provide the essential permeability in the reservoir. Rock matrix
provides the essential porosity (storage capacity).
Type 3 Fractures assist permeability in an already producible reservoir. Rock
matrix has good porosity and permeability.
Type 4 Fractures provide no significant additional porosity or permeability but
create significant reservoir anisotropy (barriers to flow).
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2014
INTRODUCTION
& Preston 1987), 92 (Ameen 1995), 127 (Coward
et al. 1998), 155 (McCaffrey et al. 1999), 169 (Cos-
grove & Ameen 2000), 209 (Ameen 2003), 214
(Petford & McCaffrey 2003), 231 (Cosgrove &
Engelder 2004), 270 (Lonergan et al. 2007), 292
(Jolley et al. 2007), 367 (Healey et al. 2012) and
370 (Garland et al. 2012); special issues of the
American Association of Petroleum Geology Bul-
letin volume 93, number 11 (Hennings 2009); and
the Journal of Structural Geology, volume 32, num-
bers 9 (Agosta & Tondi 2010), 11 (Wibberley et al.
2010) and 12 (Dunne et al. 2010).
The 18 papers in this Special Publication reflect
an integrated interdisciplinary approach to the
applied study of fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Important interdependent steps in reducing uncer-
tainty in flow modelling and efficiently developing
fractured reservoir to maximize recover include:
(1) increasing the accuracy and constraining the
uncertainty in quantifying fracture networks; and
(2) using these data to construct deterministic
fracture networks and/or stochastic (determined
probabilistically accounting for randomness) dis-
crete fracture networks (DFNs) and DFN and
discrete fracture matrix (DFM) models.
An integrated interdisciplinary approach
The applied study of fractured reservoirs involves
collaboration between geologists, geophysicists,
petrophysicists and petroleum engineers. The
degree of complexity in fractured reservoirs and
resulting uncertainty in flow behaviours requires
the adoption of an integrated, interdisciplinary
approach to their study that includes input from a
long list of different specialities including structural
geology, rock mechanics, geomechanics, petro-
physics, petroleum engineering, fractography, sedi-
mentology, metamorphic and igneous petrology,
geophysics, outcrop laser scanning and digital mod-
elling, photogrammetry, physics, chemistry, math-
ematics, statistics, computer programming and
numerical modelling. Such is the very broad range
of sub-disciplines that have been applied to the
study of fractured reservoirs that reports of recent
advances can be spread widely across a large number
of disparate discipline-specific journals, publica-
tions and academic and professional conferences;
so that workers involved in different aspects of
the study of fractured reservoirs cannot always be
fully aware of the entire breadth of advances being
made. The goal of this Special Publication is to
bring together into a single volume contributions
from a number of the major sub-disciplines involved
in the applied study of naturally fractured reservoirs,
in order to increase cross-disciplinary awareness of
the challenges and progress being made in the
3
different branches of this interdisciplinary subject,
from characterizing fracture networks though to
numerical simulation of fluid flow. However, a
single volume cannot cover each sub-discipline
comprehensively.
This Special Publication includes contributions
from industry and academia representing advances
in the use of subsurface data, outcrop analogues,
digital outcrop models and numerical methods to
model natural fracture networks and simulate fluid
flow together with geomechanics and statistical
approaches. A feature of the 18 papers in this vol-
ume is their cross-disciplinary nature and integra-
tion of different techniques and data types. These
papers are very broadly organized into three sec-
tions: (1) investigating fracture networks using out-
crop, core and geophysical data; (2) numerical and
statistical simulations and models; and (3) case stud-
ies. Many of the papers cross these boundaries how-
ever, reflecting their multi-disciplinary approach.
Examples of petroleum-industry-based case
studies of fractured reservoirs in both sedimentary
and crystalline rocks are also presented, including:
two examples of industry case studies of naturally
fractured crystalline basement reservoirs (Murray
& Montgomery 2012; Slightam 2012); four case
studies of carbonate reservoirs (Bosworth et al.
2012; Saoudi et al. 2012; Ward et al. 2012;
Delorme et al. 2013); and one naturally fractured
tight-gas sandstone reservoir (Sonntag et al. 2012).
Fractured geological reservoirs, including
depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs, are also consid-
ered as long-term subsurface repositories for stor-
ing anthropogenically produced carbon dioxide;
this is one measure being contemplated to address
global climate change. A key consideration in asses-
sing reservoir suitability for storage is the possi-
bility of CO2 leakage via fracture networks in the
reservoir seal and escape back into the atmosphere.
A paper on this topic is included in this volume
(Ogata et al. 2012). The study of fractured reser-
voirs also has relevance to the problem of construct-
ing long-term geological disposal sites for nuclear
waste, where understanding the influence of the
fracture networks on fluid flow and migration is
important in ensuring containment. This volume is
primarily focused on naturally fractured hydro-
carbon reservoirs. The important topic of artificial
fracturing, also known as hydraulic fracturing or
fracking and which is widely employed in the
development of tight shale oil and gas reservoirs,
is not directly addressed here.
Some controls on fracture networks
The flow behaviour of fractured reservoirs is influ-
enced by the interaction of a wide range of variables
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Wisconsin - Madison on September 11,
4 G. H. SPENCE ET AL.
that are reservoir specific. Mechanical stratigraphy
is a major control on the development of fracture
networks and their influence on fluid flow path-
ways (e.g. Hanks et al. 1997; Underwood et al.
2003; Cooke et al. 2006; Zahm and Hennings
2009; Sonntag et al. 2012; Couples 2013). Mechan-
ical stratigraphy partitions stratified rocks into
mechanical units based on physical rock properties
including tensile strength and elastic moduli, with
Youngs modulus being particularly important
(e.g. Laubach et al. 2009). Differences in the mech-
anical behaviour of the rock types in response to
regional tectonic loads, and their stratigraphic and
spatial arrangement and settings, generate unique
reservoir-specific fracture networks but with many
commonalities. Fractures may be present in a frac-
tured reservoir at multiple length scales ranging
from faults and joints/veins though to microfrac-
tures. Complex combinations of these different-
scale discontinuities, their orientations, the extent
to which they are open and their network connec-
tivity will govern the fracture-related fluid flow
pathways, making it important to resolve a fracture
network at all of these scales. Compaction bands
(granulation seams) with lower permeability than
the host rock matrix can also occur in the same
rock volume as high-permeability fractures, and
have a complex combined effect on fluid flow (e.g.
Zhou et al. 2013).
Mechanical stratigraphical properties of strati-
fied rocks have been shown to influence fracture
propagation, arrest and distribution in response to
tectonic loading. Important aspects of understand-
ing fracture networks, these properties include:
mechanical layer thicknesses (e.g. Pollard &
Aydin 1988; Wu & Pollard 1995; Bai & Pollard
2000; Bai et al. 2000; Schopfer et al. 2011); con-
trasts in physical properties at layer interfaces,
especial in Youngs modulus (e.g. He & Hutchinson
1989; Cooke et al. 2006; Lezin et al. 2009); and the
bonded strength of interfaces between mechanical
layers (e.g. Cooke & Underwood 2001; Wang &
Xu 2006; Larsen et al. 2010). However, the exist-
ence of non-stratal bound fractures (e.g. Odling
et al. 1999; Odonne et al. 2007; Sonntag et al.
2012) indicates that other factors are also in play.
Mechanical stratigraphy and/or lithofacies can
sometimes be used to predict fracture distributions
in the subsurface (e.g. Sonntag et al. 2012).
Reservoir shape evolution, then-current rock
properties and local mechanical state are primary
controls on the evolution of reservoir fracture
network geometries and orientations formed dur-
ing tectonic deformation. These factors are some-
times described in terms of principal palaeostress
directions and magnitudes (e.g. Haimson & Rud-
nicki 2010), where shear and extension fractures
develop in regular orientations relative to the
2014
three principal stress directions, s1 (maximum), s2
(intermediate) and s3 (minimum) (Handin 1969).
Knowledge of regional or local palaeostress his-
tory can therefore be used to assist in characteriz-
ing reservoir fracture set orientations, and vice
versa. Additional considerations include structural
position (e.g. proximity to a fault, or whether the
location is in a high-curvature part of an anticline
or on a planar limb). The observed complexity of
some fracture patterns (e.g. Stearns 1967) serves
as a warning that simple rules about fractures and
stress states may not capture the full story about
fracture development.
The current stress field is widely viewed as
having a significant control on reservoir fracture
apertures. Geomechanical rules-of-thumb that are
extensively used in industry to predict fluid flow
have met with some limited success. Commonly
used rules include: (1) fractures aligned parallel to
the present-day maximum principal stress tend to
be open; and (2) changes in pore pressure cause
changes in permeability due to resulting changes
in effective stress that modify fracture apertures.
Couples (2013) argues that the assumptions under-
pinning these rules are too simplistic and cannot be
applied in the subsurface, and that they do not
account for non-linear interactions between fluids,
the geomechanics of the fractured systems and
thermal changes, potentially significantly limiting
their usefulness. An alternative hypothesis proposes
that flow performance during fractured reservoir
production is dominantly dependent on motions
occurring within the fractured rock mass (Couples
2013) (see Numerical geomechanical modelling
below). If these rules are however generalized,
then it seems correct to say that the current mechan-
ical state of a fractured reservoir has a significant
influence on fracture network characteristics (aper-
ture distributions, connectivity) and thus fluid flow
(e.g. Heffer 2012; Couples 2013;).
Diagenetic influences
Diagenesis may also have an important control on
the properties of fracture networks, both at the
time of fracture formation and subsequently. Com-
plexity in the fracture network may result from
temporal modifications in mechanical stratigraphy
caused by diagenetic changes occurring between
multi-phase fracturing events (Shackleton et al.
2005; Laubach et al. 2009). Observed depositional
stratigraphy and bedding/layering may not always
have matched extant mechanical stratigraphy. For
example, pervasive carbonate cementation of a
bedded carbonate package may homogenize the
physical properties of originally dissimilar beds
making a single mechanical unit, although the
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Wisconsin - Madison on September 11,
2014
INTRODUCTION
original bedding may still be observed (e.g. Larsen
et al. 2010). This may lead to inaccuracies when
using depositional stratigraphy to predict bedding
controls on fracture networks. A fracture network
is the result of the superimposition of different frac-
ture sets that may have formed at different times.
Because the mechanical stratigraphy is likely to
change through time as a result of compaction, dia-
genesis and tectonism, the mechanical history and
fracture network that characterize a particular
reservoir will be reservoir specific (e.g. Shackleton
et al. 2005; Laubach et al. 2009). For these reasons,
extant mechanical stratigraphy and the accumulated
fracture networks should not be uncritically con-
flated as being coeval when characterizing fractured
reservoirs (e.g. Shackleton et al. 2005; Laubach
et al. 2009). In successions where diagenesis has
played a significant role in modifying mechanical
stratigraphy, the use of depositional stratigraphy or
extant mechanical stratigraphy to predict subsurface
fractured networks may be misleading.
In addition to influencing the properties of the
host rock, diagenesis can also effect fracture proper-
ties by the processes of dissolution along fractures
(enhancing fracture permeability) and precipitation
of cement in fractures (generally decreasing, and
potentially eliminating, fracture permeability). In
this way diagenesis can have an important influence
on fluid flow pathways within the fracture network
(e.g. Olson et al. 2007; Hooker et al. 2012). In sedi-
mentary rocks the entire fracture may be filled with
cement (and may be referred to as a vein), totally
eliminating porosity and permeability, or isolated
bridges of cement between the fracture walls may
be precipitated which may impede fluid flow but
which leaves the fracture with a high degree of por-
osity (Laubach 1988; Lander et al. 2002; Laubach
et al. 2004a). The precipitation of cement bridges
within fractures may also assist in keeping high-
porosity fractures open (e.g. Aguilera 1999;
Hooker et al. 2012). Diagenetic precipitation of
cement within fractures can occur both during
and/or following fracturing events (e.g. Laubach
2003; Laubach et al. 2004a, b).
Fluid flow and fracture rock
fluid transfer
Rock porosities and permeabilities, capillary press-
ures, viscous forces and rock wettability are all
important variables that need to be considered
when predicting fluid movement within the matrix
rocks in fractured reservoirs (Bakke & ren 1997;
Lindquist et al. 2000; Vogel & Roth 2001; Arns
et al. 2004; Blunt et al. 2013), with a further need
to consider the controls on fluid transfer between
open fractures and the rock matrix. X-ray
5
tomography of core plugs can be used to character-
ize the 3D shapes and topological connections of the
pore networks of matrix rocks (e.g. Jiang et al. 2007;
Youssef et al. 2007), and these pore systems can be
idealized into networks that allow multi-phase flow
properties to be calculated efficiently (Valvatne &
Blunt 2004; Ryazanov et al. 2009; Al-Dhalhi et al.
2013). The extension of pore-network models to
include explicit fractures (Jiang et al. 2012) pro-
vides an important step forwards in understanding
the controls on fluid transfer between the rock
matrix and fractures. Heat and mass transfer are
also important processes that need to be considered.
In this volume Geiger & Matthai (2012) discuss
some of the issues related to numerical modelling
and simulation of fluid flow (see Numerical simu-
lations of fluid flow below).
Characterizing fracture networks
Detecting and characterizing subsurface fracture
networks in sufficient detail to accurately under-
stand their influence on fluid flow is a challenging
enterprise; multiple techniques, often in combi-
nation, have been brought to bear in an attempt to
achieve this (Fig. 1). In situ subsurface characteriz-
ation of larger-scale aspects of a fracture network
can be derived from reflection seismic surveys
(examples in this volume include Murray & Mon-
tgomery 2012 and Slightam 2012). A variety
of data can be used to investigate seismic- and
subseismic-scale elements of a fracture network.
These include borehole data derived from wireline
logs, especially image logs including FMITM and
FMSTM resistivity images (e.g. Bosworth et al.
2012; Delorme et al. 2013; Saoudi et al. 2012
Ward et al. 2012) and sonic acoustic images (e.g.
Prioul & Jocker 2009; Slightam 2012), VSP (verti-
cal seismic profile; e.g. Emsley et al. 2007; Sligh-
tam 2012), core analysis (e.g. Bosworth et al.
2012; Sonntag et al. 2012; Sagi et al. 2013) and
drill cuttings (Ortega & Aguilera 2014). Geologi-
cally appropriate outcrop analogues are also fre-
quently studied as proxies for subsurface fracture
networks (e.g. Bosworth et al. 2012; Rotevatn &
Bastesen 2012; Slightam 2012; Sonntag et al.
2012; Seers & Hodgetts 2013), often in combi-
nation with other subsurface geophysical data.
Numerical modelling including the finite element
method (e.g. Leckenby et al. 2007; Smart et al.
2009; Strijker et al. 2013) and the discrete element
method (e.g. Camac & Hunt 2009; Abe et al.
2013; Virgo et al. 2013; Spence & Finch 2014)
can be used to investigate fracturing processes and
to simulate the creation of fracture networks from
geologically realistic mechanical stratigraphies.
Data derived from geophysical investigations, the
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2014
6 G. H. SPENCE ET AL.

Fig 1. Illustration of some of the multiple methods that can employed to quantitatively characterize fracture parameters,
examples of which can be found in this volume: (a) direct measurements from outcrop analogues (from Sonntag et al.
2012); (b) digital outcrop models (DOM) constructed from LIDAR data (from Seers & Hodgetts 2013); (c) resistivity
image logs (FMI); (d) acoustic image logs (UBI); (e) orbital sonic VSP (from Slightam 2012); (f) core slabs (from
Bosworth et al. 2012); (g) core rubble (from Sagi et al. 2013); (h) discrete element modelling (DEM) (from Spence &
Finch 2014); (i) reflection seismic survey (from Slightam 2012). Characterizing fracture networks at all scales of
resolution requires the integration of multiple methods. When transferring fracture network data to modellers it is
important that they are aware of the uncertainties in the data due to the different methods used to acquire the data. See
text for discussion (and papers in this volume for details).
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Wisconsin - Madison on September 11,
2014
INTRODUCTION
study of core, the study of outcrop analogues and
numerical modelling may be integrated by employ-
ing scaling and statistical techniques to produce the
best possible multiscale picture of the fracture net-
work in the reservoir (e.g. Bertotti et al. 2007b;
Hall et al. 2007; Prioul & Jocker 2009; Bosworth
et al. 2012). Fracture networks characterized using
subsurface techniques, outcrop analogues and geo-
mechanical modelling can be used in both deter-
ministic reservoir models and/or in statistical
approaches in which fracture parameters derived
from these multiple methods are used to populate
stochastic reservoir models for use in fluid flow
simulations. When transferring fracture network
data to modellers, it is important that they are
aware of the uncertainties in the data resulting
from the limitations of the different methods that
were used to acquire it.
Subsurface data acquisition methods
Seismic reflection surveys and borehole
log data
When using 2D or 3D reflection seismic surveys
to study fractures and fracture networks, a critical
limiting factor is image resolution. Resolution of
standard reflection seismic data is typically suita-
ble for detecting brittle structures at the scale of
faults with a minimum of several metres of displace-
ment across them. This leaves considerable uncer-
tainty in assessing the possible elements of the
fracture network with length scales below this resol-
ution, and precludes the direct seismic imaging of
extensional fractures which dominate the fracture
networks of many fractured reservoirs. Borehole
sonic and radial and orbital VSP can be used to
assist in resolving elements of fracture networks
below the scale of traditional seismic reflection
surveys (e.g. Emsley et al. 2007; Prioul & Jocker
2009; Slightam 2012).
Passive microseismic data can be used to image
seismic anisotropy and to estimate fracture charac-
teristics (e.g. Wuestefeld et al. 2010; Geiser et al.
2012), and amplitude versus offset and azimuth
analysis can also be used to characterize naturally
fractured reservoirs from seismic data (e.g. Hall
et al. 2007; Far et al. 2013). Subseismic-scale frac-
ture density may also be indirectly predicted based
on seismic-scale fold style and curvature when the
mechanical properties of the folded lithologies are
known (e.g. Bergbauer et al. 2007; Pearce et al.
2011). Empirical geological rules can be used to
reduce uncertainty in the seismic interpretations of
fractures (e.g. Freeman et al. 2010).
Fractures penetrated by boreholes can be
detected in wireline resistivity images such as
7
FMSw (Formation MicroScanner) and FMIw (Full-
bore Formation MicroImager) and in sonic acoustic
image logs, allowing the orientation and frequency
of fractures encountered in boreholes to be mea-
sured. However, resistivity image logs only record
that portion of a fracture through which the bore-
hole penetrates; they do not directly quantify
fracture lengths, distribution or fracture network
connectivity in the reservoir. Beyond the usual con-
siderations of drilling-induced fracturing (e.g. Fuen-
kajorn & Daemen 1992), there is little evidence to
suggest that consideration is given to the possibil-
ity that well construction itself has altered the
local detectability of fractures. Stoneley responses
from sonic tools such as the SonicScannerw, atten-
uated using the normalized differential energies
(NDE) technique, can assist in differentiating
between natural fractures and drilling-induced
fractures around the borehole (Brie et al. 1988;
Donald & Bratton 2006).
The borehole diameter is typically of the scale
of centimetres, whereas the length of the borehole
may be many hundreds to thousands of metres. It
follows that fractures in the reservoir aligned paral-
lel to the borehole axis will be statistically under-
represented relative to those that are inclined to
the borehole axis. A statistical approach is therefore
frequently adopted to upscale and extrapolate bore-
hole data to characterize the reservoir away from
the well. Statistical power-law or fractal character-
ization is often employed to calculate fracture par-
ameters from borehole data (e.g. Dershowitz et al.
1998; Bastesen & Braathen 2010); however, there
are currently few independent means of corroborat-
ing the results of this approach. Moreover, data
derived from individual boreholes are only repre-
sentative of very limited and localized volumes of
the reservoir for example, if fractures are clus-
tered into corridors (e.g. Questiaux et al. 2009)
that a borehole does not intersect. Integrating resis-
tivity image logs, VSP and seismic survey data
can assist in identifying fractures that are signifi-
cant at the seismic and subseismic scale and, to a
degree, extrapolate fracture geometries away from
the borehole (e.g. Emsley et al. 2007).
Core analysis
A statistical approach can also be applied to
extrapolate and upscale fracture data derived from
rock cores for input into reservoir models (e.g. Bas-
tesen & Braathen 2010; Sagi et al. 2013). Several of
the papers in this volume integrate data derived from
core analysis with other data types (e.g. Bosworth
et al. 2012; Slightam 2012; Sonntag et al. 2012;
Sagi et al. 2013). Sagi et al. (2013) describe and
compare two independent methods of determining
the density and connectivity of subseismic-scale
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8 G. H. SPENCE ET AL.
fractures and veins in the Upper Cretaceous Lower
Palaeocene naturally fractured chalk from the
Skjold Field in the Danish sector of the North Sea,
using cohesive cores and incohesive core rubble
fragments. The Skjold Field is a four-way domal
closure positioned above a salt diaper. The two
methods used are: (1) image analysis of slabs from
cohesive core samples; and (2) rubble-sized mea-
surements from incohesive samples. Incohesive
core-rubble fragments represent stratigraphic inter-
vals with high fracture intensity and so are particu-
larly important. Using these methods, Sagi et al.
show quantitatively that fracture density and con-
nectivity is higher in crestal wells compared to
wells on the dome rim. This case study illustrates
how quantitative analysis of rubble-ized core sam-
ples can assist in constraining fracture density and
connectivity of subseismic-scale elements of frac-
ture networks that affect reservoir transmissibility.
Integrated subsurface studies
Ward et al. (2012) highlight the beneficial impact
of reprocessing existing seismic data, with an
example from the Machar Oil Field located in the
UK sector of the Central North Sea. The Machar
Field is a complex, naturally fractured, Cretaceous-
chalk/Palaeocene-sandstone oil reservoir above a
tall salt diaper. This field has had a phased devel-
opment since 1998. Extensive reprocessing of
reflection seismic survey data from the previously
undrilled eastern flank, that had previously lacked
coherent reflectivity, supported a geological model
indicating the possibility of an undiscovered reser-
voir, thereby reducing the subsurface risk associated
with the area. Confidence in the reprocessed seismic
interpretation allowed new productive wells to be
drilled opening up a new phase of development for
the Machar Field.
In one of two case studies in this volume on natu-
rally fractured crystalline basement reservoirs,
Slightam (2012) presents a workflow to investigate
the presence of movable oil in fault zones and uses it
to explore a viable target in Lewisian crystalline
basement west of Shetland in the UK sector of the
North Sea. Before drilling, 3D seismic data, offset
well data and outcrop analogues were interpreted
to initially characterize the fault network in the
Lewisian basement, and two seismically defined
fault zones were targeted as potential reservoirs
for an inclined basement well. Subsequent drilling
generated extensive suites of log data that have
been integrated with the 3D seismic data using
leading-edge techniques, increasing the number of
mapped faults and constrained quantitative par-
ameters (including fault frequency, orientations,
length and rock lithologies) in the model. Frac-
tures do not appear to be affected by lithological
2014
variability in the crystalline basement. This work-
flow establishes that seismically identified fault
zones are viable exploration targets in the Lewisan
Basement on the UK continental shelf west of
Shetland. A similar workflow could be adopted
for characterizing other faulted crystalline base-
ment reservoirs.
In the second case study of a fractured crystal-
line basement reservoir presented in this volume,
Murray & Montgomery (2012) describe an inte-
grated multidisciplinary industry case study of the
characterization of the naturally fractured Bayfoot
Field in the Say un Masila Basin in the Republic
of Yemen. The fracture network in the Archean
crystalline basement is principally characterized
from analysis of extensive resistivity image log
data from ten boreholes, coupled with 3D reflection
seismic data and geomechanical modelling. No cor-
relations are identified between fracture network
parameters, including orientations and density, and
rock lithologies; this possibly indicates that such
relationships have been overprinted by the com-
plex tectonic history. Although prediction of pro-
ductivity remains uncertain, the study has led to an
improved well planning strategy involving highly
deviated to subhorizontal wells oriented to intersect
the maximum number of productive fractures and
the major seismic-scale fault damage zones achiev-
ing the greatest production.
Saoudi et al. (2012) also present an industry
case study of the impact of fractures on the increase
in water cut during production from a Miocene
syn-rift dual-porosity fractured dolomite reservoir
in the Issaran Field in the Gulf of Suez, Egypt, and
the measures taken to address this problem. An
integrated approach used image resistivity and wire-
line logs from a large number of wells, alongside
petrographically determined diagenetic history and
3D seismic data to characterize fracture stratigra-
phy, sets and densities. Mechanical stratigraphy is
shown to have been a major control on the frac-
ture densities. Drilling-induced fractures and bore-
hole breakouts identified in resistivity images were
used to determine present-day stress state in the
reservoir, which is used to infer the orientation of
the fractures most likely to be open. Wellhead temp-
erature, oil production, steam injection and water
production data from a large number of wells were
also used to characterize fracture connectivity and
fluid flow. This allowed remedial measures to be
designed that resulted in a substantial decrease in
water cut.
Outcrop analogues
Geologically appropriate outcrops have been
widely used as analogues for subsurface fractured
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2014
INTRODUCTION
reservoirs. Outcrop analogues have been used to
investigate both fundamental controls on fracturing
and to assist in characterizing fracture networks in
the target subsurface fractured reservoir (e.g. Bos-
worth et al. 2012; Rotevatn & Bastesen 2012;
Sonntag et al. 2012) and to construct deterministic
(e.g. Wilson et al. 2011; Geiger & Matthai 2012)
and stochastic (e.g. Seers & Hodgetts 2013)
models. When using fractured outcrop analogues,
important considerations are: (1) the influence of
weathering and erosion on how well the original
fracture network and depositional stratigraphy is
preserved in the outcrop; (2) methods that capture
quantitative fracture and stratigraphic data from
the outcrop with the highest resolution and accuracy
to minimize sample bias; and (3) the degree to
which the outcrop fracture network is representative
of the subsurface reservoir.
Outcrop analogues provide 2D samples of frac-
ture networks in either stratigraphic or bed-parallel
orientations. Such analogues can yield both strati-
graphic information from sedimentary logging and
statistical spatial data on fracture densities, orien-
tations, heights (trace length) and distributions using
standard structural geology techniques for scan-
lines, sampling windows and trace maps (e.g. La
Pointe & Hudson 1985; Dershowitz & Herda
1992; Priest 2004). Several forms of bias may
affect fracture data collection using these techniques
(e.g. discussed in Sturzenegger et al. 2011), and stat-
istical sampling approaches such as using circular
sampling windows (Zhang & Einstein 1998;
Mauldon et al. 2001) and semi-trace length sam-
pling along scan lines (Priest 2004) have been
developed to minimize them.
Manual data collection may also introduce
sampling bias however, as only those parts of the
outcrop that are physically accessible can be quanti-
tatively examined. To overcome this limitation
fracture networks from outcrops have also been
characterized by: using photogeology, although
this generates inaccuracies by projecting 3D struc-
tural features onto a 2D image; using a hybrid of
photographs placed in a digital GIS (Geographic
Information System) environment integrated with
structural and stratigraphic data measured manually
from the outcrop (Bertotti et al. 2007a, Boro
et al. 2013; Hardebol & Bertotti 2013); and gather-
ing data remotely from outcrop surfaces that have
3D topography using photogrammetry (e.g. Voyat
et al. 2006) and laser scanning techniques (e.g.
Wilson et al. 2011; Seers & Hodgetts 2013 to
generate 3D digital outcrop models of the exposure
(see Digital outcrop models below).
The exactness with which data from outcrop
analogue fracture networks can be extrapolated
to subsurface reservoirs is subject to limitations.
Exhumation of fractured outcrops causes them to
9
have experienced a different loading/unloading
history relative to that of the fractured reservoir,
for example, uncemented joints form at shallow
burial depths and are therefore unlikely to be signifi-
cant in relation to natural fractured hydrocar-
bon reservoirs (Nelson 2001; Sanders et al. 2003;
Hooker & Laubach 2013). It is therefore necessary
to filter out such fractures when extrapolating out-
crop data to the subsurface.
Hencher (2013) questions the standards for
characterizing discontinuities and fractures in out-
crops and core, and argues that existing defini-
tions are too broad to sufficiently characterize the
variety of geological features observed between
incipient rock traces through to open fractures.
This is illustrated using a wide range of outcrop
examples. Hencher proposes that fractures develop
from micro-cracks to full-scale mechanical dis-
continuities though time in response to changes in
stress and environmental conditions, and that the
terminology for discontinuities needs to adequately
differentiate between these different developmental
stages. To address these concerns, Hencher pro-
poses incorporating relative tensile strength of the
discontinuity compared to that of the host rock to
differentiate between discontinuities. Hencher
emphasizes that tectonics, unloading and weather-
ing may all play roles in the development and
weakening along discontinuities/fractures. One
consequence of the concept of dynamic discontinu-
ity development proposed by Hencher is that using
current classification standards to describe dis-
continuities in the outcrop may not be representative
of the discontinuities in the subsurface. Hencher
illustrates how both fracture frequency and extent
in an outcrop can vary depending on the level of
weathering and erosion it has experienced.
As mentioned above, potential diagenetic alter-
ation of mechanical stratigraphy may also have
influenced the formation of the extant fracture
network. Uncritically referencing fracture networks
to depositional stratigraphy in outcrop and then
extrapolating this to make subsurface predictions
may therefore be misleading.
Integrated outcrop studies
In this volume Sonntag et al. (2012) investigate
sedimentation controls on the fracture network of
a naturally fractured tight-gas sandstone reservoir
in the Mesaverde Group, Uinta Basin, Utah, USA
which is currently in production. This integrated
study uses data derived from pavement outcrops,
resistivity image and well logs, well core, thin-
section petrography and microstructural analysis.
Fracture character and distribution in the Mesaverde
Group are shown to be controlled by a hierar-
chy of sedimentary and diagenetic characteristics.
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2014
10 G. H. SPENCE ET AL.
First-order sedimentary characteristics that directly
influence the fracture network are identified as sand-
stone bed thickness and bed geometries. Second-
order controls, which are only developed when
all other variables remain constant, include the
degree and type of cementation. The results of this
study allow prediction of subsurface natural fracture
density based on the depositional environment of
the sandstone body (lithofacies). Outcrop and sub-
surface data show that higher fracture densities
occur in well-cemented discontinuous channel sand
bodies deposited in meandering river environments,
making these the best reservoir targets. Sonntag
et al. propose that, in the Mesaverde Group, more
highly fractured well-cemented lithologies may be
identified in the subsurface by low sonic well log
transit times.
Rotevatn & Bastesen (2012) present a detailed
structural field study of Eocene carbonates of the
Suez Rift exposed in west-central Sinai in order
to investigate the influence of fault linkage and
damage zone architecture on permeability along
segmented normal faults. From structural obser-
vations the authors are able to predict that, along
segmented normal faults, fault linkage zones in car-
bonate rocks with systematically increased cross-
and along- fault permeability will occur. Fault
linkage zones may increase fluid flow both across
faults and also vertically within fault zones. The
results of this field study may be extrapolated to
fault linkage and damage zones and fracture net-
works associated with seismically imaged segmen-
ted normal faults in carbonate reservoirs to better
characterize their influence on fluid flow.
Bosworth et al. (2012) present an industrial
case study of the investigation and well testing of
the low-porosity naturally fractured Eocene lime-
stones in the Darat and Thebes formations at the
East Budran concession, Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Data
from naturally fractured outcrop analogues, exposed
in the west-central Sinai desert, are integrated with
borehole image and core data to define the orien-
tations of major fracture sets. Borehole breakout
data and drill-induced fractures are used to identify
minimum horizontal stress directions to predict
the orientation of fractures likely to exhibit the larg-
est open apertures in the subsurface. The structural
framework was used to optimize well placement,
and a near-horizontal test well drilled to intersect
the highest number of potentially open fractures pro-
duced a flow rate of 19,000 barrels of oil a day.
Digital outcrop models
Laser scanning
A potentially transformative advance in the study
of fractured outcrop analogues is the use of
close-range terrestrial laser scanning to generate
digital outcrop models from which quantitative
stratigraphic and structural spatial data can then
be extracted (e.g. Buckley et al. 2008; Sturzenegger
& Stead 2009a, b; Wilson et al. 2011; Seers &
Hodgetts 2013). Remote laser scanning of outcrops
using terrestrial LIDAR (light detection and
ranging) generates point clouds with x, y, z coordi-
nates. Point clouds can be processed to generate tri-
angulated meshes (also referred to as triangulated
irregular network or TIN) of the scanned surface
(e.g. Buckley et al. 2008; Seers & Hodgetts
2013). Differential GPS information for each pos-
ition of the scanner is used to georeference the
LIDAR data to global co-ordinates that can be
used to integrate scans made from multiple scan
positions and with other types of geospatially refer-
enced data and images. Calibrated digital photo-
graphic images gathered at the same time as laser
scanning are used to assign a true colour to each
point in the point cloud, and/or the photographic
images may be merged with the triangulated
mesh to generate photorealistic digital outcrop
models (e.g. Buckley et al. 2008; Gillespie et al.
2011). Quantitative spatial data can be manually
picked from fracture traces and planes observed
either in the digital point cloud, the triangulated
mesh and/or the photorealistic model (e.g. Sturtze-
negger & Stead 2009a, b; Hodgetts 2013). The very
large size of discontinuity datasets generated
from digital outcrop models means that manual
data picking is very time consuming; software
methods for semi- and automatic picking of frac-
tures are therefore being developed (e.g. Lato
et al. 2009; Gillespie et al. 2011; Wilson et al.
2011). The emerging application of remote hyper-
spectral imaging (to map mineral distribution on
inaccessible outcrop surfaces) may be combined
with LIDAR datasets as one means of including
compositional lithological information (e.g. dolo-
mite v. limestone) in digital outcrop models (e.g.
Kurtz et al. 2011; Buckley et al. 2013). Visualiza-
tion of mineral composition can be made using
false-colouring in a digital outcrop model to assist
the interpretations of lithological controls on frac-
ture networks. Terrestrial LIDAR has also been
used to determine other fracture parameters, such
as directional joint dilation angle values (natural
roughness of the joint surface) (Mansfield &
Kemeny 2009).
The surface topography of an outcrop may
obscure the view from a single scan position, poten-
tially introducing interpretation bias. Integration
of multiple laser scans from different scanning pos-
itions produces a more complete 3D surface dataset
and reduces this effect (e.g. Lato et al. 2010).
Remote laser scanning using multiple scanning
positions can capture most of an outcrop in 3D.
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2014
INTRODUCTION
This reduces subjective bias in the positioning of
scan-lines/sample windows and allows very large,
statistically significant fracture datasets (includ-
ing fracture heights, orientations, spacing, layer/
bed thicknesses and stratigraphic data) to be har-
vested and interpreted from digital outcrop mod-
els (e.g. Strouth & Eberhardt 2006; Olariu et al.
2008; Lato et al. 2009, 2010; Mansfield & Kemeny
2009; Sturzenegger & Stead 2009a, b; Spence
et al. 2010; Garca-selles et al. 2011; Gillespie
et al. 2011; Pearce et al. 2011; Sturzenegger et al.
2011; Wilson et al. 2011; Hodgetts 2013; Seers &
Hodgetts 2013).
Although digital models can capture most of an
outcrop, weathering, erosion and vegetation on the
outcrop surface and fracture attenuation due to
outcrop surface topography and at the edge of the
outcrop may mean that data gathered from the
whole outcrop is not all suitable for inclusion in
fracture analysis. Digital outcrop models allow
objective choices to be made on where to harvest
data by taking these factors into account. Digital
outcrop models allow topographic sampling win-
dows that are unrestricted by the need for physical
access to be used for quantitative discontinuity
mapping (e.g. Sturzenegger et al. 2011).
As with all remote sensing techniques, the
resolution and accuracy with which laser scanning
captures the outcrop needs to be critically assessed
when using the acquired dataset to characterize
fractured reservoir models. Different data proces-
sing software for LIDAR may produce different
results and limit the size of point clouds that can
be processed (e.g. Varela-Gonzalez et al. 2013).
Moreover, narrow fractures can be very difficult to
detect in digital outcrop models (especially when
viewed only as true-colour point clouds or trian-
gulated meshes); when the fracture plane is not
exposed and the fracture trace is present on a flat
rock surface of uniform colour and/or where frac-
ture density is high (i.e. when fractures are closely
spaced). This can potentially lead to some bias
in the data (e.g. Sturzenegger et al. 2011). This
means that, in the same way that seismic surveys
may omit smaller-scale elements from the fracture
network, digital outcrop models may not image all
fracture traces and fracture planes present on the
outcrop in sufficient detail for them to be picked.
The degree to which this may occur for typical
LIDAR resolutions and point cloud size depends
on the choice of data processing software used and
the magnitude of the surface topography and
colour variations in the outcrop.
Fracture data from LIDAR surveys of outcrops
have been used to construct discrete fracture net-
works used in flow models (e.g. Wilson et al.
2011; Seers & Hodgetts 2013). Seer and Hodgetts
assess the effect of uncertainty attributable to using
11
LIDAR to characterize fracture networks from
reservoir analogues that are used to model fluid flow.
Fracture statistics collected in abandoned mine tun-
nels using laser scanning are compared to a corre-
sponding dataset collected using traditional fracture
survey methods to characterize Triassic, naturally
fractured, reservoir analogues in the Helby Forma-
tion Sandstone in England. Comparison of these
two datasets identifies an under-representation in
fracture size and fracture density parameters in the
LIDAR-derived dataset in comparison to manually
derived data, resulting in an underestimate of the
upscaled modelled flow capacity of the fracture net-
work. This study strikes a cautionary note about the
possibility of LIDAR introducing bias into fracture
datasets. In Seers and Hodgettss study, fracture
densities were not especially high; it may be that
when using LIDAR to characterize more densely
fractured rocks this bias effect might be more
pronounced.
Digital outcrop models constructed from LIDAR
data offer great potential for characterizing frac-
ture networks from outcrops. However, the differ-
ences revealed in comparisons between manual
field based and LIDAR derived fracture data sets
(e.g. Sturzenegger et al. 2011; Seers & Hodgetts
2014), indicate that there are limitations in this
approach and that more work is required before
this potential is fully realized. However, the critical
use of digital outcrop models offers several signifi-
cant advantages for studying fractured networks in
outcrop analogues over conventional field-based
studies. Manual ground truth data is currently
desirable in order to constrain potential bias that
might arise during the acquisition of the LIDAR-
derived data. Using laser scanning and digital
models to study fracture networks remains rela-
tively new, but is an area of intense research activity
and will become increasingly important. Areas for
future development and investigation include
improving the resolution of digital outcrop models
to capture smaller-scale surface detail to ensure
all discontinuities are detected. This will require
larger point clouds and advances in both hardware
and software (necessary to gather, process and
manipulate this increase in size) and the develop-
ment of new discontinuity sampling techniques
and statistical approaches that fully exploit the
benefits of the 3D topographic outcrop surfaces in
these models.
Photogrammetry
Another method for producing digital outcrop
models from which discontinuity data can be
extracted is the use of photogrammetry (e.g. Voyat
et al. 2005; Sturzenegger et al. 2011). Photogram-
metry can deliver 3D coordinates of features by
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12 G. H. SPENCE ET AL.
incorporating multiple 2D photographic images
taken from different aspects. Several software
packages exist for this purpose (e.g. Favalli et al.
2012). The accuracy of discontinuity data extracted
from digital models generated using photogram-
metry depends on several factors (e.g. discussed in
Voyat et al. 2005). For example, unlike LIDAR,
photogrammetry does not make direct primary
measurements from the outcrop surface during
data collection, but rather from the scaling of
the 3D digital outcrop model generated from the
photographic images; and so may be slightly less
accurate by comparison. However, the compact
size of hardware used for photogrammetry (the
size of a high-quality digital camera) raises the
potential for it being mounted onto a relatively inex-
pensive remote-controlled unmanned aerial vehicle
(UAV) allowing for more complete coverage of
the outcrop surface. For example, a UAV photo-
graphic survey can capture data from above rock
overhangs and other surface topography on a cliff
face which can obscure parts of the outcrop
surface from a ground-based LIDAR scanner.
Geomechanical considerations
Simulating creation of fracture
networks
Geomechanical studies seek to understand how rock
materials respond within a context that includes
considerations of material properties and loading
arrangements (Couples 2005). Relative to frac-
tured reservoirs, this approach can be used to gain
understanding of how the characteristics of frac-
ture systems which are an expression of defor-
mation may depend upon circumstances and
conditions (e.g. components, material properties,
loading arrangements and interactions) that existed
at the time of fracture formation. This understand-
ing can provide knowledge to assist in predicting
fracture distributions in subsurface volumes where
direct fracture data cannot be obtained. Although
geomechanical reasoning can be applied in simple,
idealized situations for example, where a model
is assumed in which fractures initiate or grow within
a rock layer that is bounded above and below by
layers with differing material properties (McDer-
mott et al. 2013) this sort of analysis cannot
be reliably transferred to the circumstances of a
whole-reservoir example, where the spatial and
temporal evolution of mechanical state of the
reservoir cannot be usefully assessed by conjecture.
To overcome this limitation, geomechanical
simulations can be used to represent deformation
in whole systems of rocks subjected to trap-forming
deformation processes. Geomechanical ideas are
2014
expressed in terms of constitutive relationships,
defining parameter dependencies between stresses
and strains plus possibly other factors such as
temperatures and strain rates. Constitutive relation-
ships are used within simulation software tools to
calculate the response of a whole model system to
user-assigned boundary loads and other controls.
Both continuum (e.g. Leckenby et al. 2007; Smart
et al. 2009; Segura et al. 2011; Strijker et al.
2013) and discontinuum approaches (e.g. Hardy &
Finch 2007; Camac & Hunt 2009; Abe et al. 2013;
Spence & Finch 2013, 2014; Virgo et al. 2013)
can be used. Both calculate an output that is
expressed in terms of stresses/strains (continuum)
or forces/displacements (discontinuum). Conti-
nuum methods can examine whole-reservoir defor-
mations, while discontinuum approaches are more
suited to local investigations. The continuum
outputs must be interpreted and extrapolated to
down-scale the strains into plausible fracture pat-
terns, but the discontinuum outputs may be able to
represent fracturing processes in an almost direct
way (depending on the length scale of the discrete
elements). Combined continuum/discontinuum
approaches show some promise for capturing the
responses at the intermediate length scale (e.g.
Grasselli et al. 2014).
Each of these methods involves the division of
a selected physical region (in 2D or 3D) into a
large number of individual elements. In continuum
approaches, the element boundaries are virtual and
simply represent arbitrary divisions of the space
into convenient mathematical entities necessary
for the formulation of the equations. In contrast,
in discontinuum methods the element boundaries
of the particles are conceptually related to phys-
ically realistic particle interactions such as inter-
particle sliding or the breakage of inter-particle
bonds. In discrete element approaches, the particles
can have a one-to-one relationship with real ele-
ments of the system such as grains, or the discrete
elements can be much larger; in the latter case the
interactions between particles are less directly
linked to fundamental physics. In discrete element
methods, the rock mass is treated as an assemblage
of circular (in 2D models) or spherical (in 3D
models) elements that interact in pairs that undergo
motion relative to one another as if connected by
breakable elastic springs. By modifying the assigned
characteristics of the springs, different rock proper-
ties such as rock stiffness can be approximated. The
consequences of these parameters can then be tested
using an appropriate loading arrangement (e.g.
Hardy & Finch 2007).
Spence & Finch (2014) use discrete element
models to investigate the effects of mechanical
heterogeneity at layer interfaces, caused by the
presence of stratified chert nodules, on the
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2014
INTRODUCTION
development of fracture networks within carbonate
sedimentary cycles. Geologically appropriate,
layered mechanical stratigraphies are used to sim-
ulate shallow-water sequence-stratigraphic para-
sequence sets (and physically uniform successions
to take into account possible diagenetic homo-
genization of layers), both with and without chert
being present at layer interfaces. The different
mechanical stratigraphies tested generate distinct
patterns of broken bonds and openings (strain),
which can be used to predict real-world fracturing
in the subsurface with a sequence stratigraphic
framework. The simulation outcomes are used to
generate 2D fracture maps from which quantitat-
ive fracture indices (in the sense of Dershowitz
& Herda 1992) are calculated, leading to the for-
mulation of sequence-stratigraphic rules for pre-
dicting the influence of nodular chert-rhythmites
on fracture networks in shallow-water carbonate
sedimentary cycles.
Given the challenges of quantitatively character-
izing fracture networks from subsurface and outcrop
data, it is predicted that the use of geomechani-
cal simulations, based on geologically appropriate
approaches, will serve to underpin efforts to under-
stand or create discrete fracture network models,
which can then be incorporated into reservoir flow
simulations (Gonzalez et al. 2014). The rapid and
continuing advances in relatively inexpensive com-
puter power will make this approach more practical
and less specialized.
Numerical geomechanical modelling
Flow rates from fractured reservoirs are related in
large part to the real-time geomechanical behaviour
of the reservoir, including how fracture-bounded
blocks interact with natural loads, thermal altera-
tions and production-induced changes in fluid ener-
gies. Couples (2013) critically examines some of
the geomechanical rules-of-thumb about fracture
apertures that are widely used in industry to pre-
dict fluid flow, but which have met with only a
limited amount of success. These rules are based
on the assumptions that: (1) alterations of effective
stress are directly related to pore pressure changes;
and (2) changes in fracture apertures are the result
of stress changes. Couples uses both simple reason-
ing and numerical models to challenge the validity
of these underpinning assumptions. The numerical
simulations presented demonstrate the occurrence
of strong non-linear dynamic interactions between
fluids, the geomechanics of the fractured blocky
systems and thermal changes, which cause temporal
and spatial variations in the effective flow properties
of the rock mass. Couples argues that flow perform-
ance discrepancies during production from frac-
tured reservoirs are dominantly a consequence of
13
motion occurring within the fractured rock mass,
and that this alternative analysis could lead to an
improvement in the reliability of predicting fluid
flow in fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Heffer (2012) uses numerical modelling to ex-
amine several potential geomechanical mechanisms
to account for inferred changes in hydraulic conduc-
tivity of faults and fractures in reservoirs resulting
from production operations, where these effects
are recorded by correlated changes in flow at pro-
duction and injection wells. In his study, statistical
correlations in flow-rate observations between
wells with very large separation distances in the
North Sea seem to be related to both stress and
faults. Of the four geomechanical mechanisms con-
sidered to explain long-range stress- and fault-
related characteristics of statistical correlations in
flow rates between wells, Heffer concludes that
the dilation or compaction of aligned (micro-) frac-
tures is the most credible.
Igneous sills can form hydrocarbon reservoirs
in sedimentary basins and can also act as potential
reservoir seals. Gudmundsson & Ltveit (2012)
describe examples of sills and, to a lesser extent,
dykes and numerically model stresses generated
by these igneous intrusions in an attempt to char-
acterize potential fractured reservoirs created
both within and around sills. Their study examines
the roles of the lateral dimension and the length/
thickness ratios of these intrusions on their fracture
potential.
Numerical simulations of fluid flow
Geiger & Matthai (2012) review and discuss recent
advances in single- and multi-phase flow using dis-
crete fracture and rock matrix simulations (DFM).
DFM takes into account the flow effects of both
interconnected fractures and the rock matrix using
a mixed finite element (FE) and finite volume
(FV) numerical approach. Geiger & Matthai pre-
sent arguments as to why mixed methods with
unstructured grids are more appropriate than stan-
dard reservoir simulation methods for calculating
single- and multi-phase flow processes. Using
outcrop analogues, they show how the DFM
numerical method can preserve the complex struc-
tures seen in fractured outcrops without the need
to simplify them and thus lose some of their
impact. The DFM methodology is demonstrated
for 2D simulations using fractured limestone out-
crop analogues from the Bristol Channel coast in
Somerset, England and key issues relating to fluid
flow, heat transfer, mass transport and multi-phase
flow are discussed. These authors also discuss
future challenges in the development of DFM simu-
lations including 3D simulations, estimating the
extent of fractures in the third dimension from
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Wisconsin - Madison on September 11,
14 G. H. SPENCE ET AL.
essentially 2D outcrop data, determining accu-
rate fracture apertures, addressing the additional
computational complexity of 3D compared to
2D simulations and up-scaling from outcrop to
reservoir scale.
DFM is potentially a powerful tool for investi-
gating fluid flow. However, a prerequisite for this
approach is the reliance on very high-quality input
models, usually based on outcrop. The creation of
such high-quality outcrop models is a sub-discipline
in itself, with many technical challenges of its
own. As discussed earlier in Digital outcrop mod-
els, even the highest-quality digital outcrop
models from laser scanning are currently subject
to sampling bias. Moreover, there remains the ques-
tion as to what degree an outcrop analogue is repre-
sentative of the subsurface reservoir. Critical
assessment of elements of the fracture network in
outcrop, such as near-surface features that are not
relevant to subsurface reservoirs, need to be ident-
ified and filtered out prior to DFM analysis. All
the potential bias resulting from outcrop char-
acterization will be carried forwards into DFM
simulation.
Zhou et al. (2013) use 2D and 3D numerical
modelling to examine the effects on fluid flow
caused by the intersection of compaction bands
(granulation seams) with joints and faults in a
porous sandstone host rock. In the porous Jurassic
Aeolian Aztec sandstones exposed in Nevada,
USA, compaction bands with permeability lower
than the host rock and joints and faults with per-
meability higher than the host rock occur together.
A series of 2D and 3D permeability up-scaling and
water flood simulations are used to quantitatively
investigate the influence on fluid flow of different
configurations and combinations of compaction
bands, joints and faults. Among other findings from
these numerical experiments, Zhou et al. (2013)
demonstrate that the direction of flow relative to
the orientation of intersecting compaction bands
and other structures can affect the efficiency of
oil recovery. Their results emphasize the impor-
tance of taking into account the presence of com-
paction bands in flow simulations of fractured
reservoirs.
Statistical methods integrating production
data
Iterative statistical history matching of produc-
tion and well test behaviours can be used to decrease
uncertainty in future reservoir development.
Delorme et al. (2013) present an industrial case
study from a Cretaceous naturally fractured carbon-
ate reservoir in the Campos basin, offshore Brazil,
which describes a statistical methodology and
workflow to improve the initial fractured reservoir
2014
model by integrating hydrodynamic information
from actual production and well test data. This
dynamic data was used to determine fracture proper-
ties and identify previously undetected structural
features in the original model by calibrating the
fluid flow or reservoir pressure measured at wells.
This iterative methodology established the exist-
ence of compartmentalization within the reservoir
and has assisted in constraining uncertainty in pro-
duction forecasts.
Fractured reservoirs and carbon
dioxide storage
An emerging topic in the study of fractured reser-
voirs is their evaluation and utilization as potential
long-term storage sites for sequestering carbon
dioxide (e.g. Dockrill & Shipton 2010; Idling
et al. 2011; Ogata et al. 2012; Senger et al. 2011,
2013; Bao et al. 2013; Jordan et al. 2013). This
is referred to as CO2 capture and storage or CCS.
Deep geological reservoirs, including depleted
hydrocarbon reservoirs, may provide long-term
storage repositories for anthropogenic CO2. One of
the appeals of using depleted hydrocarbon reser-
voirs is that they have already demonstrated their
long-term reservoir potential over a geological time
scale. They also have the advantage of having a
large wealth of legacy geological data available.
Moreover, some of the existing hydrocarbon indus-
try infrastructure such as offshore platforms, pipe-
lines and wells could be converted for this
purpose. However, hydrocarbon extraction and
reservoir development, and CO2 injection, may all
modify reservoir characteristics and behaviour.
The crucial consideration in the long-term storage
of CO2 in geological reservoirs is establishing that
CO2 will not leak though the fracture network to
the atmosphere in examples where the reservoir
fracture system also affects the cap rock or seals.
Other important factors relating to successful
sequestration include determining the CO2 storage
capacity of the reservoir and establishing the diffi-
culties linked to injection. Both these factors are
determined by the nature of the fracture network
and injection-time geomechanical behaviour. When
CO2 is injected into a reservoir, the fracture network
may influence pressure evolution within the reser-
voir and the distribution pattern of the CO2 plume
(e.g. Idling et al. 2011). To address these issues it
is essential to characterize the fracture network
and determine its interaction with the plume. All
the proceeding techniques discussed above can be
employed. To help assess the risk of leakage, fault
population statistics can be used to calculate the
probabilities of the CO2 plume encountering faults
along which leakage might occur though the seal
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Wisconsin - Madison on September 11,
2014
INTRODUCTION
at different distances from the injection well (Jordan
et al. 2013). If fluid pressure is too high during CO2
injection, it may engender stresses that reactivate
existing faults and create new fractures. This may
compromise the integrity of the seal and/or
modify reservoir porosity and permeability. To
address this, numerical modelling including sensi-
tivity analysis (how uncertainty in the output of
numerical models can be assigned to different
sources of uncertainty in its inputs) can be used
to characterize geomechanical responses to CO2
injection (e.g. Farokhpoor et al. 2010, 2011; Bao
et al. 2013). Potential chemical reactions between
the injected CO2 and the existing pore fluid and
reservoir host and cap rocks may also increase
porosity though dissolution and/or decrease poros-
ity though calcite precipitation (e.g. Gherardi
et al. 2007).
Ogata et al. (2012) describe the Longyearbyen
CO2 laboratory project (LYB CO2 lab) located
in Spitsbergen, Arctic Norway, which is being
used to test the feasibility of injecting CO2 into a
Triassic Jurassic naturally fractured, tight clastic
reservoir containing dolerite intrusions (Kapp Tos-
canna Group; e.g. Farokhpoor et al. 2010, 2011;
Senger et al. 2011, 2013). Ogata et al. (2012) inves-
tigate the influence of different litho-structural
domains on fluid pathways in this heterolithic reser-
voir, characterized from detailed study of borehole
and outcrop data. The differential pressure in the
overburden and the targeted reservoir suggest an
effective cap rock seal. The storage potential of
this tight reservoir is dependent on the fracture
lengths, apertures and connectivity of the fracture
network, with dynamic interaction between the frac-
ture network and the host rock causing additional
uncertainty. This investigation is ongoing but if
this tight, naturally fractured reservoir proves to be
a suitable repository, it may initially be used as a
test site for storing CO2 generated by a coal-
powered station located 5 km from the proposed
injection site.
An example of one of the larger-scale currently
active industrial projects for geological storage of
CO2 is the In Salah Gas Development, Krechba
Field in Algeria where, since 2005, CO2 has been
stripped from natural gas production in the In Salah
field and then re-injected into the gas-producing
naturally fractured Krechba field 4 km away (Idling
et al. 2011). Former hydrocarbon reservoirs in the
North Sea have also been proposed as potential
long-term CO2 storage sites.
Concluding remarks
A substantial percentage of the worlds remain-
ing hydrocarbon resources occur in naturally
15
fractured reservoirs. Naturally fractured hydro-
carbon reservoirs display complex production be-
haviour. The principal objective of the applied
study of such reservoirs is to better understand the
fluid flow within them and use this information to
most efficiently manage reservoir development in
order to maximize recovery. Achieving this goal is
a multi-component process involving the character-
ization of the stratigraphy, the fracture network
and matrix, the structural setting, physics of fluid
flow, numerical simulations of fluid flow and,
during development, iteratively analysing pro-
duction behaviour data. Each of these steps may
be achieved using several different analytical
methods or combinations of multiple techniques
that involve different expertise (e.g. fracture net-
works can be characterized using subsurface geo-
physics, borehole data, outcrop analogues and
geomechanical and numerical simulations; Fig. 1).
Moreover, the different stages in studying natu-
rally fractured reservoirs may involve widely dis-
parate skills sets. To exchange knowledge and
data between different sub-disciplines, some
shared understanding of the analytical methods
and quality of the data is required. It is therefore
important to adopt an integrated interdisciplinary
approach to the study of fractured reservoirs, so
that the value and limitations of the interpreta-
tions and data generated by different sub-disciplines
can be critically combined to produce the best poss-
ible reservoir models. The accuracy of numerical
flow models is dependent on the quality of the
data derived from other sub-disciplines to character-
ize the reservoirs properties and the fracture
network, as much as the numerical techniques
used to calculate the flow processes. The papers in
this volume reflect both the technical advances in
the applied study of fractured reservoirs and the
broad collaborative interdisciplinary nature of
this topic.
The current boom of unconventional hydrocar-
bons is providing a large amount of data concerning
natural fracture networks. Apart from standard
approaches such as seismic and borehole imagery,
the number of high-quality micro-seismic surveys
with detailed in situ stress measurements should
provide key insight into the dynamic response of
fracture network to pressure variations as well as
new tools to characterize fracture connectivity in
the subsurface in the coming years. Finally, the
study of fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs also has
relevance for the use of geological reservoirs as
long-term repositories for carbon dioxide and,
although not included in this volume, the construc-
tion of long-term subsurface disposal sites for
nuclear waste where fracture networks needed to
be assessed to ensure leakage back to the biosphere
does not occur.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Wisconsin - Madison on September 11,
2014
16 G. H. SPENCE ET AL.
We thank A. Hills, T. Anderson and the staff of the Geo-
logical Society Publishing House for their assistance in
producing this volume and R. Law for reviewing this
manuscript. The springboard for the volume was the
NARG workshop on Naturally Fractured Hydrocarbon
Reservoirs: Outcrop Analogues, Subsurface Studies
and Case Histories convened by G. H. Spence and
J. Redfern at Manchester University in January 2011,
and they acknowledge NARG funding. Over 80 delegates
from industry and academia attended the 2 days of presen-
tations. The volume editors would like to thank all the
manuscript contributors and reviewers for their time and
effort. Guy thanks Joan and Malcolm Spence for getting
him started, and Alice and Emmy for keeping him going.
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