IPTC 10935
A New Dawn for CO2 EOR
A.A. Espie, BP Exploration
Copyright 2005, International Petroleum Technology Conference
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Abstract
A range of techniques have been developed to improve the
recovery efficiency of oil reservoirs. Of these, gas injection is
currently the second most common EOR process after thermal
methods that is practiced on a material scale with some 250
mbd directly attributable. Initial exploration of gas injection
focused on use of a hydrocarbon injectant. However,
competitive sales markets for hydrocarbon gas led to the
identification of CO2 as a potential injectant.
There is now over thirty years experience with the
injection of CO2 for Enhanced Oil Recovery. Although
initially developed as a means to improve oil recovery, there is
renewed interest in the potential for CO2 EOR as an option to
reduce global emissions of Greenhouse Gases. This may lead
both to a significant expansion in the level of application as
well as to some significant changes in the way in which CO2
EOR is applied.
Introduction
Many areas of the world are actively implementing gas
injection to maximise the potential of extensive oil reserves.
A successful gas flood requires two key criteria be satisfied.
Firstly, the injected gas must be able to mobilise additional oil.
Secondly, the flood must be able to sweep the mobilised oil to
producers.
Additional oil may be mobilized in two ways. Firstly, gas
may be able to access parts of the reservoir that have been
bypassed by water. Second, gas may enable some incremental
recovery from those parts of the reservoir already swept by
water by virtue of the fact that the residual oil saturation to gas
is usually somewhat lower than for water.
Many of the current gas injection schemes operate near to
miscibility conditions to mobilise the maximum amount of
incremental oil. The injected gas is often used in combination
with water in order to get the joint benefits of mobilising oil
with the miscible gas while using water to sweep mobilized oil
to producing wells.
CO2 has two key benefits as an injection gas. Firstly,
miscibility is achieved at lower pressures than with
hydrocarbon gas. Secondly, the use of CO2 for injection
releases hydrocarbon gas for alternative uses e.g. sales. The
growth in the demand for gas on the world market is likely to
increase this pressure.
Currently, most CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery are located in
the United States where the majority of the CO2 comes from
natural reservoirs via an extensive pipeline network. This was
not always the case. Initial sources of CO2 included capture
from a range of sources including a power station located in
Lubbock, West Texas. This was subsequently closed as
cheaper sources of CO2 became available. Today, some CO2
is provided from gas treatment plants.
Today there are two drivers for further development of
CO2 EOR. These are i) the desire in many parts of the world
to reduce emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere to avoid
damaging climate change and ii) concerns over security of
energy supply leading to a desire to exploit known resources
with the maximum efficiency.
Although small accumulations of CO2 are commonplace,
large natural sources such as those that have led to the
development of CO2 EOR in the Permian Basin are
uncommon. However, most countries with any industrial or
power generation infrastructure have multiple sources of CO2.
The simplest to access is CO2 separated already for other
reasons e.g. as a by-product of gas treatment operations or
during the manufacture of hydrogen or ammonia. The second
source is from combustion processes. This later area has been
the subject of significant technology development activity over
the last five years with a range of alternative processes
evaluated and developed to varying levels of maturity.
Outlook for Future Energy Use
Two main drivers are shaping the global energy system. First
is the inexorable growth in world population and the
associated demand for energy to provide acceptable standards
of living. Second is the concern that anthropogenic emissions
of Greenhouse Gases could have a significant and damaging
impact on the global climate. Combustion of fossil fuels to
supply energy for heat, power and transportation is the largest
factor in the increase in Greenhouse Gas concentrations in the
atmosphere.
Despite this concern, International Energy Agency data for the
period 1970 2005, show that fossil fuel use increased by
some 42% globally. Over the next 25 years, development and
industrialisation, particularly in the Asian economies such as
China and India, is forecast to drive a further increase in fossil
fuel demand of some 70%.
2 IPTC 10935

the CO2 EOR production is concentrated in the West Texas

Permian Basin. This is simply a reflection of the availability
of infrastructure for sale of hydrocarbon gas and supply of
CO2.

Hydrocarbon
CO
2

Nitrogen

Fig 1 : Global Energy Sources Since 1970. Source IEA

Although current indications suggest that fossil fuels will

continue to drive the development of the global economy for
decades to come, concerns over both security of energy supply
and the impact of CO2 emissions on global climate are likely to
drive changes in production and utilisation.

Trends in Enhanced Oil Recovery

For many years the Oil and Gas Journal have provided a
biannual review of trends in Enhanced Oil Recovery
(Reference 3). In Figure 2 below, the 2004 data for the US
show that on a production basis, thermal methods remain the
most common technique used with gas injection only
marginally less used. Chemical and other EOR techniques
such as microbial are not material at this level.
Figure 3: Breakdown of Gas EOR projects by Injectant
Source: Oil & Gas Journal, 2004
Enhanced Oil Recovery projects currently deliver about
750 mbd of which 250 300 mbd come from gas injection.
The production of EOR oil has remained relatively contant
over the last fifteen years with steam declining slightly and gas
injection continuing to increase.

Thermal 1.0
Chemical Thermal
Gas Chemical
Other 0.8 Gas
Production / million stb/day

Other

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

Year

Figure 4 : Growth in EOR since 1982

It is interesting to note that over the last fifteen years, the

Figure 2 : Utilisation of EOR Processes in US in 2004
Source : Oil & Gas Journal
When the gas injection projects are reviewed it can be seen
that CO2 is the most common injectant. The headline data
does disguise an underlying regional dependency. Much of
the hydrocarbon gas EOR production can be attributed to the
large hydrocarbon injection projects in Alaska while most of
trend has been for a number of the smaller CO2 projects that
would generally be regarded as trials to be retired with a
number of large scale developments.
In general use of CO2 has focused on light oils where
miscibility can be achieved at the prevailing reservoir
pressure. The distribution in the number and production of
projects by API is shown in Figures 5 and 6 below.
IPTC 10935 3

14
300 150

12
250

Cumulative EOR Oil Recovery

million stock tank barrels
Number of Projects

10
200 100

Million tonnes
CO Stored
8

2
150

6 100 50

4 50

2 0 0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

API Figure 7. Cumulative oil production and CO2 storage

Figure 5 : Number of CO2 EOR projects Operating in 2005 by
API In many parts of the world, NGLs are a valuable
commodity and the drive is to utilise fairly lean injection gases
(methane content of say 85% or greater). As a consequence,
the Minimum Miscibility Pressure or MMP for the injection
60,000 gases may be significantly above current reservoir pressure
and often above original reservoir pressure. Reservoir
50,000
management benefits are therefore likely to be due largely to
Production / stb/day

improved pressure maintenance in the centre of the fields.

40,000
CO2 will often have benefits in these circumstances in
reducing the pressure at which miscibility can be achieved.
30,000
Simulated slim tube calculations have been used to
20,000
compare the relative benefits of hydrocarbon gas and CO2 on
the MMP for an offshore Middle Eastern oilfield. The
10,000 example shown below compares CO2 with lean hydrocarbon
gas (Khuff formation) and a richer Associated gas from an
0.0 offshore reservoir.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

API Offshore Reservoir A

Figure 6 : Production from CO2 EOR projects Operating in 1

2005 by API
0.9
Recovery Factor at 1.2 PVi

CO2 injection into oils of about 30 API and greater have

generally been classed as miscible. There is interest in use of 0.8

CO2 in immiscible mode as well. In particular, CO2 acts to

reduce substantially the viscosity of more viscous oil resulting 0.7

in improvements in well rates that in some circumstances may

provide an alternative to thermal methods. 0.6
Ass. Gas - simulation
Khuff Gas - simulation
CO2 - simulation
Climate Change Benefits from CO2 Injection 0.5
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Injection of CO2 for EOR has proven oil recovery benefits.
Pressure / psi
However, the potential benefits for long-term storage of CO2
are also of interest. Performance data from the Permian Basin Figure 8 : Impact of Injection Gas On Simulated Slimtube
in West Texas that has the largest concentration of operational Oil Recovery For Reservoir B
CO2 floods, indicates that on average some 6000scf of CO2 (c.
1/3 tonne CO2 / barrel of incremental oil produced) are trapped
in the sub-surface for every barrel of incremental produced The figure shows the recovery of oil under simulated
under tertiary conditions. Under secondary conditions the unit slimtube conditions as a function of pressure. As expected the
volume of CO2 trapped will be less (closer to 3000 scf/barrel) two hydrocarbon gases show a decreasing MMP as the
but as the volume of oil production is likely to be significantly richness of the injection gas increases. The thermodynamic
larger, the overall volume of CO2 stored in the sub-surface will properties of CO2 result in it acting more like C2 than C1. This
be larger. This is shown for a study performed for an offshore is reflected in the MMP for CO2 that is of the order of 1000 psi
oilfield in the North Sea in Figure 7. lower than the Associated gas suggesting that it would be
4 IPTC 10935

feasible to achieve a miscible displacement under current Separation of sour components including CO2 from
reservoir conditions. produced gas is frequently required to meet gas sales
In Figure 8 the impact of pure CO2 on the MMP has been specifications. The technology for separation of CO2 from
evaluated. However, it is also possible to consider mixtures of produced gas is well established with a number of processes
hydrocarbon gas and CO2. available for different conditions. The CO2 stream from a gas
treatment plant is of relatively high purity and generally
4300
suitable for injection for EOR. This option is generally an
attractive one when available since the incremental costs of
4200
capturing this CO2 are low. However, the volumes available
are often insufficient sufficient for large-scale injection.
For the capture and storage of CO2 to have a significant
Calculated MMP, psia

4100

impact on global emissions levels it will be necessary to

4000
3900
3800
3700
3600
0 10 20 30
%CO2 added to original gas
Figure 9. Impact of CO2 Concentration on Simulated
Minimum Miscibility Pressure For Onshore Reservoir
The impact of mixing lean Hydrocarbon gas (88%
methane) with CO2 is shown in Figure 9. Lean hydrocarbon
gas has an MMP well above current reservoir pressure.
However, this can be progressively reduced by adding CO2
with 50% CO2 achieving a 600 psi reduction.
Issues
Any gas displacement process has two fundamental needs to
be successful. Firstly, the gas must be able to mobilise the oil
it comes in contact with. If the MMP is close to or below the
reservoir pressure then this can probably be achieved.
Secondly, and more importantly, the mobilised oil must be
swept to wells where it can be produced. This is another
statement of the sweep problem and can be a significant
problem for heterogeneous reservoirs. It is likely that the
capture from combustion processes. This is technically more
challenging. Flue gas is highly corrosive as a consequence of
the oxygen, CO2 and water present. Furthermore, combustion
devices emit flue gas at both a low absolute pressure
(atmospheric pressure) and at a low partial pressure.
Chemical absorption using solvents such as alkanolamines
is the currently preferred separation technology for these low
partial pressure systems (References 1 and 2). Such absorbers
40 50 are large and solvent regeneration is energy intensive resulting
to high costs.
The high cost of conventional technology has triggered
intense interest in finding alternatives. Research can be
categorised into three generic options available to capture CO2
from the combustion of hydrocarbons. These are :
Post-combustion capture and separation i.e.
improving todays technology through better solvents
an d better energy efficiency.
Pre-combustion decarbonisation. This involves
transforming the initial hydrocarbon fuel into
hydrogen and CO2. The CO2 is separated prior to
combustion and the hydrogen is then burnt as the
fuel.
Combustion in oxygen rather than in air yielding wet
CO2 as the combustion product. Essentially, this
option exchanges the challenge of oxygen separation
from air for the separation of CO2 from flue gas.
These options are illustrated in Figure 10.
Sk Sk
N2
Sk Sk

slightly reduced density difference between CO2 and oil will Flare Gas
CO2
Flare
CO2
N2
O2
CO2
Amin
have only a marginal impact on gravity override and bypass of Recovery Flare Gas
Recovery
O2
Absorption
Enhanced Oil
Recovery

oil. Flue Gas

Scrubbing Power & Heat
Enhanced Coal
Bed Methane
CO2 has two further characteristics which need careful Precombustion
Air
CO2
Old Oil/Gas
Fields
management. Firstly, CO2 injection will increase the rate of Decarbonisation Reformer
+ CO2 Sep Air
H2
Power & Heat
N2 O2 CO2
Compression
Saline

corrosion in wells, flowlines and facilities. Secondly, CO2 Oxyfuel Power & Heat CO2
& Dehydration
Formations

Biofixatio

injection is likely to alter the equilibrium between components Acid Gas Removal O2
Food Industry

in the reservoir fluids. This can exacerbate any tendencies Oil Gas CO
2
Fuel
Gas
Air Air Separation Unit
N2 Chemicals
Feedstock

towards scale or asphaltene deposition and can lead to CO2 Removal

CO2

problems in producing wells.

Oil Gas + CO2 Gas

Options to Establish a CO2 Supply

Options for establishing a CO2 supply include:
1. Separation of CO2 from gas produced as part of
normal oil and gas field operations.
2. Separation of CO2 generated prior to or during the
combustion of fossil fuels.
Figure 10 : Schematic Diagram of Options For Capture And
Separation Of CO2 From Fossil Fuel Combustion
Estimates for the costs of capture and storage schemes are
often quoted in the range $40 60/tonne of CO2 ($2 3/mscf)
see for example Reference 2. The overall cost is dominated
IPTC 10935 5

by the cost of capture and separation of the CO2. Ambitious

targets have been set for the reduction of the cost of capture of
CO2. Development programmes now in place have identified
routes to cut the cost of capture by 50 - 60% over the next ten
years.

Conclusions
1. A general consensus has emerged that there is now a
discernable link between human activity and global
climate change.
2. The two drivers of increasing demand for energy and
the need to stabilise CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere will shape the global energy system over
the next fifty years.
3. The demand for lower carbon emissions will
reinforce the trend towards increased use of natural
gas for power generation and increase the
competition for hydrocarbon gas intended for re-
injection for reservoir management purposes.
4. Substitution of carbon dioxide for hydrocarbon gas in
reservoir injection schemes would be expected to
improve reservoir response by transforming current
immiscible displacements into miscible
displacements while making a material difference to
emissions of CO2.
5. Substantial volumes of CO2 are available from the
combustion of hydrocarbons. Improvements in the
technology for the capture and separation of CO2 are
radically reducing the cost of supply outside the
conventional areas of application and should make
large scale injection for Enhanced Oil Recovery a
feasible option in the medium term.

Acknowledgements
This paper is published with the permission of BP Exploration.
The slim tube simulations were kindly provided by Mike
Roffey.

References
1. US DoEs Carbon Sequestration Web site - State of the
Science.
2. Leading Options for the Capture of CO2 Emissions at
Power Stations, Report No. PH3/14 February 2000 - IEA
Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme.
3. Special Report : EOR Survey, Oil & Gas Journal, April 12,
2004, pp45 - 65