Tutorial on Series Compensation

Dr. C.D.Kotwal

SVIT, VASAD
Introduction:
Inductors and capacitors are used on medium-length and long transmission lines to
increase line load ability and to maintain voltages near rated value.
Shunt reactors (inductors) are commonly installed at selected points along EHV
lines from each phase to neutral. The inductors absorb reactive power and reduce
over voltages during light load conditions. They also reduce transient over voltages
due to switching and lightning surges. However, shunt reactors can reduce line
load ability if they are not removed under full-load conditions. In addition to shunt
reactors, shunt capacitors are sometimes used to deliver reactive power and
increase transmission voltages during heavy load conditions. Another type of shunt
compensation includes thyristor-switched reactors in parallel with capacitors.
These devices, called static var compensators, can absorb reactive power during
light loads and deliver reactive power during heavy loads. Through automatic
control of the thyristor switches, voltage fluctuations are minimized and line load
ability is increased. Synchronous condensers (synchronous motors with no
mechanical load) can also control their reactive power output, although more
slowly than static var compensators.
Series capacitors are sometimes used on long lines to increase line load-ability.
Capacitor banks are installed in series with each phase conductor at selected points
along a line. Their effect is to reduce the net series impedance of the line in series
with the capacitor banks, thereby reducing line-voltage drops and increasing the
steady-state stability limit. A disadvantage of series capacitor banks is that
automatic protection devices must be installed to by-pass high currents during
faults and to reinsert the capacitor banks after fault clearing. Also, the addition of
series capacitors can excite low-frequency oscillations, a phenomenon called
subsynchronous resonance, which may dam-age turbine-generator shafts. Studies
have shown, however, that series capacitive compensation can increase the load
ability of long lines at only a fraction of the cost of new transmission.
Shunt compensation essentially reduces the current flow everywhere up to the
point where capacitors are located and all other advantages follow from this fact.
But series compensation acts directly on the series reactance of the line. It reduces
the transfer reactance between supply point and the load and thereby reduces the
voltage drop. Series capacitor can be thought of as a voltage regulator, which adds
a voltage proportional to the load current and there by improves the load voltage.
Series compensation is employed in EHV lines to,
i. Improve the power transfer capability
ii. Improve voltage regulation
iii. Improve the load sharing between parallel lines.
Economic factors along with the possible occurrence of sub-synchronous
resonance in the system will decide the extent of compensation employed.
Series capacitors, with their inherent ability to add a voltage proportional to load
current, will be the ideal solution for handling the voltage dip problem brought
about by motor starting, arc furnaces, welders etc. And, usually the
application of series compensation in distribution system is limited to this due to
the complex protection required for the capacitors and the consequent high cost.
Also, some problems like self-excitation of motors during starting, ferro resonance,
steady hunting of synchronous motors etc discourages wide spread use of series
compensation in distribution systems.
Power Transfer Capability and Stability:
 

 


Where VS and VR are sending and receiving end voltages respectively.
XL is series reactance of the line, is the phase angle by which VS leads VR.
The power transfer capability of the line can be increased by raising VS, VR and
or by reducing XL.
With a series capacitor inserted in the line reactance is reduced to (XL-XC) and the
transmitted power will be
 

 

  
Or
 

 

   

Where k=XC/XL = Degree of compensation.

Thus with the same voltages and angle, the transmission capacity can be increased
by reducing the line reactance with a series capacitor. The increase is given by:
  

 
     
Alternatively for the same power level and terminal voltages VS and VR held
constant, the size of the angle is reduced by increasing the compensation, thereby
improving the stability of the system.
Degree of Compensation:
Depending on the degree of compensation, voltage on the receiving end bus will
rise in the event of load rejection. If the voltage exceeds more than the highest
design voltage of transformer, its core will saturate. It will generate harmonics.
Under these conditions the magnetizing reactance of the transformer is reduced. It
may then lead to resonance with line/ cable capacitance. The same phenomena can
appear when the transformer is being energized. It is necessary to adjust the
minimum series capacitance of the compensation to avoid the above resonance
condition known as ferro-resonance.
Location of Series Capacitors:
Some of the problems associated in the optimum location of series capacitors, are :
(i) Short circuit currents through the capacitor
(ii) Line protection
(iii) Approach to the series capacitor installation
(iv) Cost of switching arrangements
(A) Location along the line:
If the degree of compensation is less than 50%, only one bank is placed at
the midpoint of each line section. For greater compensation two banks may
be used, one at 1/3rd and the other 2/3rd of the way along the line section.
The advantage generally attributed to location along the line is simpler line
protection, such as ordinary distance relays.
(B) Location at one or both ends of each line section at the line sides in
each switching station:
The main argument in favor of this arrangement is the proximity of a
manned station. Instead of simple distance protection the phase comparison
type line protection is provided. Limitations with this type of arrangement is
(1) Heavier demands on protective equipment due to larger short circuit
currents and
(2) More installed MVAR because of long line correction factor.
(C) Location between Bus Bars within the switching station:
This location is similar to (A). The advantage is that the compensation is
connected in a few accessible places along the line i.e. in the switching
stations.
The disadvantages are
(1) Overall compensation seen in case of line section is lost due to line fault
from sending end to the receiving end will be reduced.
 (2) Switching arrangement required within the switching stations will be
more complicated.
Choice of Series Capacitor Rating:
The choice of series capacitor rating is a complex problem involving both technical
and economical considerations. Some of the factors which should be studied are:
(i) Requirement on power transfer, stability and load flow
(ii) Probability of subsynchronous resonance
(iii) Speed of reinsertion i.e. , medium or high
(iv) Protective gap setting
(v) Overall transmission costs, including cost of capacitors, transmission
lines and losses, cost of production and consumption of reactive power
and future demand for transmitted power.
Before finalizing the specifications of series capacitor installation it is necessary
to carry out system studies relating to load flow, stability, transient voltages on the
reinsertion of capacitor bank and system voltage profile.
The rating of a series capacitor bank is usually defined in terms of :
(i) System Voltage
(ii) Number of Phases
(iii) System frequency
(iv) Rated Current
(v) Rated MVARs
The voltage between the different phases of a series capacitor corresponds to the
line voltage. However, voltage across the terminals of series capacitor in each
phase varies with the line current and is usually considerably lower because of
lower capacitive reactance compared to that of the shunt capacitor bank of equal
rating. Consider a three phase 50 Hz series capacitor for 400 kV system, rated
MVAr 212 and current of 1270 amps.
MVAR per phase 212/3
Voltage across the series capacitor
(212 x 1000)/(3x1270)= 55.64 kV
Capacitive reactance per phase
(55.64 x 1000)/ 1270 = 43.9 ohms

Against this, the capacitive reactance of a shunt capacitor of equal MVAR rating
i.e. 3 phase, 400 kV, 212 MVAr will be
(kV)^2 /MVAr
(400 x 400)/ 212 = 755 ohms
The corresponding line current, of course, will be 306 amperes compared to 1270
amperes of the series capacitor bank.
Advantages with the Operation of Series Capacitors:
Energy savings
Improving the quality of power increases the capacity of active power transmission
and reduces energy consumption. Thus, the unnecessary overload of the power
network can be avoided. Both your company and the environment benefit from a
more efficient use of electricity and a reduction in the consumption of energy.
Series Capacitors advantages:
The cost of a Series Capacitor bank is approximately 10% of the total cost of a new
transmission line. Thus, the payback time for the Series Capacitor bank investment
is only a few years.
Increases power transfer capacity
Reduces voltage drops caused by loads
Allows load sharing between parallel lines
Eliminates or postpones the need for power
Generation or transfer line investments
 Savings on dimensioning of power lines
Maximize the transmission of the power
Minimize losses of active and reactive power
More Reliability
Transmission of reactive power leads to significant voltage drops and current
increases in the network, which limits the transmission capacity of active power.
Series Capacitors are installed to reach a more efficient use of the transmission
lines. The diversification of generation, transmission and distribution, in addition
to long transmission distances and large generating power plants are resulting in an
increased demand for economical and reliable operation of transmission systems.
The demand for increasing power transfer means either more transmission lines or
compensation of the existing lines. Series compensation is an economic method of
improving the power transmission capability of the lines.
Problems with the Operation of Series Capacitors:
Hunting of Synchronous Motors
Power systems are equipped with synchronous machines either for generation or
motoring. Lightly loaded synchronous machines can go into hunting due to system
disturbances such as switching operations or changes in the load or excitation. The
presence of series capacitors in the feeder circuits reduces the effective reactance
and hence violent hunting is experienced in some motors. A synchronous motor,
when fed through a long line with overcompensation by a series capacitor, may
hunt if started during periods of light load. Series capacitors should not be applied
to circuits supplying either synchronous or induction motors driving reciprocating
loads such as pumps or compressors. In such cases, both hunting and voltage
flicker problems will be encountered.
Subsynchronous Resonance:
Consider an induction or a synchronous machine started through a series capacitor.
The rotor may lock and continue to rotate at a speed below the rated speed. This
condition is known as subsynchronous resonance. The speed will be due to a
resonant frequency dictated by the series capacitor and the circuit inductance. Such
a resonant circuit conducts a large current and may damage the motor due to
excessive heating and vibrations. This frequency is usually 2030 cycles for a 60
cycle motor. In order to damp out such resonance, suitable damping resistance can
be installed across the series capacitors. The value of the damping resistance has to
be high in order to reduce continuous losses. In general, the possibility of
subsynchronous resonance has to be checked for all the larger motors where the
series capacitor is installed. Some utilities use subsynchronous relays at the
generators to sense sustained low frequency operation and trip the unit.
Self-Excitation of Induction Motors:
Consider an induction motor supplied through a line containing a series capacitor
bank. Under certain circumstances, the motor may act as an induction generator
producing current of lower than normal frequency. This low frequency current is
limited only by the impedance of the supply circuit and may reach relatively large
values. These large low frequency currents manifest not only as current surges and
voltage swings, but also as strong oscillations of the rotor, producing large
pulsating torques. This phenomenon of self-excitation will not always take place
and may be eliminated by sufficient line or shunt resistance, or by locating the
capacitor at a suitable distance. Such a self-excitation trend can also occur with
synchronous machines.
FACTS Controllers:
The termFACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) covers several power
electronics based systems used for AC power transmission and distribution. Given
the nature of power electronics equipment, FACTS solutions will be particularly
justifiable in applications requiring one or more of the following qualities:
-Rapid dynamic response
-Ability for frequent variations in output
-Smoothly adjustable output
FACTS are a family of devices which can be inserted into power grids in series, in
shunt, and in some cases, both in shunt and series. Important applications in power
transmission and distribution involve devices such as SVC (Static Var
Compensators), Fixed Series Capacitors (SC) as well as Thyristor-Controlled
Series Capacitors (TCSC) and STATCOM.

Series FACTS Controllers:

Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC):

TSSC can be used where already fixed series capacitor compensation is provided in the
line. It uses a thyristor as a power switch connected in antiparallel. The antiparallel
thyristor pair is connected in shunt with series connected capacitor.

Fig.1 TSSC with three modules

The basic TSSC with three series connected modules are shown in Fig.1.The thyristors
are either in conduction or blocking mode. If thyristor is in conduction mode, capacitor
will get bypassed. If thyristor is in blocking mode, then a capacitor is connected in series
with the line. A number of such combinations are connected in series with the line, to
get desired value of capacitance. The ratio of XC/XL gives the compensation level. It can
be taken up to 70% of line reactance. The thyristors in conduction mode has to carry full
line current.
This arrangement will not alter the natural characteristics of classical series capacitor
compensated line. This leads to the possibility of subsynchronous resonance as the
degree of compensation increases. To reduce the possibility of SSR, the TSSC
switching can be modulated. The TSSC can be used along with fixed series capacitor
compensation, to increase the power flow and for power oscillation damping.
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):

The TSSC uses antiparallel thyristors connected in parallel with series static capacitor.
By inserting an inductor in series with antiparallel thyristors and making it to behave like
thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), the chances of SSR phenomena can be reduced. In
thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC), in place of antiparallel thyristors, TCR is
connected across series capacitor. The TCSC will alter the reactance offered by the
combination of line reactance and capacitive reactance connected in series.

Operation of TCSC
TCSC modules have three operating modes.
(a) Bypassed mode (b) Thyristor switch blocked, (c) Vernier operation

Fig.2 Bypassed mode of TCSC

In bypassed mode as shown in, Fig.2, the thyristors are gated for 180o for conduction
and hence the reactor n series with it, will have continuous current. TCSC is used in this
mode normally to protect capacitors against overvoltage.
 Fig.3 Thyristor switch blocked mode of TCSC

In thyristor switch blocked mode as shown in, Fig.3, no current will flow through
thyristors. Hence TCSC will behave as, a fixed capacitor. This mode is known as
waiting mode and is rarely used.

Fig.4 Vernier operation of TCSC

In Vernier operation mode as shown in, Fig.4, the thyristors are gated in the region
(min<<180o). The thyristors will conduct for a part of half cycle. This mode is
normally used in the capacitive region.
Gate Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC)

Using the GTO, in place of thyristor will give an additional turn off control facility. The
voltage across capacitor is controlled for any given line current. When the GTO is in
conduction, the voltage across capacitor will be zero and when the GTO is in blocking
mode the voltage across capacitor will be maximum. With voltage across capacitor
crosses zero, the GTO will be turned on (will be in conduction).The turn off is
controlled by a turn off delay angle with reference to peak of the line current. The =0
and some arbitrary value is shown in the Fig.5 (a) and (b). With =0 the operation is
similar to classical fixed series capacitor compensation.
 (a)

(b)
Fig.5 (a) and (b) the positive and negative half cycle operation of GCS

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)

Switching power converters can be configured to generate a set of three

synchronously rotating sinusoidal voltages with 120o phase shift. The frequency,
phase angle and magnitude are controllable. This source which is analogous to an
ideal synchronous machine is known as synchronous voltage source or SVS in short.
By using different topologies of power electronics based converters, an SVS is
designed.

(a)
 (b)

Fig.6 (a) Basic two machine system with series capacitor (b) SVS as a series compensator

In Fig.6(a), a series capacitor as a compensator is shown. The Phasor diagram

shows, that the voltage across capacitor opposes the voltage across line inductance.
The net effect will be, to reduce the reactance, increase in the line current and the real
power flow. It is actually increasing the voltage, across the line impedance. Fig.6(b)
shows, a synchronous voltage source connected in place of a capacitor as a
compensating device. The advantage is that, the output voltage of SVS can be
injected in a lead or a lag phase with reference to line current. That is it can work as
an inductance or capacitance. The injected voltage Vq can be written as

I
Vq = jVq ( )
i

Where Vq ( ) is the magnitude of compensating voltage, ( ) is a chosen control

parameter. I is the line current, and i is the magnitude of the line current.

The dc source of a voltage source converter based SSSC consists of a small

capacitor as an energy storage to maintain the dc voltage. This dc capacitor interacts
with the ac system via the operating switch array of the converter. This interaction
influences the subsynchronous behavior of a SSSC. For the rating of 1.0 per unit of
SSSC it covers the control range of 2.0 per unit compensating vars. The control range
is -1.0 per unit to +1.0 per unit. It will give from capacitive 1 per unit to inductive 1 per
unit compensation.
TCSC Installation in INDIA

Customer: Power Grid Corporation of India (for SIEMENS)

Project Name: TALA Project

Location: New Delhi, India

Purnea FSC

Capacitor Ratings: 24.2 Ohm/743 MVAr

3200 A nominal current

Compensation degree: 40%

MOV Data: 23.3 MJ/MOV energy capabilities

26.6 kA peak MOV current at protective level voltage

251 kV/2.29 p.u. protective level

Thyristor Valve Data: 125 mm light-triggered thyristors

11.7 kV nominal voltage

Purnea TCSC

Capacitor Ratings: 3.03 Ohm/3.64 Ohm/112 MVAr

3200 A nominal current

Compensation degree: 5-15%

MOV Data: 3.5 MJ/MOV energy capability

30.7 kA peak MOV current at protective level voltage

38.2 kV/2.32 pu protective level

Thyristor Valve Data: 125 mm light-triggered thyristors

11.7 kV nominal voltage

Control System: SIMATIC TDC22

Siemens compensation equipment improves transmission capacity in Indian high
voltage grid.

Siemens received this order in May 2004 from the Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.
in New Delhi to set up four compensation systems featuring state of the art thyristor
technology. The purpose of this new equipment is to improve the transmission
performance and the reliability of the 400 kV overhead line between Purnea in eastern
India and Gorakhpur in the north of the country. The order includes the construction and
installation work involved in the systems, along with supply and engineering of all the
high voltage components, the control and protection devices and the thyristor valves.