MORTAR

INTRODUCTION

Definition

- Comes from the Latin word mortarium meaning crushed.

- A mixture of various compounds including lime and or cement mixed with water and sand.
- Is a workable paste used to bind building blocks such as stones, bricks and concrete masonry units together,
fill and seal the irregular gaps between them and sometimes add decorative colors or patterns in masonry
walls.
Ancient Mortar

The first mortars were made of mud and clay. Because of a lack of stone and an abundance of
clay, Babylonian constructions were of baked brick, using lime or pitch for mortar. According to Roman Ghirshman, the
first evidence of humans using a form of mortar was at the Mehrgarh of Baluchistan in Pakistan, built of sun-dried
bricks in 6500 BCE. The ancient sites of Harappan civilization of third millennium BCE are built with kiln-fired bricks
and a gypsum mortar. Gypsum mortar, also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of the Egyptian
pyramids and many other ancient structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a lower firing temperature. It is
therefore easier to make than lime mortar and sets up much faster which may be a reason it was used as the typical
mortar in ancient, brick arch and vault construction. Gypsum mortar is not as durable as other mortars in damp
conditions.
In early Egyptian pyramids, which were constructed during the Old Kingdom (~26002500 BCE), the
limestone blocks were bound by mortar of mud and clay, or clay and sand. [3] In later Egyptian pyramids, the mortar
was made of either gypsum or lime.[4] Gypsum mortar was essentially a mixture of plaster and sand and was quite soft.
In the Indian subcontinent, multiple cement types have been observed in the sites of the Indus Valley
Civilization, such as the Mohenjo-darocity-settlement that dates to earlier than 2600 BCE. Gypsum cement that was
"light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate, and a high percentage of lime" was used in the
construction of wells, drains and on the exteriors of "important looking buildings." Bitumen mortar was also used at a
lower-frequency, including in the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro.
Historically, building with concrete and mortar next appeared in Greece. The excavation of the underground
aqueduct of Megara revealed that a reservoir was coated with a pozzolanic mortar 12 mm thick. This aqueduct dates
back to c. 500 BCE.[7] Pozzolanic mortar is a lime based mortar, but is made with an additive of volcanic ash that allows
it to be hardened underwater; thus it is known as hydraulic cement. The Greeks obtained the volcanic ash from the
Greek islands Thira and Nisiros, or from the then Greek colony of Dicaearchia (Pozzuoli) near Naples, Italy. The
Romans later improved the use and methods of making what became known as pozzolanic mortar and cement.[4] Even
later, the Romans used a mortar without pozzolana using crushed terra cotta, introducing aluminum oxide and silicon
dioxide into the mix. This mortar was not as strong as pozzolanic mortar, but, because it was denser, it better resisted
penetration by water.
Hydraulic mortar was not available in ancient China, possibly due to a lack of volcanic ash. Around 500 CE,
sticky rice soup was mixed with slaked lime to make an inorganicorganic composite mortar that had more strength
and water resistance than lime mortar.
It is not understood how the art of making hydraulic mortar and cement, which was perfected and in such
widespread use by both the Greeks and Romans, was then lost for almost two millennia. During the Middle Ages when
the Gothic cathedrals were being built, the only active ingredient in the mortar was lime. Since cured lime mortar can
be degraded by contact with water, many structures suffered from wind blown rain over the centuries.

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Composition of Mortar
The ingridients of various mortars commonly used are:
a. Cement and Lime used as binding materials
b. Sand and Surki as Fine aggregates
c. Ashes and Cinder as adulterants
d. Water

Cement
It is the binding material in a mortar and it gives the adhesive power and strength to a mortar. Ordinary portland cement
is commonly used in making a cement mortar.

Lime
This ingridient is used as a binding material in preparation of a lime mortar. Lime should be slaked about 4 days before
being used and care should be taken so that no unslaked lime remains in the mortar.

Sand
This ingridient is used in lime mortar and cement mortar to reduce shrinkage and cracks in mortar on drying, to impart
crushing strength to the mortar, to help hardening of fat lime and to form a hardened mass of silicates in due course of
time.

Surki
This ingridient is used in lime mortar to provide strength and hydraulic properties to the mortar.

Ashes&Cinders
These are sometimes used in lime mortar as fine aggregate in place of surki, but mostly as adulterant. These increase
the volume of mortarand make the mortar cheap.

Water
It is needless to mention that water plays an important role in preparation of a mortar. The strength of a mortar depends
upon the quantity and quality of water used in the mortar. The functions of water in a mortar are:

(i) to lubricate the surfaces of aggregates

(ii) to spread the binding material (cement or lime) uniformly so that it can fill the pores in fine aggregates, and
(iii) to cause hydration of cement and hydraulic lime, which results in setting and hardening of mortar

The quality of water should be fresh, clean, free from dirty and organic matters, free from hygroscopic, greasy,
oily substances and chemicals. The water to be used in preparation of a mortar should conform to the standards of a
potable water with pH-value 7.

Uses of Mortar
To form a soft and even bed for bricks and stones in masonry work and to distribute uniformly the
superincumbent weight over the lower bricks or stones,
To bind the bricks or stones together into a solid mass, so as to render it weather tight,
To hide the open joints of brickwork and stonework and to provide a hard, smooth and impermeable
covering for walls and roofs,

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 To provide matrix for broken bricks or stone chips to be amalgamated into a solid mass in preparation of
concrete,
For moulding purposes in cornice, coping,string course, corbels, jafries, sunshades, etc.
For various type of painting work to protect the joints of bricks or stones,
To provide a base for neat cement finishing, distempering, lime punning, etc.
To fill up any voids detected afterwards in a structure and to repair cracks and crevices in old-brick work or
stonework,
For various ornamental works to improve the general appearance of a building or similar such structures.
Properties of a Good Mortar

It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
It should be capable of resisting penetration of rainwater.
It should be cheap.
It should be durable.
It should be easily workable.
It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.
CLASSIFICATION OF MORTAR

The classification of mortars can be done in many ways, i.e. based on the binding agent, properties of binding agent
and aggregate, etc.

In general, mortars are classified as follows:

A. Cement Mortar
B. Lime Mortar
C. Lime-cement mortar (or composite or gauge mortar)
D. Special mortars

A. CEMENT MORTAR
Cement mortar consists of cement as binding material,sand in different proportions and water. It is the
strongest type of mortar and is therefore preferred for use in the construction of structures subjected to
heavy loading

Prepartion of Cement Mortar

Cement mortar is prepared in the following way:

First, clean dry sand is spread in a uniform layer on a pucca platform. On it the requisite quantity of cement is
uniformly spread. Then the whole mass is mixed dry by working with spades till the whole mass becomes uniform in
colour.

Then a depression is made in the middle of the mass and the required quantity of water is added. Dry material
from sides is placed on the edge of the depression containing water. It is done gradually till the water is completely
absorbed by the dry mass. Care is taken not to let the water breach the banks and flow out. The wet mass of mortar is

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then worked with spades to have a mortar of uniform consistency.

When mortar is required in large quantity, it is prepared by mixing mortar. The mixing in mechanical mixers.
Normally, a pan mixer is used for mixing the mortar. The mixer consists of a cylindrical container in which a rotor with
blades rotate for turning the material for mixing. This rotor is cement and water are added to the mixer and mixed for
some time till out for use. Concrete mixers of tilting and non-tilting type can also be used for mixing of cement mortar.
The details of these mixers can be studied from any book of Concrete Technology.

Cement mortars should be tested for crushing strength,adhesiveness, setting time and tensile strength.

Properties of Mortar

For the mortar to be workable and strong the ratio of cement to sand should be normally be 1:3 to 1:6 by
weight. The use of much weaker cement mortar is not satisfactory since any notable reduction in cement content leads
to reduction in workability and less cohesion and will preduce porous joints with a tendency for low frost resistance.

The setting and hardening of cement mortar depends upon the setting and hardening of the cement-water
paste which binds the particles of sand. On hardening of mortar in the joints, the members get united and provide a
fairly strong structural element.. Cement mortar when used for protective plaster provides a water proof layer and
protects the elements covered from weathering effects to weathering agencies such as rain, temperature variation,
frost action etc..

Uses of Mortar

Cement mortar is used for damp-proof course below the ground level, exposed work such as exterior free standing
walls and parapets, engineering construction with bricks of high strength. It is also used for pointing the joints for
masonry, for plastering the surface of masonry to protect it from weather and to provide a pleasing and smooth finish.
In concrete, mortar binds the particles of coarse aggregate into one solid mass.

Precautions

The mortar should be prepared by mixing it uniformly and to a workable consistency. Cement mortar should
be immediately used after preparing and should be consumed witihin about 30 minutes after adding water.

In masonry, the bricks or stone should be fully saturated with water before laying them in structure otherwise,
bricks or stones may absorb weaker due to lack of water required for hydration.

The masonry or plastered surface should be continuously kept moist by sprinkling water for at least 7 days.

B. Lime Mortar

Lime mortar may be lime and sand mortar, lime and surkhi mortar, lime, sand and surkhi mortar or lime and cinder
mortar (also known as black mortar). Lime used for mortar may be fat lime (quick or hydrated lime) or hydraulic lime.
Fat lime has high calcium oxide content. Its hardening solely depends on loss of water and absorption of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and possible re-crystallization in due course. Hydrated lime is a dry powder obtained by treating
quick lime with water enough to satisfy its chemical affinity for water under the conditions of its hydration.

Hydraulic lime contains small quantities of silica and alumina and/or iron oxide which are in chemical

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combination with some of calcium oxide contents, giving a putty or mortar which has the property of setting and
hardening under water.

Slaked fat lime is used to prepare mortar for plastering, while hydraulic lime is used in preparing mortar for
masonry construction.

Prepartions

1. Choice of Materials

Sand
For better strength, well graded coarse sand should be used. Sand with fineness modulus of 2 to 3 is quite suitable for
lime-sand mortars made with fat lime, while sand of fineness modulus between 1.5 and 2.5 would be good for use with
hydraulic lime. The grading for sand should be such that it passes through a 4.75mm is IS sieve, while the percent
passing through a 150 micron IS sieve, should not exceed 15% by mass. The same specifications as for lime-sand,
lime-surkhi mortars shall apply for the preparation of lime-cinder, lime-surkhi-sand and lime-cinder-sand mortar.

Surkhi
is a pozzolanic material. It should be well ground so that all of it passes through a 4.75mm IS sieve and 0 to 15%
through a 150 micron IS sieve. The impurities in surkhi should not exceed 5% by weight. Surkhi should possess good
qualites as envisaged in the IS code.

Cinder
is also pozzolanic material. Use of cinder as a pozzolanic material gives good results. It should be clean, free form
unburnt carbon contents and should possess suitable fineness and other properties as required in the IS code.

Flyash
obtained from thermal power stations is also a pozzolanic material and contains large proportions of silicon dioxide in
reactive form. Fineness of flyash varies from 2500 to 3200 cm/g. Loss on ignition should not be exceed by 12% by
mass (IS 3812-1981). Flyash should have other suitable properties as required in the IS code.

Burnt Clay pozzolana

is a reactive pozzolanic material manufactured under controlled conditions by calcination of clay at suitable temperature
and grinding the resulting product to the required fineness. Its specific surface area should not be less than 2250cm/g.
Residue by mass on a 45micron IS sieve after wet sieving shall be not more than 12% (IS: 1344-1986).

2. Methods of Mixing

Method of mixing the mortar affects the quality and strength of mortar. There are essentially two methods of mixing
lime mortar.

Manual mixing

Grinding in a mortar mill (run by a animal or mechanical power).

Manual mixing. Measured quantities of fine aggregate (sand and surkhi, cinder, flyash, burnt clay) etc. and

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slaked lime in the form of powder or putty are placed on an impervious pucca platform or in a masonry tank. The
constituents are first mixed dry by turning these over three or four times with spades. Then the mixing is continued,
after adding water, till a mortar of uniform colour and consistency is obtained.

Mortar mill mixing. Bullock-driven mortar mill popularly known as lime chakki or lime ghanni, is used for
mixing mortar. In this mill water, fine aggregate comprising sand and/or surkhi/cinder/flyash/burnt clay, lime etc. in the
form of putty are added in requisite proportions along the circumference of the trench and grinding is carried out by
moving the stone roller till a mortar of uniform consistency is obtained. As grinding proceeds the mixture is continuously
raked especially along the edges of the circular trench and on its sides to get a uniform mix. The material is spread
uniformly along the circumference of the trench.

Grinding is done for 100 to 200 revolutions in the trench depending upon the nature of lime, fine aggregate
used and the quality of mortar desired.

It may take 1 to 3 hours for grinding of one batch of mortar, depending upon the size of mill, the number of
revolutions specified and the health of the animal driving the roller in the mill.

Equally good results are obtained in much less time with a mechanical mixer of roller and pan type.

Mechanical mixers are better suited on big jobs where mortar in large quantities is required in shorter duration
on a continuous basis.

Prepared lime mortars should be used witihin one to three days depending on the type of lime used. The
prepared lime mortar should be kept continuously moist and should not be allowed to dry during the time, its plasticity
improves. Hydraulic lime mortars should be used within one day while fat lime mortars may be used within two to three
days.

To test the quality of mortars, these may be tested for crushing strength, tensile strength, adhessiveness and
cohesiveness. Safe crushing strength for burnt brick masonry in lime mortar (1 lime : 3 surkhi and/or sand) is 450kN/m.

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Properties

Lime mortars are quite plastic and workable when wet. If made from high-calcium limes the mortars have
good working qualites,especially if the lime is prepared by converting quicklime to putty. Lime mortars develop strength
very slowly but gain continuous strength over long period. These do not 'set' but stiffen as water is lost by absorption
by the units or blocks in contact, and by evaporation. Further, the gain in strength is acquired by very slow reaction of
lime with carbon dioxide from air. These mortars provide enough bond between masonry blocks or bricks when used
for masonry joints. They also provide a fairly strong surface when used for plastering.

Uses

Lime mortars are suitable for chimneys as one of their characteristics is the continued strength development
over a long period. Also, these are used for internal work with very thin mortar joints, or external walls in sheltered
conditions where the mortar is protected by a frost-resistant pointing.

Lime mortar is used in masonry to bind stones, bricks or concrete block together. It is suitable for masonry
and plastering in cheap and light load bearing wall construction.

When Lime is locally available, lime-mortar can be used extensively for various construction jobs. It is cheaper
than cement mortar.

Precautions

While using this type of mortar the following precautions must be observed:

1. The mortar should be used within four hours after grinding, if hydraulic lime is used as the main binding material.

2. Lime mortar made with surkhi or other pozzolana is hydraulic in nature and shall be used with in 24 hours after
grinding.

3. The mortar surface should not be allowed to dry suddenly. Mild sprinkling of water on masonry or plastered surface
is therefore necessary.

4. All lime mortars, after grinding must be kept wet and should never be allowed to dry during maturing and storage.
This can be done by making a small hollow in the middle of the heap and keeping water filled all the time.

5. In Case of masonry works with lime mortars, it is desirable that masonry work of height of every 1.5m or less, is
allowed to set for at least 2 days before starting further construction above it.

6. Workers handling lime mortar should protect their skin by using oil on their skin or using rubber gloves and gum
boots.

C. LIME-CEMENT MORTAR (OR GAUGED MORTAR)

It is also known as composite mortar or gauged mortar. When lime mortar made from fat lime is desired to be
improved with regard to its hydraulic properties, initial setting time and strength, cement is added to it. Cement should
be added only to that much quantity of lime mortar which can be used within n hour after addition of cement.

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PREPARATION

Any one of the following three methods could be used:

1. Cement and sand requisite proportion is mixed dry. Lime in the form of putty dissolved in mixing water
in then added to it and mixing continued till a mortar of uniform consistency is obtained. This method is
better suited when the proportion of lime in mortar is not high.

2. Lime and sand are first mixed separately, for the entire days requirements, in the form of a stiff paste
and then stored. Cement is then mixed with lime mortar in small batches as required for about one hours
consumption. When lime mortar is prepared in the grinding mill then this is the only method which can be
adopted for making this mortar.

3. Cement, sand and slaked lime (hydrated lime as powder) in required proportions are first mixed dry.
Water is then added and mixing is continued till a paste of uniform colour and consistency is obtained.
This type of mortar should be tested for crushing strength, tensile strength, adhesiveness, and setting
time, etc.

PROPERTIES

Lower cement content in cement mortar leads to reduction in workability, less cohesion and will produce
porous joints with a tendency for low frost resistance. This inclusion of lime in cement mortar helps in rectifying these
deficiencies. The advantage of lime in composite mortar is that it increases the water retentivity of mortar, improves
working qualities and bonding properties. In this way, early strength can also be achieved without the mature strength
being too high. The usual proportions of cement, lime and sand are 1: 1: 6, 1: 2: 9 and 1: 3: 12.

USES

This type of mortar can be used for half brick walling (e.g. cavity walls), in the mansory to bind stones, bricks or concrete
blocks and for pointing the joints of masonry.

It is also quite workable and is used efficiently in masonry providing thin joints thus leading to economy. It is also used
for plastering wall surfaces and outside weather proof pointing. It derives good qualities of both lime mortar and cement
mortars. Due to good workability, this mortar gives good surface finish and economy in labour cost.

PRECAUTIONS

Composite mortars must be used within an hour after addition of cement to wet mortar, or to dry mortar mix. While
using this mortar in masonry, the bricks should be fully saturated with water before laying them in the structure. The
mortar should be prepared in small batches which can be used in about an hour. The mortar surface should be kept
moistened for about 7 days by gentle spraying of water.

D. SPECIAL MORTAR

Following are the few special types of mortars based on the following material or certain specific characteristics:

Mud mortar

Cement-clay mortar

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 Light and heavy mortars

Decorative mortars

Air-entrained (plasticized) mortar.

MUD MORTAR

This type of mortar is used for very cheap constructions in rural areas. Clay nodules or lumps are first collected from
the ground. These are then wetted with water and allowed to mature for 1 or 2 days. Then it is kneaded well.
Sometimes certain fibrous material (or gobber) is also added which prevents the shrinkage cracks. For using mud
mortar in plastering, gobber or fibrous material is always added to avoid cracking of surface. The mortar ingredients
are mixed thoroughly.

Mud mortar is used for surfacing floors and plastering the internal and also external surfaces. For improving the
weather resistance of mud mortar on the outside walls which are exposed to rain, the surface is sprayed or painted
with bituminous material. Sometimes the bituminous material is mixed during the preparation stage for weather proof
properties.

Mud mortars are very cheap and the ingredients are locally available. The life of mud mortar surfaces varies from 5 to
15 years depending on its water proofing treatment and weather conditions.

CEMENT CLAY MORTAR

In this type of mortar, clay is introduced as an effective finely ground additive in quantities ensuring a cement-clay
proportion of not over 1:1. The addition of clay improves the grain composition, the water retaining ability, the
workability of the mortar and increases its density. It can be used for masonry joints and plastering. This mortar has
better covering power and can be used in thin layers.

LIGHT AND HEAVY MORTAR

Light mortars possess a minimum unit weight of 1500kgf/cum (15kN/m3) while heavy mortars usually range from 1500
to 2200 kgf/cum (15 to 22kN/m3). Light mortars are prepared by using light weight sands or fine aggregate. Sometimes
this is also achieved by using air entraining agents in mortar. Light mortars are used in cases where a reduction in the
conductivity of structure is desirable and also structure is to be kept lightly loaded. Heavy mortars can be prepared by
using dense sands or fine aggregates. Such mortars may be used in load bearing constructions.

DECORATIVE MORTAR

These type of mortar are used to impart a pleasant outer appearance to the surface of structures. These are obtained
by using colour cements or pigments and fine aggregate of appropriate colour, texture and surface.

AIR ENTRAINED (PLASTICIZED) MORTAR

To improve the working qualities of lean cement sand mortars, air is entrained in it which serves as a plasticizer
producing minute air bubbles which help in flow characteristics and workability. The air bubbles increase the volume

9
of the binder paste and help to fill the voids in the sand. The air entraining also makes the mortar light weight and a
better insulator of beat and sound.

FIRE-RESISTING MORTAR

This is the mortar prepared by mixing aluminous cement and finely crushed fire bricks or china clay wares in 1:2
proportion with water. This mortar is used in lining ovens, fire places and furnaces with fire bricks.

Tests for Mortars

To test the quality of mortars, these may be subjected to several tests:

Crushing Strength
Adhesiveness
Cohesiveness or Tensile Strength
Test for Setting
Crushing

Brick masonry or stone masonry laid in mortar to be tested are crushed in compression testing machine. The
lead at which the masonry crushes give the crushing strength to which a suitable factor of safety may be applied to get
the safe strength. Approximate safe strength of masonry with a few types of mortars are given below:

Burnt brick masonry in cement mortar 1 : 3 750 kN/m2

Burnt brick masonry in cement mortar 1 : 6 450 kN/m2
Burnt brick masonry in lime mortar 450 kN/m2
(1 lime : 3 surkhi and/or sand)
Burnt brick masonry in cement-lime mortar 500 kN/m2
(1 : 1 : 6 or 1 : 2 : 9)
Adhesiveness

Two bricks of size 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm are joined together and cemented with the mortar under test.
This gives a common central sectional horizontal joint surface area of 90 mm x 90 mm by forming a cross with 50 mm
free projection on either side of both the bricks. The upper brick is suspended from an overhead support and a board
is hung from the ends of the lower brick. The board is loaded till the brick between the bricks fails. The ultimate load
causing failure divided by the area of contact (i.e. 8100 mm2) gives the ultimate adhesive strength of mortar per square
mm.

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Cohesiveness or Tensile Strength

A briquette made with mortar is tested in a tension testing machine. The total applied tensile load at which the briquette
breaks is divided by the area of cross-section of the briquette at the place of its breaking. This gives the tensile strength
of the mortar.

Test for Setting time

Mortar is tested in a Vicat apparatus for the setting time. In order that the concrete maybe placed in position
conveniently it is necessary that the initial setting time of cement is not too quick and after it has been laid, hardening
should be rapid so that the structure can be made use of as early as possible. The initial set is a stage in the process
of hardening after which any crack that may appear will not reunite. The concrete is said to be finally set when it has
obtained sufficient strength and hardness.

Precautions in Using Mortar

A. No stale mortar should be used by grinding and remixing
B. Cement mortar should be used within half an hour after mixing.
C. Uniformity should be maintained in proportioning ingridients and water content.
D. Mortar should be as stiff as it can be used without any inconvenience, provided the bricks or stones to be jointed
together are well-soaked in water.
E. During rains, work with mortar should be stopped.
F. Addition of water to the dry mixture of cement and sand should preferably made at the spot, where the laying work
is going on.
G. The use of too much water should be avoided, as it reduces the strength of mortar by increasing the setting time.

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H. Sea water in absence of pure water may be used with cement or hydraulic lime. This helps in preventing too quick
drying of the mortar. But, seawater must not be used in making pure lime mortar or surki mortar because it will cause
efflorescence.
I. Fat lime mortar must be improved with the addition of surki and pozzollana, so that hydraulic property is obtained.
J. Work made of mortar should be kept moist by sprinkling water for at least three days.

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 CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION

Definition
-The word concrete come from the Latin word concretus which means compact.
-It is an artificial stone made of sand, stone, water and cement.
-Is a construction material obtained by mixing a binder (such as cement, lime), aggregates (sand and gravel) and
water in certain proportions.
-It is a composite material compose of coarse aggregate bonded with a fluid cement that hardens overtime.

Brief History of Concrete

Concrete has been known to the world from early days. Lime concrete made of lime, surki and khowa was
used in earlier days of construction. Later, cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete came in this field.

The principle of making reinforced concrete (R.C.C.) was first adopted in 1854 by W.B. Wilkinson, a British
engineer. In the year 1861, Coignet published papers on the principle of reinforced cement concrete. Mr. Hyatt, an
American engineer, made several patents for construction of reinforced concrete beams in 1877. Afterwards scientists
and engineers worked on the design and construction of various types of R.C.C. structures and numerous formulae
came out from their experiences.

Materials of Concrete

A. Water
The objective of using water in the mix is to cause hydration of the cement, bring solidity and workability. The
water is used in concrete plays an important part in the mixing, laying compaction setting and hardening of
concrete. The strength of concrete directly depends on the quantity and quality of water is used in the mix.
B. Binder
Cement is binding material in the cement concrete. This concrete is used for different engineering works
where strength and durability are of prime importance.
Lime to be used in concrete should be hydraulic lime in powder form (by grinding and screening) and it should
be free from unslaked parts and impurities.
C. Aggregates
Fine Aggregates- Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles
passing through a sieve.
Coarse Aggregates- Aggregate size more than 4.75mm. Gravels constitute the majority of coarse aggregate
used in concrete with crushed stone making up most of the remainder
D. Admixtures
These are additional fine materials used in concrete as workability agents. These are added in the form of
solution considered as part of the mixing water.
Admixtures are organic or in-organic materials in forms of solid or fluid that are added to concrete to give it
certain characteristics. In normal use the admixtures make up less than 5% of the cement weight and are
added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.
Some of the commonly used admixtures are listed below.
Accelerators: Speed up the hydration (strengthening) of the concrete.
Retarders: Slow the hydration of concrete.

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 Air-entrainers: Add and distributes tiny air bubbles to the concrete, which reduces damage due to freeze-
thaw cycles.
Plasticizers: Can be used to increase the workability of concrete, allowing it be placed more easily with less
compactive effort. Superplasticisers allow a properly designed concrete to flow around congested reinforcing
bars. Alternatively, they can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete (termed water reducers) yet
maintain the original workability. This improves its strength and durability characteristics
Pigments: Change the colour of concrete for aesthetics.
Stages in Concrete formation

The various stages from mixing the ingredients up to formation of concrete are commonly known as concrete states

The very first state of concrete formation is Plastic State. It is also called as fresh concrete. When the concrete is first
mixed it appears like 'bread dough'. It is soft and can be moulded into any desired shapes. Concrete is plastic during
placing and compaction.

The plastic state is usually followed by Setting State. This state comes when the concrete then begins to stiffen. The
stiffening of concrete, when it is no longer soft, and has gained minor strength is called setting. Setting takes place
after compaction and during finishing.

The last and final state is called as Hardening State. After concrete has set it begins to gain strength and harden. The
properties of hardened concrete are strength and durability.

Freshly prepared concrete till it has not yet set is called wet or green concrete. After it has thoroughly set and fully
hardened it is called set concrete or just concrete.

Uses of Concrete

Concrete is the material with which beautiful structures like skyscrapers, vaults, domes, shells, bridges and
various architectural compositions can be built. Concrete is extensively used in construction of buildings, bridges, dams,
weirs, barrages, dry-docks, retaining walls, tanks and reservoirs, water towers, chimneys, bins and silos, runways, road
pavements, railway sleepers and various water structures. Prestressed concrete construction is a bold step in concrete
construction and shell structures speak of the latest development of concrete technology. Concrete is used in large
quantities almost everywhere mankind has a need for infrastructure.

Advantages and Limitations of concrete

Advantages of Concrete over the other Construction Material.

A good quality Concrete has many advantages that add to its popularity. Few of them are listed below:

Concrete is economical when ingredients are readily available.

Concretes long life and relatively low maintenance requirements increase its economic benefits.
It is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay as other building materials.
Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast into almost any desired shape.
Building of the molds and casting can occur on the work-site which reduces cost.
Concrete is a non-combustible material which makes it fire-safe and able to withstand high temperatures.
It is resistant to wind, water, rodents, and insects. Hence, concrete is often used for storm shelters.

14
Concrete does have some limitations despite its numerous advantages.

Concrete has a relatively low tensile strength (compared to other building materials),
low ductility,
low strength-to-weight ratio, and
Concrete is susceptible to cracking.

Classification of Concrete

Concrete in general can be classified broadly into two classes: plain concrete and reinforced concrete. Plain concrete
maybe either lime and cement concrete and Reinforced concrete is the cement concrete reinforced with some foreign
material, especially to take tensile load.

Concrete can also be classified into different types:

A. According to binding material used in concrete.

The type of concrete is basically known by it's binding material. It is the binding material which plays the main
role in the behavior and characteristics of the resulting concrete. Based in the bunding materials, the common
concretes can be classified as:
a. Mud Mortar
It is made by using suitable mud as the binding material. Mud is prepared from good quality of clay and water
by kneeding. The mud is mixed with coarse aggregate or shingle to obtain mud concrete. The mud concrete
is laid in suitable layers and compacted by ramming or tamping. The mud concrete properties are mainly due
to interlocking of aggregate properties and filling of voids in mud. Mud concrete can easily be affected by
moisture and has poor impermiability,durability and strength characteristics. This type of concrete is generally
used for cheap and temporary type of constructions in foundation bases,non-load,bearing walls with water
proofing treatment on external faces etc.

b. Lime Concrete
Lime is a very popular binding material in Civil Engineering constructions. Property slaked lime slurry or putty
is used as binding material in lime mortar and lime concrete. Lime concrete is prepared by mixing the lime
mortar with aggregate (shingle or gravel). Lime concrete is laid in layers and compacted suitably by ramming.
Lime concrete is commonly used for foundation base layers,floor base layers, roof insulation layers over stone
patties(slabs),etc. lime concrete exhibits fairly good properties of durability, impermiability and strength
specially suitable for base courses. It has been used in many important old monumental buildings which has
stood the test of time.
c. Cement Concrete
The advent of cement as binding material in the 19th century revolutionized construction activities . cement
concrete obtained by mixing cement,sand,gravel or shingle or crushed aggregate and water is versatile and
popular construction material. Cement concrete is used in almost all modern structures due to its superior
qualities and appropriate quality controls possible during and after construction. Cement concrete is used in
various forms and grades for different purposes in construction works . Certain weak points in cement
concretes for specific purposes can easily be overcome by adopting suitable techniques such as steel
reinforcing , prestressing,fiber reinforcing ,ferrocement and polymer impregnation techniques etc. The
properties of cement concrete can also be modified by the use of certain admixtures during its preparation .

15
 d. Polymer Concrete
Recently certain polymers and epoxy resins have been developed which exhibit superior binding qualities.
These polymers are now being used for preparation of special polymer concretes. Polymer is obtained by
mixing resins or polymer with plastic aggregates . polymer concrete exhibits very high strength. Cost of
polymers and other epoxy resins used as binding material is quite high and hence the cost of polymer concrete
is also high . Due to the high cost and production of epoxy resins , the use of polymer concrete is limited.

B. According to design of concrete

a. Plain cement concrete

The cement concrete in which no reinforcement is provided is called plain cement concrete or mass cement
concrete. This type of concrete is strong in taking compressive stresses but weak in taking tensile stresses.
USES: Plain cement concrete is commonly used in for foundation work and flooring of buildings

b. Reinforced cement concrete(RCC)

The cement concrete in which reinforcement is embedded for taking tensile stress is called reinforced cement
concrete.
USES: RCC is commonly used for construction of slabs, beams, columns, foundation, precast concrete

c. Pre-stressed cement concrete(PCC)

The cement concrete in which high compressive stresses are artificially induced before their actual use is
called pre-stressed cement concrete.
Uses : This concrete can take up high tensile and compressive stresses without development of cracks. The
quantity of reinforcement can be considerably reduced by using this concrete.

C. According to purpose of concrete

a. Vacuum concrete: The cement concrete from which entrained air and excess water is removed
after placing it, by suction with the help of vacuum pump is called vacuum concrete.
b. Air entrained concrete: The concrete prepared by mixing aluminum in it is called air entrained
c. Light weight concrete: The concrete prepared by using coke breeze, cinder or slag as coarse
aggregate is called light weight concrete.
Cement Concrete Properties

To obtain quality concrete, its properties in plastic as well us hardened stage play important roles. The properties in
plastic stage include:

Workability
Workability may be defined as the ease with which concrete can be compacted fully without segregation and
bleeding. It can also be defined as the amount of internal useful work required to fully compact the concrete
to optimum density in the mould. The workability of concrete defends on the quantity of water, grading of
aggregate, and the percentage of fine materials in the mix.
Segregation
Segregation implies the separation of the coarser particle from the mix which results in non homogeneity of
the concrete mix.
Bleeding
Bleeding refers to the appearance of water along with the cement particles on the surface of freshly laid

16
 concrete on compaction and finishing. This occurs when there is excess water present in the mix, or due to
excessive compaction.
Harshness
The resistance offered by concrete to its surface finishing is known as its harshness, i.e. the concrete which
cannot be easily finished with a smooth surface is called harsh concrete. This is due to the presence of lesser
fines, loser cement mortar, and use of poorly graded crushed or angular aggregates and insufficient water
content required for workability.

The properties in the hardened stage include:

Strength
After the concrete as hardened, its resistance to bear load is called its strength. The strength of concrete plays
a very vital role in its structural behavior and design of cement concrete structural members.
- One of the most common methods of measuring the strength of concrete is its compressive strength which
indicates resistance of concrete to crushing. Compared to all other form of strength, cement concrete as
higher compressive strength.
- The resistance of concrete tension is very low, resistance to tension under bending (flexural loading) is called
its flexural strength.
- The resistance to wear and tear of concrete surface is known as its resistance to abrasion. This property of
concrete also mainly depends on its compressive strength.
Durability
Durability of concrete refers to its resistance to deterioration under the forces of environment such as
weathering, chemical attack, fire, and corrosion of steel, etc.
Impermeability
Impermeability is the resistance of the concrete to the flow of water to the pore-space in it. It is important
specially in exposed and water retaining structure.
Dimensional change
Dimensional change in concrete are causes due to shrinkage (reduction of volume during hardening ) of
concrete, thermal changes, elasticity and creep(permanent deformation under sustained loading) in
concrete. Dimensional changes may induce certain stresses in concrete which may leads to its cracking.

Concreting Operations

To obtain good quality concrete, not only materials and their proportions are important but the concreting operations
also play a very critical role. Concreting operations include storage of materials, proportioning and batching, mixing,
transporting, placing, compacting, finishing, jointing amd curing. The concreting operations influence the strength and
other properties of concrete. By using suitable controls on various concreting operations, the desired strength and
other properties can be achieved as per requirements.

1. Storage

Cement is a finely ground material and is easily affected by water and even atmospheric humidity. The storage of
cement should ensure completely dry condition and protection from moisture. Aggregate should be stacked in such a
manner that its size and grading is not disturbed and it does not get mixed with deleterious impurities.

17
2. Batching

Materials should be measured properly by volume or by mass to satisfy the required mix proportions of the desired
concrete grade. For volumentric measurements standard boxes in various sizes of 25 to 50 liters are available. For
mass measurements platform weighing or swing weigh batchers may be used. Each batch is prepared as per
convenience of handling. While using volumentric batching care should be taken to compensate for bulking of sand.
For important and large size jobs weight batching should be used for better control on quality of concrete.

3. Mixing

Mixing of various ingredients is essential for obtaining uniformity and homogeneity of the concrete mix. It brings
intimate contact of cement and water for chemical reaction and covers aggregate particles with cement for proper
bondage of ingredients. Mixing of ingredients can be done by hand or by a mixer.

4. Transporting

The mixed concrete should be transported to the place of deposition without lose of much time (before initial setting
time) and without causing segregation and bleeding. The concrete can be transported manually by pans, wheel
barrows, chutes, belt conveyors, lorries, truck mixers, buckets, cranes, and concrete pumps according quantity, site
conditions and requirements.

5. Depositing and Placing

The concrete is deposited at the required place on formwork, natural subgrade or a hardened concrete base. The
base on which fresh concrete is to be laid, should be trimmed to be required shape, size, roughened, cleaned and
moistened suitably. Before depositing the concrete, a check of dimension, shape, details od reinforcement, cover to
reinforcement, etc should be thoroughly made. Care should be taken to check bleeding and cracking of concrete
surface while placing.

6. Compacting

After the concrete is deposited in ita final position, it is compacted for achieving the maximum density. The process of
compacting concrete comprises the elimination of entrapped air resulting in demser concrete. The strength of
concrete is highly influenced by presence of entrapped air.

Compaction can be carried out manually by tamping (moving rammer up and down) or by mechanical vibrators of
different types.

7. Finishing

Compacting or hand tamping of concrete leaves an uneven and rough surface. The surface of concrete is finished
smooth or as per desired pattern using floats, trowel and other appliances.

8. Jointing

Suitable joints are to be provided in cement concrete construction to eliminate cracks due to thermal stresses and
concreting at intervals. These joints may be expansion (or isolation) joints, contraction (or dummy) joints and
construction (or bonded) joints. This construction joints should be located at the point s of minimun shear in the

18
structural members. Care should be taken to improve the bond between the previous concrete and the new concrete
by roughening, cleaning of laitance and applying of groute or mortar along the construction joint.

9. Curing

After laying and finishing cement concrete, curing is necessary for promotion of hydration of cement.

Curing is defined as maintaining of control moisture and temperature conditons for freshly placed concrete for some
definite period for proper hardening of concrete. Curing should ensrure reservation of internal water content and
uniform favorable temperature, protection of structural elements from mechanical disturbances and adequate period
of hydration. Generally uninterrupted moist curing at normal temperatures should be carried out for atleast 14 days.

Curing may be carried out by retaining the form work, shading concrete, covering conrete surfaces with moist
hessian or cotton mats, sprinkling water, ponding, chemical membrane, or passing steam according to the type of
concrete element and facilities available.

Proportioning ingredients of concrete

The right proportioning of the ingredients of the concrete provides a balance between the requirements of:

a. Economy
b. Workability
c. Strength
d. Durability
e. Appearance
Proportioning of the concrete ingredients is the most difficult manufacturing step to control, although it is one
of the most important aspect in producing high quality economical concrete.

The best concrete has maximum solidity which can be obtained by mixing the ingredients in correct
proportions. Concrete is essentially a mixture of cement, water, coarse and fine aggregates which consolidates into a
hard mass due to chemical reaction between cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific function.
Besides most optimum use of ingredients, the selection of right kind of ingredients having properties which help to
achieve desirable properties of concrete is of utmost importance.

Concrete grade and mix designs

Rational proportioning of the ingredients of concrete is the essence of concrete mix design. The proportions are
controlled by factors governing the plastic state and the hardened state

The purpose of concrete mix design is to ensure the most optimum proportions of the constituent materials to meet the
requirements of the structure being built. Mix design should ensure that the concrete:

(i) complies with the specifications of structural strength laid down, which is usually stated in terms of the compressive
strength of standard test specimens,

(ii) complies with the durability requirements to resist the environment in which the structure will serve its functional life,

(iii) be capable of being mixed, transported, compacted as efficiently as possible without undue labor,

19
(iv) and lastly, but not least, be as economical as possible.

Factors Influencing Choice of Mix Design

Grade of Concrete

The grade of concrete gives characteristic compressive strength of concrete. It is one of the important factor influencing
the mix design

The grade M 20 denotes characteristic compressive strength fck of 20 N/mm2. Depending upon the degree of control
available at site, the concrete mix is to be designed for a target mean compressive strength (fck) applying suitable
standard deviation.

Type of Cement

The rate of development of strength of concrete is influenced by the type of cement.

The higher the strength of cement used in concrete, lesser will be the cement content. The use of 43 grade and 53
grade of cement, gives saving in cement consumption as much as 15 % and 25 % respectively, as compared to 33
grade of cement. For concrete of grade M25 it is advisable to use 43 and 53 grade of cement.

*Grade of cement means its minimum compressive strength which will be achieved at 28 days. 33 grade means cement
will achieve minimum 33 n/mm2 strength at 28 days, same for 43 and 53 grade.

Maximum Nominal Size of Aggregates

The maximum size of C.A is determined by sieve analysis. It is designated by the sieve size higher than larger size
on which 15 % or more of the aggregate is retained. The maximum nominal size of C.A. should not be more than one-
fourth of minimum thickness of the member.

For heavily reinforced concrete members as in the case of ribs of main beams, the nominal maximum size of the
aggregate should usually be restricted to sum less than the minimum clear distance between the main bars or 5 mm
less the minimum cover to the reinforcement, whoever is smaller.

The workability of concrete increases with an increase in the maximum size of aggregate. But the smaller size of
aggregates provide larger surface area for bonding with the mortar matrix which gives higher strength.

Grading of Combined Aggregates

The relative proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate in a concrete mix is one of the important factors affecting
the strength of concrete. For dense concrete, it is essential that the fine and coarse aggregate be well graded. In the
case when the aggregate available from natural sources do not confirm to the specified grading, the proportioning of
two or more aggregate become essential

Maximum Water/ Cement Ratio

Abrams water/Cement ratio states that for any given condition of test, the strength of a workability concrete mix is
dependent only on water/cement ratio. The lower the water/Cement ratio, the greater is the compressive strength

20
Workability Workability of fresh concrete determines the case with which a concrete mixture can be mixed,
transported, placed, compacted and finished without harmful segregation and bleeding.

Durability

Durability require low water/Cement ratio. It is usually achieved not by increasing the cement content, but by lowering
the water demand at a given cement content. Water demand can be lowered by through control of the aggregate
grading and by using water reducing admixtures

Concrete mix designs are often given by a ratio:

: :

Cement Sand Crushed rock (gravel)

-Usually the ratio is in terms of weight of the components

-Concrete mix designs are often given by the following ratio:
1:1.5:3
In this case, the ratio implies 1 part (by weight) of cement to 1.5 parts fine aggregate to 3 parts coarse aggregate.
Part of your design for this project is to develop mix ratios that lead to high compression stresses at failure.
The two criteria for a successful mix ratio are:
(1) high compressive stress
(2) adequate workability
Once a mix ratio is selected, you need to compute the amounts of cement, water, and aggregates required.

Grade of concrete

International concrete proportion

21
Concrete mixes and purpose.

M refers to Mix

-the number refers to characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm cube at 28 days in N/mm2 (MPa)

- The minimum Grade of Plain Concrete (PCC) shall be 15 N/mm2

The minimum grade of reinforced Concrete ( RCC) shall be 20 N/mm2

Local concrete proportion

The most acceptable way in proportioning concrete is the volume method using box for sand and gravel. The
reasons behind its traditional acceptance and use is the convenience in measuring and fast handling of the aggregates
from the stock pile to the mixer. Not everybody could afford a weighing scale equipment for this purpose, besides this
volume method of concrete proportion had long been proven to be effective and successful.

Box for 40kg. cement Box for 50kg. cement

L=0.30m L=0.32m

W= 0.30m W= 0.32m

H= 0.30m H= 0.33m

Mixture Proportion Cement Sand Gravel Compressive

class Strength @ 28
(cu.m.) (cu.m.) Days (psi)
40kg/bag 50kg/bag

AA 1 : 1 1/2 : 3 12.0 9.5 .50 1.0 4000-3500

A 1 : 2 :4 9.0 7.0 .50 1.0 3000-2500

22
 B 1 : 2 1/2 :5 7.5 6.0 .50 1.0 2000-1500

C 1:3:6 6.0 5.0 .50 1.0 1000-500

Class AA concrete shall be used as specified.

Class A concrete shall be used for concrete structures, either reinforced or

non-reinforced, and for concrete pavements.

Class B concrete may be used for curbs, gutters and sidewalks.

Class C concrete may be used for thrust blocks, encasements, fill or over-excavation, etc.

METHODS OF PROPORTIONING CONCRETE

The two methods adopted in proportioning concrete mixture is either by volume or by weight measure. The
philosophy behind in establishing the proportion of fine and coarse aggregate with cement and water is to create a
solid mass where cement paste enters the voids of the fine aggregates or sand in turn fill the voids of the coarse
aggregate forming a solid mass called concrete.

Nominal mix concrete is prepared by approximate proportioning of cement sand and aggregate to obtain
target compressive strength. It is followed for easy volume batching in the site. Concrete grade up to M20 can be mixed
using nominal mix method for ordinary construction purposes. Design mix concrete is prepared by proportioning
materials based on codal procedure (in India it is IS 456 & IS 10262).

Fineness Modulus Method:

The term fineness modulus is used to indicate an index number which is roughly proportional to the average size of
the particle in the entire quantity of aggregates.

The fineness modulus is obtained by adding the percentage of weight of the material retained on the following sieve
and divided by 100.

The coarser the aggregates, the higher the fineness modulus.

Limits of Fineness Modulus for Fine Aggregate

Fineness modulus of fine aggregate varies from 2.0 to 3.5mm. Fine aggregate having fineness modulus more than 3.2
should not considered as fine aggregate. Various values of fineness modulus for different sands are detailed on the
next page.

Type of sand Fineness modulus range

23
 Fine sand (1.5875 mm) 2.2 2.6

Medium sand 2.6 2.9

Coarse sand (3.175 mm) 2.9 3.2

Limits of Fineness Modulus for Coarse Aggregates

Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate varies from 5.5 to 8.0. And for all in aggregates or combined aggregates
fineness modulus varies from 3.5 to 6.5. Range of fineness modulus for aggregate of different maximum sized
aggregates is given below.

Maximum size of coarse aggregate Fineness modulus range

20mm 6.0 6.9

40mm 6.9 7.5

75mm 7.5 8.0

150mm 8.0 8.5

Table: Economical Value of F.M. for Combined Aggregate

S. Fineness modulus
Particle size (mm) Average F.M.
No. Minimum Maximum
1 20 4.7 5.1 4.90
2 25.4 5.0 5.5 5.25
3 31.5 5.2 5.7 5.45
4 38.1 5.4 5.9 5.65
5 40 5.7 6.3 6.00
6 80 6.5 7.0 6.75

Proportion of the fine aggregate to the combined aggregate .

Where, P = desired fineness modulus for a concrete mix of fine and coarse aggregates.

= fineness modulus of fine aggregate

24
 = fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.

Example:

Find the ratio of fine to coarse aggregate, if the mixture has a fineness modulus of 5.2 and the fineness moduli of
coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are 6.4 and 2.6, respectively.
6.45.2 1.2
R= 5.22.6
= 2.6
= 0.46

Therefore the ratio is = 0.46:1

= 1: 2.17

Thumb Rules for deciding the quantity of water in concrete:

(i) Weight of water = 28% of the weight of cement + 4% of the weight of total aggregate

(ii) Weight of water = 30% of the weight of cement + 5% of the weight of total aggregate

Arbitrary Method

The general expression for the proportions of cement, sand and coarse aggregate is 1 : n : 2n by volume.

1 : 1 : 2 and 1 : 1.2 : 2.4 for very high strength.

1 : 1.5 : 3 and 1 : 2 : 4 for normal works.

1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8 for foundations and mass concrete works.

Minimum Void Method (Does not give satisfactory result)

The quantity of sand used should be such that it completely fills the voids of coarse aggregate. Similarly, the quantity
of cement used shown such that it fills the voids of sand, so that a dense mix the minimum voids is obtained.

In actual practice, the quantity of fine aggregate used in the mix is about 10% more than the voids in the coarse
aggregate and the quantity of cement is kept as about 15% more than the voids in the fine aggregate.

Example:

Design a concrete mix if coarse aggregate and fine aggregate to be used have 45 and 30 percent voids, respectively,

Generally 10 percent more sand and 15 percent more cement (in excess to voids) are used for matrix.

Sand required for 1 cu.m of aggregate

.45
= .45 + 100 x 10

=0.495 cu.m

25
Cement required

=0.495(.30) + 0.495(.30)(.15)

= 0.171 cu.m

Therefore, cement : sand : coarse aggregate

= 0.171 : 0.495 : 1

= 1 : 2.9 : 5.85 or 1 : 3 : 6 (Class C Mixture)

Water Cement Ratio Method:

According to the water cement ratio law given by Duff A. Abram as a result of many experiments, the strength of well
compacted concrete with good workability is dependent only on the ratio.

The lower water content produces stiff paste having greater binding property and hence the lowering the water-cement
ratio within certain limits results in the increased strength.

Similarly, the higher water content increases the workability, but lower the strength of concrete.

The optimum water-cement ratio for the concrete of required compressive strength is decided from graphs and
expressions developed from various experiments.

Amount of water less than the optimum water decreases the strength and about 10% less may be insufficient to ensure
complete setting of cement. An increase of 10% above the optimum may decrease the strength approximately by 15%
while an increase in 50% may decrease the strength to one-half.

According to Abrams Law water-cement law, lesser the water-cement ratio in a workable mix greater will be the
strength.

If water cement ratio is less than 0.4 to 0.5, complete hydration will not be secured.

Some practical values of water cement ratio for structure reinforced concrete

0.45 for 1 : 1 : 2 concrete

0.5 for 1 : 1.5 : 3 concrete

0.5 to 0.6 for 1 : 2 : 4 concrete.

Concrete vibrated by efficient mechanical vibrators require less water cement ratio, and hence have more strength.

According to IS 10262 (2009), Assuming Water-Cement Ratio for the Concrete as 0.45

DLBD method to determine material requirement for Nominal Concrete Mix (Class A or M15 1:2:4)

The DLBD (Dry Loose Bulk Densities) method is an accurate method to calculate cement, sand and aggregate for a
given nominal mix concrete. This gives accurate results as it takes into account the Dry Loose Bulk Densities of
materials like Sand and Aggregate which varies based on the local source of the material

26
For calculation, We consider a nominal concrete mix proportion of 1:2:4.

Step-1: Calculate Volume of materials required

Density of Cement = 1440 kg/cum (Approx)

Volume of 1 Kg of Cement = 1/1440 = 0.00694 cum

Volume of 01 bag (50 kg) of cement = 50 X 0.00694 = 0.035 cubic meter (cum)

Since we know the ratio of cement to sand (1:2) and cement to aggregate (1:4)

Volume of Sand required would be = 0.035*2 = 0.07 cubic meter (cum)

Volume of Aggregate required would be = 0.035*4 = 0.14 cubic meter (cum)

Step-2: Convert Volume requirement to weights

To convert Sand volume into weight we assume, we need the dry loose bulk density (DLBD). This density for practical
purposes has to be determined at site for arriving at the exact quantities. We can also assume the following dry loose
bulk densities for calculation.

DLBD of Sand = 1600 kgs/cum

DLBD of Aggregate = 1450 Kgs/Cum

So, Sand required = 0.072*1600 = 115 kgs

and Aggregate required = 0.144*1450 = 209 kgs

Considering water/cement (W/C) ratio of 0.55

We can also arrive at the Water required = 50*0.55 = 27.5 kg

So, One bag of cement (50 Kgs) has to be mixed with 115 kgs of Sand, 209 Kgs of aggregate and 27.5 kgs of water
to produce Class A or M15 grade concrete.

Cement Sand Aggregate Water

1 bag (50kg) 115 Kgs 209 Kgs 27.5 Kgs

Step-3: Calculate Material requirement for producing 1 cum Concrete

From the above calculation, we have already got the weights of individual ingredients in concrete.

So, the weight of concrete produced with 1 Bag of cement (50 Kgs) =50 kg + 115 kg + 209 kg + 27.5 kg = 401.5 kg ~
400 kgs

27
Considering concrete density = 2400 kg/cum,

One bag of cement and other ingredients can produce = 400/2400 = 0.167 Cum of concrete (1:2:4)

01 bag cement yield = 0.167 cum concrete with a proportion of 1:2:4

01 cum of concrete will require

Cement required = 1/0.167 = 5.98 Bags ~ 6 Bags

Sand required = 115/0.167 = 688 Kgs or 14.98 cft

Aggregate required = 209/0.167 = 1251 kgs or 29.96 cft

Empirical method to determine material requirement for Nominal Concrete Mix

Although empirical method is easy to use in determining the materials requirement for Nominal Concrete mix, it
sometimes doesnt give accurate results as it doesnt take into factor the local variations in the materials.

Lets design Class A or M15 grade concrete. Ratio for Class A or M15 grade concrete is 1 : 2 : 4

Step-1: Calculate the Volumes of material required in 1 Cum concrete

The dry volume of concrete mixture is always greater than the wet volume. The ratio of dry volume to the wet volume
of concrete is 1.54.

So 1.54 Cum of dry materials (cement, sand and aggregate) is required to produce 1 Cum of concrete

Volume of Cement required = 1/(1+2+4) X 1.54 = 1/7 X 1.54 = 0.22 Cum

Volume of Sand required = 2/7 X 1.54 = 0.44 Cum or 15.53 cft

Volume of Aggregate required = 4/7 X 1.54 = 0.88 Cum or 31.05 cft

Note: 1 cubic meter = 35.29 cubic feet

Step-2: Calculate the weights of materials required in 1 Cum concrete

Density of Cement (loose) = 1440 kgs/cum

So weight of cement required = 1440 X 0.22 = 316.2 Kgs or 6.32 bags

Density of Sand = 1600 Kgs/cum

Weight of Sand required = 1600 X 0.44 = 704 kgs

Density of Aggregate = 1450 kgs/cum

Weight of aggregate required = 1450 X 0.88 = 1,276 Kgs

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Consolidating Concrete
After placement of concrete within a formwork, it should be compacted either by hand compaction or by the use of
mechanical vibrators.

-The main cinsideration of consilidation of concrete is to eliminate air bubbles and thus to give maximum density to
the concrete.

-The importance of consilidation of concrete can be seen from the fact that a presence of 5% of voids reduces 30%
strength of concrete.

The difference between voids and pores is:

Voids are the gaps between two individual particles.
Pores represent the openings within the individual particles.

Process of consilidation
It is divided in to two parts:
A. Hand consilidation

The consilidation of concrete is carried out by hand methods which includes ramming,tamping,spading and
slicing with suitable tools and its require use fairly wet concrete. It should however be remembered that whenever
feasible, the hand compaction should be preferred because the use of vibrator may lead to segregation of the
aggregates. The concrete mixes which can be hand compacted should not be compacted by the use of vibrators.

B. Vibrators consilidation

These are the mechanical devices used to compact concrete in the formwork. Vibrators to make harsh and
stiff concrete mix, with a slump of about 40mm or less is workable. The quality of concrete can be improved by use of
vibrators as less water will be required or in other way, economy can be achieved by adopting a leaner mix when
vibrators are used.The used of vibrators result in the reduction of consilidation time they are used where the rapid
progress of work is great importance.

Types of Vibrators

A. Internal vibrators
a. Immersion vibrators
Frequently referred to as 'poker' or 'needle' Vibrators. Immersion vibrators consist essentially of a
tubular housing which contains a rotating eccentric weight.The out of balance rotating weight causes
the casing to vibrate and, when immersed in concrete. the concrete itself.

Immersion vibrators may be driven by:

- A flexible shaft connected to a petrol,diesel,or electric motor;
- An electric motor situated within the tubular casing;
- Compressed air.

29
 B. External vibrators
a. Surface vibrators
Are applied to the top surface of concrete and act downwards from there.They are very useful for
compacting slabs,industrial floors, road pavements, and similar surfaces.They also aid in levelling and
finishing the surface.
b. Form vibrators
Are useful with complicated members or where the reinforcement is highly congested.They are clamped
to the outside of the formwork and vibrate it,thus compacting concrete. the formwork will need to be
specifically designed to resist the forces imposed on it.
c. Vibrating table
Developed by Tarnos, is a device used to settle and consolidate product on its own container .It is mainly
utilized to compact granulated,thick,or small product.

During cement concrete construction the following precautions should be observed:

1. Cement should be fresh and free from set cement particles.

2. Aggregates should be well graded and free from dirt, clay, silt and other deleterious materials.

3. Mixing water should be free from harmful chemicals and foreign materials.

4. The quality of concrete prepared each time should be used and finished within 30 minutes or initial setting time of
cement.

5. Concrete should be prepared on a rigid, impervious and water tight platform without loosing any cement or water.

6. The quality of mixing water should be properly measured and should be just sufficient to provide the desired
workability and the required water-cement ratio.

7. The quantity of the cement, sand, coarse aggregate should be correctly measured either by volume or mass as
desired in specifications of the mix proportion. Measurement by mass is more accurate and results in better quality
construction.

8. Complete mixing of ingredients either by hand or by mixer should be ensured.

9. Care should be taken to avoid bleeding and segregation during transporting or placing concrete.

10. Form work or surface on which concrete is to be laid. Should be cleaned and moistened with water before laying
concrete.

11. The form work or other base on which concrete is to be laid should be checked for its rigidity, shape size and other
details and should be prepared well before concreting.

12. Shuttering and centering should be checked and ensured thoroughly before concreting operation.

Concrete Finishes
1. Troweling 2. Screeding 3. Brooming 4. Floating

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