DC MACHINES

DC machines are generators that convert mechanical energy to de

electric energy and motors that convert de electric energy to
mechanical energy. Most DC machines are like AC machines in that
they have AC voltages and currents within them. DC machines have a
DC output only because a mechanism exists that converts the internal
AC voltages to DC voltages at their terminals. Since this mechanism is
called a commutator, DC machinery is also known as commutating
machinery.

DC Machine Construction

The ends of each coil are connected to a commutator segment. The

commutator consists of insulated copper segments mounted on an
insulated tube.
Two brushes are pressed to the commutator to permit current flow.
The brushes are placed in the neutral zone, where the magnetic field
is close to zero, to reduce arcing.

Commutator

The rotor has a ring-shaped laminated iron core with slots.

The commutator consists of insulated copper segments mounted on
an insulated tube.
Two brushes are pressed to the commutator to permit current flow.
The brushes are placed in the neutral zone, where the magnetic field
is close to zero, to reduce arcing.

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The commutator switches the current from one rotor coil to the
adjacent coil.
The switching requires the interruption of the coil current.
The sudden interruption of an inductive current generates high
voltages.
The high voltage produces flashover and arcing between the
commutator segment and the brush.

DC motor stator with poles visible (4 pole machine)

Basic equations:

The generated voltage and developed torque are given by;

Where K is the armature constant, f is the field flux, and ia is the

armature current and r is the rotary angular velocity in rads/s. If the
rotational speed is nr rev/s or Nr rev/min, then

In a permanent magnet machine, the field flux f is fixed, but in a

wound field machine it is a function of the field current i f.
From the armature voltage equation, if the rotary angular velocity r is
held constant, the flux is proportional to the armature generated
voltage ea. A graph of ea against if is known as the magnetizing
characteristic of the machine which results in the graph shown.

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Armature equation:

The figure below shows a symbolic representation of a DC machine,

with the armature connected to a voltage source Va.

If the armature has a resistance R a, then Kirchhoffs voltage law gives

the armature voltage equation:

Assuming that the conductor of the armature are on the surface, the
expressions for e=Blu and f=Bli are applicable. However, in practice,
the armature conductors are placed in slots as shown.

Armature reaction:
Current flowing in the armature conductors will create a magnetic
field in the machine known as an armature reaction. This armature
reaction increases the flux density at one side of a field pole and
decreases it at the other side. High values of flux density result in
local saturation of steel, increasing the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit and reducing the value of the field flux.

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Efficiency:
The efficiency of a motor is defined in the usual way:

Where Pin is the total electrical power input to the motor terminals, and
Pout is the mechanical power output from the motor shaft. The power
lost as heat in the motor is;

The alternative forms of the above equation are:

Output power, like for transformers is given

Where T1 is the rotational loss torque. The rotational power loss is

w1T1. The components of rotational loss are mechanical loss, also
known as the windage and friction loss, and core loss in the armature
field poles. Resulting from the rotation of the armature. The total
power loss includes in addition the I 2R loss in the field and armature
windings, and the brush contact loss, which results from the voltage
drop between the brushes and the commutator segments.

The developed torque may be calculated from the equation f=Bli.

Taking A as the current in amperes per metre length of circumference
on the surface of the armature. The current in an element of length ds
is then di= A ds
The force on this element is;
df=Bl di = BlA ds
Where l is the axial length of the armature. The corresponding
contribution to the torque is;
dTd=rdf=rBlA ds
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where r is the radius of the armature. If B av is the average value of the
flux density at the armature surface, then the total torque is just;

Where V is the volume of the armature.

The gross power output is given by;

Characteristics and control:

In a large motor, the total power loss is small. Since the armature
power loss Raia2 is only a part of the total loss, this term must be small
in comparison with the armature input power vaia it follows that ;
Raia<<<va
So Raia may be neglected in the equation below

To give

The rotational speed is therefore;

The above equation shows that the speed wr is independent of the

torque, provided Raia<<<va.
The above expression for wr is the basis for speed control. If the field

flux is constant, the rotational speed is proportional to the applied

voltage. The normal values of v a and define the base speed wro and
the speed can be reduced to zero by varying va.

Small motors

For small motors however, Raia<<<va does not hold, so it is not

permissible to neglect RaIa. the rotational speed then depends on the
developed torque.

Now substituting Ia in terms of Td in the above expression;

Thus, the speed is given by;

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A graph of speed against torque is a straight line as indicated below.

Figure: Speed-Torque Characteristic

The no load speed, which is the speed when the torque is zero, is given
by;

Effect of armature reaction:

Armature reaction field causes local saturation of the field poles and
reduces the value of the field flux . This is called field weakening and
this effect increases with the armature current ia and therefore with
the developed torque Td.
From the equation

A decrease will cause the speed wr to rise. Armature reaction

therefore has the opposite effect to armature resistance, which
causes wr to fall with increasing torque load. The difference however is
that the effect of resistance is linear but the effect of armature
reaction is non linear. At low values of armature current, the uneven
distribution of flux density in the field pole is insufficient to cause
saturation, so there is hardly any reduction in the field flux. At high
values however, on the other hand, there may be a significant
reduction.
It is possible, therefore, for the speed of a motor to fall with increasing
load when the armature current is very low, but to increase with load
when the current is high. This increase in speed can be very
undesirable, leading to instability with some kinds of load. Large DC

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motors generally have some form of compensation for armature
reaction.

A simple method of compensation is to provide a second winding on

the field poles, connected n series with the armature, to increase the
field MMF when the armature current increases. The resulting motor is
known as a compound motor.

DC Compound motor

The compound motor however cannot compensate the non linear

nature of armature reaction effect.

A better method, which is frequently used in high powered DC drives,

is to use a compensating winding.

This takes the form of conductors embedded in the slots in the field
pole faces, connected in series with the armature. These conductors
carry current in the opposite direction to the armature conductors,
thereby cancelling the armature reaction flux.

Compensating winding

Below is a model of a DC motor with a compensating winding.

With a compensating winding, the flux distribution in each field pole is

symmetrical and uniform, so the effect of the armature reaction is
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cancelled in this machine. The torque expected on the armature is not
affected, however, because this depends on the interaction of the
armature currents and the field flux.

Starting DC motors:

When the speed is Zero, the armature generated voltage is zero, and
the corresponding armature current is given by;

This is the stalled armature current which is much larger than the
normal running current. In a small motor, it is permissible to connect
the armature directly to a constant voltage supply. The armature can
withstand the stalled current for a short time, and it will accelerate
rapidly. As it does so, the generated voltage will rise and the armature
current will fall to its normal value.

However, a large motor must not be started this way because the
armature resistance Ra is very low, and the stalled current would be
large enough to cause serious damage. An electronic controller for
speed control will limit the starting current to a safe value, if this is
not available, a variable resistance must be connected in series with
the armature and the value progressively reduced to zero as the
armature accelerates.

Shunt and series motors

So far, it has been assumed that the field flux is independent of the
conditions in the armature. This is the case in a permanent magnet
motor, and in a wound filed motor where the field winding is supplied
from a separate voltage source. The latter is sometimes termed as a
separately excited motor. There are two ways of introducing
constraints between the armature and the field of a wound field motor.
In a shunt motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature. In a series motor, the field winding is designed to carry the
full armature current, and it is connected in series with the armature.
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Shunt motor:

If the field is connected to the same supply voltage as the armature,

the field current will be proportional to the armature voltage. A
variable resistance is connected in series with the foiled winding to
provide some measure of control for the field current. For a shunt
motor,

Provide there is a linear relationship between the field flux and the
field current, then;

Then,

Thus the speed of a shunt motor is independent of the applied voltage.

Series motor

The characteristics of a series motor are deduced with the following

assumptions.

The field flux is proportional to the current

The resistance of the windings is negligible.

Then,

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Eliminating I gives the relationship between speed and torque.

A graph plotted for speed Vs torque from the above equation gives;

The key features that have to be noted include;

The motor can develop a very large torque at low speeds

When the developed torque is low, the speed is very high

The high torque at low speeds is useful feature, however the high
speed associated with low torque can be dangerous

Application:

A correctly designed series motor will work on AC as well as DC. They

are widely used in products such as portable power drills and in
domestic appliances such as food processors and vacuum cleaners
where the advantage speed/torque characteristic of a series motor is
advantageous. Disadvantages include the higher manufacturing cost,
the need for maintenance of the commutator and brushes.

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DC Machine Tutorial
A separately excited DC motor is rotated at 1000rpm, The variation of
armature terminal voltage as a function of field current is measured
under no-load conditions and tabulated below:

The field winding supply VF=24V and the field resistance is adjustable.
The armature winding resistance RA=0.2 and the armature terminal
voltage VT=130V.
a) Calculate the field current if the motor is operated with no-load
at 1000 rpm
b) The motor drives a load at 1200 rpm. Calculate the armature
voltage at 1200 rpm if the field resistance RF=60

c) Calculate the torque for the above condition

d) The motor supplies a mechanical load of 4000W at 1450rpm. The

mechanical rotational losses are 160W, calculate the efficiency

Comments
This question is similar to many DC machine questions and falls into
two parts. At the start of the question, you are given a reasonable
amount of data about a specific operating condition. You need to then
take useful information from this operating condition and apply it to
the new operating conditions specified in the rest of the question.

Solution
This is a separately excited motor problem:

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There are two important pieces of information in the beginning of the
question:
The information is being given for "no-load conditions. No-load in
machines means no useable power flow out of the machine. If there is
no power flow in a dc machine, there is no armature current, IA=0 and
therefore the terminal voltage equals the armature voltage: EA=VTEA=VT

Having been given data on the induced armature voltage at a given

speed
The data for armature voltage at a given speed allows you to find the
nonlinear relationship between flux and field current, which is
independent of speed.
Knowing how the data in the question is useful is a significant part of
the solution process for DC machine questions.

a) This question requires you to read data from the table provided.
Under no-load conditions, VT=130V occurs when IF=0.7A,
b) Armature voltage is given by

EA=k

i.e. voltage is a function of k and speed. Flux is a function of field

current, and since field voltage and resistance are specified in
the question, a first step is to find field current:

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