Motor Windings: What Are The Differences?

7 Mar , 2017

Motor windings can take many shapes or forms. However 3-phase distributed windings are
the most commonly used in AC motors for industrial applications, which will be the focus of
this article. The discussion which follows is equally applicable to the use of this type of
winding in induction motors or in permanent magnet synchronous motors.

The objective of the distributed winding is to produce a sinusoidal Magneto-Motive Force

(MMF) distribution in the motor airgap. This MMF is produced when a balanced set of 3
phase AC currents flow in the phase windings. It is the MMF, combined with the motor
magnetic circuit design, which gives rise to a travelling wave of flux in the airgap to produce
the required motor torque.

Windings are made up of several coils wound from insulated copper or in some cases
aluminium wire. Several strands of wire can be connected in parallel to form a single
conductor which is then wound into a coil which will have several turns. The number of turns
will depend on specific design requirements.

A distributed winding consists of several coils inserted into the slots of the motor stator as
shown below. The number of coils will depend on the number of stator slots, the number of
phases (in our case 3) and the number of motor poles, p.

Each coil will span several slots. A full-pitch winding will have coils whose average span
corresponds to a number of slots equal to the pole-pitch or 360/p whereas a short-pitch
winding will span fewer slots. The Figure below shows a full-pitch winding for a typical 4
pole motor.
A 4-pole motor stator with a 3-phase distributed winding

A part of the winding will be in the slot where it contributes to motor torque production. The
remainder will be in the end windings which do not contribute to motor torque production.
Careful design is therefore needed to avoid an unnecessary waste of expensive copper.
Furthermore, good thermal performance drives the need for high slot fill and end winding
thermal management. These factors are often limited by manufacturing process
considerations.An ideal distributed winding will have an infinite number of coils placed in an
infinite number of slots such that the MMF space distribution is a perfect sinusoid. This is
clearly not possible in practice so a best compromise needs to be found to meet the required
performance.

Coils of different phases need to be insulated from each other and from the stator core in
order to avoid short circuits and failure. Insulation constitutes additional thermal barriers
which will limit the ability to transfer heat from the inside of the machine to the outside. Air
voids will be present between winding wires and between the insulation, winding and stator
core. These voids are filled with a resin using an impregnation process which improves heat
transfer and further improves winding insulation.

Electric motor applications are many and varied. Different applications impose different
requirements on the motor design. Several of these requirements will be impacted by the
winding design and can include:

Minimisation of harmonic losses for improved efficiency

Reduce torque pulsations
Reduce acoustic noise and vibrations

Several winding layouts are possible to achieve the same electrical performance. The choice
of these layouts will be determined by manufacturing constraints which are strongly
influenced by the level of automation used to produce the winding.

The table below gives some of the most common winding configurations along with the main
selection criteria.
It is clear that strong compromises need to be made between technical requirement, process
complexity, the level of automation and cost. This means that motor designers need to work
closely with manufacturing engineering to define the best overall solution.

Introduction To Harmonics: Part 1

22 Nov , 2016

Colin Hargis, chief engineer at Control Techniques, delves into the subject of electrical
power harmonics in this two-part blog. Part two is available here.
This blog is an introduction to the subject of electrical power harmonics, with special
reference to variable speed inverter drives. It aims to explain what they are and what they do
in straightforward terms, and distinguish them from other Electromagnetic Compatibility
(EMC) effects such as radio frequency interference and electrical noise.

For simplicity the examples mostly assume a 50 Hz supply frequency. If you work in an area
using 60 Hz then you will need to scale the frequencies suitably.

What are harmonics?

A harmonic of a periodic function has a frequency which is an integer multiple of that of the
function (which is the fundamental). In electrical power engineering, this idea is used
primarily to help in understanding the effect of non-linear power loads, where the voltage
source is sinusoidal but the current is distorted, although still with the same period. Using the
concept of the Fourier Series, we can represent a distorted periodic waveform as the sum of a
number of harmonics.

For example, a simple single phase bridge rectifier draws a current which is a series of short
pulses at the voltage peaks, as shown in Figure 1;

Figure 1: Current waveform for simple single-phase bridge rectifier

The current can be analysed into its constituent frequencies. It comprises a series of odd-
order harmonics as shown in Figure 2;
Figure 2: Frequency analysis of current in Figure 1

The benefit of this analysis is that the behaviour of electrical components is easiest to
understand and define in terms of specific sinusoidal frequencies.

In this case, with a mains frequency of 50 Hz you can see that the harmonic currents up to
orders of about 30, i.e. 1500 Hz, are quite significant. Beyond that they diminish quickly. The
lower order harmonics of orders 3, 5, 7 and 9 are really high in amplitude and are not much
less than the fundamental (50 Hz).

If the negative and positive half-cycles have the same shape then only the odd harmonics are
present. In three-phase power circuits the triple-n harmonics (3, 6, 9, 12 etc.) are also absent,
because they are cophasal, and cophasal currents are blocked in a three-wire circuit.

Strict definition and working definition for harmonics. Interharmonics.

A true harmonic can only have a frequency which is an exact integer multiple of the
fundamental. Most simple non-linear devices such as rectifiers and iron-cored magnetic
components generate true harmonic currents.

In modern power electronic circuits using active switching, which might not be synchronised
with the supply frequency, new frequencies may be present which are not true harmonics. For
example, as I illustrated in Blogs number 4 and 5 on Regenerative drives, an inverter
operating with a switching frequency of 4 kHz with a 60 Hz supply generates currents at
frequencies of 3880 Hz and 4120 Hz, as well as many others, which are not integer multiples
of 60 Hz and therefore are not true harmonics. The correct term for these is Interharmonics.
They are still unwanted frequencies and some of their effects are the same as for harmonics,
so in general discussion they may be referred to simply as harmonics. This can cause
confusion, so it is best to make clear whether we are talking about true harmonics or all kinds
of distortion.

What effect do they have?

Referring to Figures 1 and 2 again, we have a rectifier connected to the mains supply. The
supply is sinusoidal and has a single frequency of 50 Hz. The rectifier generates harmonic
currents which flow in the supply. The rectifier is a source of current at the harmonic
frequencies, which are emitted back into the supply and spread around the power system.
Figure 3 illustrates this. The harmonic current is emitted by the load, and causes a harmonic
voltage in the source impedance of the supply. The voltage is experienced by other power
users connected to the same point of common coupling (PCC).

Figure 3: Propagation of harmonics in the power network

The harmonics have frequencies ranging from 100 Hz up to about 2500 Hz (we generally
stop at about order 50, but some authorities look at 100 or even 200. The standard for
harmonic measurements stops at 9 kHz). The first interesting point is that these are very low
frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum. This is illustrated in the spectrum shown in
Figure 4;

Figure 4: Simplified electromagnetic spectrum showing position of power harmonics

Radio frequency is generally considered to begin at 9 kHz, and in fact there are very few
radio applications below about 100 kHz because of the difficulty in generating a useful
electromagnetic wave. This means that the harmonics are not propagated as waves and they
only travel by conduction around the power system wiring. They do not cause interference by
stray coupling, only by being conducted into other equipment through the power wires. The
reason they have to be considered is that they are cumulative so one rectifier in a TV set has
a miniscule effect, but when millions of TV sets operate at the same time, their harmonics
have the same frequency and phase so they add up in the power system. The overall effect is
to distort the sinusoidal voltage waveform. Figure 5 illustrates the kind of flat top distortion
caused by rectifiers;

Figure 5: Voltage distortion caused by rectifier harmonics

A moderate level of harmonic current in the power system is of no concern, but if it becomes
excessive then trouble can result. Some of the possible effects of excessive harmonics in the
power system are listed below. All of these are quite unusual, but if they do occur they can be
difficult and expensive to correct.

Increased heating of some frequency-sensitive electrical equipment, especially:

o Capacitors for power-factor correction
o Induction motors
o Transformers
o Generators (e.g. small local generators such as backup power supplies)
Acoustic noise in transformers, bus bars etc.
Errors in equipment using the mains frequency for timing (now become uncommon)
Unwanted triggering of UPS systems which respond to waveform distortion
Noise pickup in analogue sound systems, e.g. theatre or church
Unwanted tripping of power system protection relays, resulting in loss of the public
supply

Serious difficulties with harmonics are unusual except in rather special cases. One example is
a ship which has its own generator with limited power capability and a large number of drives
or other rectifiers. However the power utilities do experience an accumulation of harmonics
from the millions of small appliances in operation, and there are locations where the fifth
harmonic on the public supply is at its limiting value.

Noise

Note that the effect of harmonics does not include the kind of disturbance to electronic
circuits generally referred to as electrical noise, which tends to result in noise and vibration
in analogue drive systems and/or data errors in digital data links. The reasons for this are:

The frequency of the harmonics is too low for significant stray coupling by induction
between adjacent electrical circuits. Most electrical interference is caused by much
higher frequencies which can be coupled electromagnetically, or through the stray
inductance of earth (ground) connections.

The harmonics are propagated as series-mode currents in the power circuit only, i.e. they
travel in the power system power conductors and not in the earth (ground) connections. High
frequency noise is usually in the common mode, i.e. it travels in conductors and the circuit
is completed by the earth (ground). See Figure 6 for a further explanation;

Figure 6: Series mode (a) and common mode (b) in a single phase power circuit

Harmonic data: input and output, voltage and current

Drive users sometimes request harmonic data for a drive. There is some possibility of
confusion because they may refer to the input or the output, and to current or voltage. The
table below summarises the data which is relevant to each place.
Sometimes a request for output harmonic data stems from a users prior experience with
inverter drives of previous generations which used the quasi-square technique, and contained
the non-triple-n harmonics of the working frequency. With PWM the harmonics are
negligible.

To summarise the table, the only harmonic data which is a characteristic of a particular drive
model is the input current data. That should be available from the supplier on request.

In part 2 of the harmonics blog we will look at how harmonics are measured and assessed,
how they vary with drive loading, and what can be done if they need to be reduced.

A Brief History Of The Servomotor

10 Jul , 2017

What is a servomotor?

A servomotor is a rotary or linear actuator designed for precise positioning, velocity and
acceleration. Theyre ideal for many applications; from simple DC servomotors used in toys,
to modern AC servo variants which are common in automation control, robotics and electric
vehicles. The servomotor has gone through many developments to get to where it is now,
each revision enabling other technologies, such as industrial automation, to thrive.
Where the servomotor began

The first servomotors were permanent magnet DC. They provided a straightforward method
of torque control made up of a cage containing a fixed magnet and rotating windings within.
Unfortunately, this design was not without its problems. To transfer electricity, spring loaded
carbon brushes press up against a commutator (which transfers power to the windings). As
the brushes wear, debris is left behind. This eventually causes a build-up, arcing the
commutator strips which shorts the motor. As a result, DC brushed servomotors require
monthly maintenance to prevent motor damage. To help reduce the cost and risk of running a
brushed servomotor, engineers developed the brushless servo system.

Enter the brushless servo system

The first type of brushless servo system emulated the brush-type DC servo motor. They used
three-phase permanent magnet motors and electronically commutated the current from one
pair of motor windings to another. To monitor velocity an encoder and brushless tachometer
was added. This new brushless design meant motors would last longer between servicing.

Constraints drive further innovation

The original brushless design was limited to low power applications. This led to the
development of the AC servomotor using a permanent magnet motor with sinusoidal back
EMF (created by using skewed magnets and overlapping windings) also known as field-
oriented or vector control.

AC servomotors are commonly used in todays industrial applications. Its ideal for higher
powered systems or where operations require smooth torque. AC servo motors work by using
a split ring commutator with the two sections wired to opposite poles of the motor. The
alternating field causes the poles of the windings to change polarity, turning the motor.

Demand for efficiency in motor control

Servomotors can be up to 95% efficient at full power and have a low power density as there
is no rotor current, meaning the motor can produce 100% torque instantly. It is for this reason
that electric cars feature servo motors.

Although the focus has previously been placed on the servomotor itself, much of the
improved performance comes from the encoder. This device creates an accurate snapshot of
the rotor position. Different encoders have varying resolutions, a higher resolution means
the motor will stop more accurately.

Servo motor used today has changed from the early generations. Now they are made with the
latest magnet technology and connected to variable speed drives which give them
performance that is hard to match.

A tale of two motors

There are two types of servo motor used in industry today: linear and rotary. Both have
advantages. With a linear motor, youll benefit from:

Higher speeds
Higher accelerations
Direct drive
Practically no wear
High position accuracy
It might seem that linear motors have all the advantages, but there are many applications
which only use a rotary servo motor. This is because linear motors heat up; a by-product of
wasted energy. The heat generated causes thermal growth, which effects the load, bearings,
grease and sensors. Over time this negatively impacts on the lifespan of components. In
addition, thermal growth is likely to cause issues with binding and increased friction.

Rotary motors have the following benefits:

Continuous duty
Reversible
Speed is proportional to the applied voltage
Torque is proportional to the current
Very efficient

However, the reality is that rotary and linear motors are used for difficult application setups.
For instance, rotary servo motors are used with woodturning mechanisms (lathes), industrial
spinning, weaving machines, looms, and knitting machines. Linear servo motors are used
with short-move pick and place and inspection equipment, longer moves and flying shear
applications, roller coasters, people movers, and vehicle launching systems.

In conclusion

Servo motors can offer higher performance, faster speeds, and smaller sizes than induction
motor systems. Additionally alongside variable frequency drives servomotors can use 30%
less energy in positioning applications.

Conversely induction motor systems (lower cost, rugged, reliable, and well known) can offer
an alternative to servo motor systems for certain applications. This, of course, is based on
similar electronic controls being used (with the latest technology and approximately the same
cost), leaving the cost of motors the differentiating issue.