Ultraviolet

For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ltered out by the Earths atmosphere, particularly the
UV redirects here. For other uses, see UV (disam- ozone layer.[3] More-energetic, shorter-wavelength ex-
biguation). treme UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it
is absorbed before it reaches the ground.[4] Ultraviolet is
also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening
vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans.
The UV spectrum thus has eects both benecial and
harmful to human health.

(left) Portable ultraviolet lamp. (right) UV light is also
produced by electric arcs. Arc welders must wear eye
protection to prevent welders ash.
Ultraviolet (UV) light is an electromagnetic radiation
with a wavelength from 400 nm to 100 nm, shorter than
that of visible light but longer than X-rays. Though usu-
ally invisible, under some conditions children and young
adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about
310 nm,[1][2] and people with aphakia (missing lens) can
also see some UV wavelengths. Near-UV is visible to a
number of insects and birds.
1 Discovery
Ultraviolet means beyond violet (from Latin ultra,
beyond), violet being the color of the highest frequen-
cies of visible light. Ultraviolet light has a higher fre-
quency than violet light.
UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German
physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter observed that invisible
rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum
darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more quickly than
violet light itself. He called them oxidizing rays to em-
phasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from
heat rays, discovered the previous year at the other
end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term chemi-
cal rays was adopted shortly thereafter, and it remained
popular throughout the 19th century, although there were
those who held that these were an entirely dierent sort of
radiation from light (notably John William Draper, who
named them tithonic rays[5][6] ). The terms chemical
and heat rays were eventually dropped in favour of ul-
traviolet and infrared radiation, respectively.[7][8] In 1878
the eect of short-wavelength light on sterilizing bacteria
was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most eective
wavelengths were around 250 nm. In 1960, the eect of
ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established.[9]

UV radiation is present in sunlight, and is produced by
electric arcs and specialized lights such as mercury-vapor
lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although lacking
the energy to ionize atoms, long-wavelength ultraviolet
radiation can cause chemical reactions, and causes many
substances to glow or uoresce. Consequently, biological
eects of UV are greater than simple heating eects, and
many practical applications of UV radiation derive from
its interactions with organic molecules.
Suntan, freckling and sunburn are familiar eects of
over-exposure, along with higher risk of skin cancer. Liv-
ing things on dry land would be severely damaged by ul-
traviolet radiation from the sun if most of it were not
The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm,
named vacuum ultraviolet because it is strongly absorbed
by air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor
Schumann.[10]
2 Subtypes
The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation
(UVR), dened most broadly as 10400 nano-meter, can
be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by
the ISO standard ISO-21348:[11]
A variety of solid-state and vacuum devices have been

1
2 3 SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET

explored for use in dierent parts of the UV spectrum.

UV-c

UV-b

UV-a
Many approaches seek to adapt visible light-sensing de-
vices, but these can suer from unwanted response to vis- 60 Stratopause

ible light and various instabilities. Ultraviolet can be de-

Altitude (km)
tected by suitable photodiodes and photocathodes, which
can be tailored to be sensitive to dierent parts of the 40
UV spectrum. Sensitive ultraviolet photomultipliers are
available. Spectrometers and radiometers are made for
measurement of UV radiation. Silicon detectors are used 20
across the spectrum.[12] Tropopause

People cannot perceive UV directly since the lens of the

human eye blocks most radiation in the wavelength range 0 10 20 30 40
of 300400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the Ozone (DU/km)
cornea.[13] Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina
are sensitive to near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a con- Levels of ozone at various altitudes and blocking of dierent
dition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV as whitish- bands of ultraviolet radiation. In essence, all UVC is blocked
by diatomic oxygen (from 100200 nm) or by ozone (triatomic
blue or whitish-violet.[14][15]
oxygen) (200280 nm) in the atmosphere. The ozone layer then
Vacuum UV or VUV wavelengths (shorter than 200 nm) blocks most UVB. Meanwhile, UVA is hardly aected by ozone
are strongly absorbed by molecular oxygen in the air, and most of it reaches the ground. UVA makes up almost all
though the longer wavelengths of about 150200 nm can of the ~ 25% of the Suns total UV that penetrates the Earths
propagate through nitrogen. Scientic instruments can atmosphere.
therefore utilize this spectral range by operating in an
oxygen-free atmosphere (commonly pure nitrogen), with-
out the need for costly vacuum chambers. Signicant
examples include 193 nm photolithography equipment
(for semiconductor manufacturing), and circular dichro-
ism spectrometers.
Technology for VUV instrumentation was largely driven
into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit propor-
by solar astronomy for many decades. While optics can
tionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in
be used to remove unwanted visible light that contami-
space at the top of Earths atmosphere (see solar con-
nates the VUV, in general, detectors can be limited by
stant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% vis-
their response to non-VUV radiation, and the develop-
ible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total ultraviolet
ment of solar-blind devices has been an important area
power of about 140 W/m2 in vacuum.[16]
of research. Wide-gap solid-state devices or vacuum de-
vices with high-cuto photocathodes can be attractive However, at ground level sunlight is 44% visible light, 3%
compared to silicon diodes. ultraviolet (with the Sun at its zenith), and the remain-
der infrared.[17][18] Thus, the atmosphere blocks about
Extreme UV (EUV or sometimes XUV) is characterized
77% of the Suns UV, almost entirely in the shorter UV
by a transition in the physics of interaction with mat-
wavelengths, when the Sun is highest in the sky (zenith).
ter. Wavelengths longer than about 30 nm interact mainly
Of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earths sur-
with the outer valence electrons of atoms, while wave-
face, more than 95% is the longer wavelengths of UVA,
lengths shorter than that interact mainly with inner shell
with the small remainder UVB. There is essentially no
electrons and nuclei. The long end of the EUV spectrum
UVC.[19] The fraction of UVB which remains in UV light
is set by a prominent He+ spectral line at 30.4 nm. EUV
after passing through the atmosphere is heavily depen-
is strongly absorbed by most known materials, but it is
dent on cloud cover and atmospheric conditions. Thick
possible to synthesize multilayer optics that reect up to
clouds block UVB eectively; but in partly cloudy days,
about 50% of EUV radiation at normal incidence. This
patches of blue sky showing between clouds are also
technology pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding
sources of (scattered) UVA and UVB, which are pro-
rockets in the 1990s, has been used to make telescopes for
duced by Rayleigh scattering in the same way as the visi-
solar imaging.
ble blue light from those parts of the sky.
The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more-energetic
UV radiation produced by the Sun, are absorbed by oxy-
3 Solar ultraviolet gen and generate the ozone in the ozone layer when sin-
gle oxygen atoms produced by UV photolysis of dioxygen
Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see Black-body ra- react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer is especially
diation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wave- important in blocking most UVB and the remaining part
lengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses of UVC not already blocked by ordinary oxygen in air.
5.2 Short wave ultraviolet lamps 3

4 Blockers and absorbers in the bottom image in a standard plug-in uorescent

xture. The shorter is an F8T5/BLB 12 inch, 8 watt
Ultraviolet light absorbers are molecules used in organic tube, used in a portable battery-powered black light sold
materials (polymers, paints, etc.) to absorb UV light to as a pet urine detector.
reduce the UV degradation (photo-oxidation) of a mate- Main article: Black light
rial. The absorbers can themselves degrade over time, so
monitoring of absorber levels in weathered materials is A black light lamp emits long-wave UVA radiation and
necessary. little visible light. Fluorescent black light lamps use a
In sunscreen, ingredients that absorb UVA/UVB phosphor on the inner tube surface, which emits UVA
rays, such as avobenzone, oxybenzone[20] and octyl light instead of visible light. Some lamps use a deep-
methoxycinnamate, are organic chemical absorbers bluish-purple Woods glass optical lter that blocks al-
or blockers. They are contrasted with inorganic most all visible [25]
light with wavelengths longer than 400
absorbers/"blockers of UV radiation such as titanium nanometres. Others use plain glass instead of the more
dioxide and zinc oxide. expensive Woods glass, so they appear light-blue to the
eye when operating. A black light may also be formed,
Suspended nanoparticles in stained glass prevent UV light very ineciently, by using a layer of Woods glass in the
from causing chemical reactions that change image col- envelope for an incandescent bulb. Though cheaper than
ors. A set of stained glass color reference chips is planned uorescent UV lamps, only 0.1% of the input power is
to be used to calibrate the color cameras for the 2019 converted to usable ultraviolet radiation. Mercury-vapor
ESA Mars rover mission, since they will remain unfaded black lights in ratings up to 1 kW with UV-emitting phos-
by the high level of UV present at the surface of Mars.[21] phor and an envelope of Woods glass are used for theatri-
Common soda lime glass is partially transparent to UVA cal and concert displays. UVA/UVB emitting bulbs are
but is opaque to shorter wavelengths, whereas fused also sold for other special purposes, such as tanning lamps
quartz glass, depending on quality, can be transparent and reptile-keeping.
even to vacuum UV wavelengths. Ordinary window glass
passes about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but blocks
over 90% of the light below 300 nm.[22][23][24] 5.2 Short wave ultraviolet lamps
Woods glass is a nickel-bearing form of glass with a deep
blue-purple color that blocks most visible light and passes
ultraviolet light.

9 watt germicidal UV lamp, in compact uorescent (CF)

5 Articial sources form factor

The light from a mercury lamp is predominantly at dis-

crete wavelengths. Other practical UV sources with more
continuous emission spectra include xenon arc lamps
(commonly used as sunlight simulators), deuterium arc
lamps, mercury-xenon arc lamps, metal-halide arc lamps,
and tungsten-halogen incandescent lamps.
Commercial germicidal lamp in butcher shop

5.1 Black lights A shortwave UV lamp can be made using a uorescent

lamp tube with no phosphor coating. These lamps emit
ultraviolet light with two peaks in the UVC band at 253.7
nm and 185 nm due to the mercury within the lamp.
Eighty-ve to 90% of the UV produced by these lamps
is at 253.7 nm, whereas only ve to ten percent is at 185
nm. The fused quartz glass tube passes the 253 nm radi-
ation but blocks the 185 nm wavelength. Such tubes have
two or three times the UVC power of a regular uores-
cent lamp tube. These low-pressure lamps have a typical
eciency of approximately thirty to forty percent, mean-
ing that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by the
lamp, they will produce approximately 3040 watts of to-
Two black light uorescent tubes, showing use. The tal UV output. These germicidal lamps are used exten-
longer tube is a F15T8/BLB 18 inch, 15 watt tube, shown sively for disinfection of surfaces in laboratories and food
4 5
processing industries, and for disinfecting water supplies. already successful in digital print applications and inert
5.3 Gas-discharge lamps
Main article: Gas-discharge lamp
Specialized UV gas-discharge lamps containing dierent
gases produce UV light at particular spectral lines for sci-
entic purposes. Argon and deuterium arc lamps are of-
ten used as stable sources, either windowless or with var-
ious windows such as magnesium uoride.[26] These are
often the light sources in UV spectroscopy equipment for
chemical analysis.
The excimer lamp, a UV light source developed within
the last two decades, is seeing increasing use in scientic
elds. It has the advantages of high-intensity, high ef-
ciency, and operation at a variety of wavelength bands
into the vacuum ultraviolet.
5.4 Ultraviolet LEDs
A 380 nanometre UV LED makes some common household items
uoresce.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be manufactured to
emit light in the ultraviolet range, although practical LED
arrays are very limited below 365 nm. LED eciency
at 365 nm is about 58%, whereas eciency at 395 nm
is closer to 20%, and power outputs at these longer UV
wavelengths are also better. Such LED arrays are be-
ginning to be used for UV curing applications, and are
ARTIFICIAL SOURCES
UV curing environments. Power densities approaching 3
W/cm2 (30 kW/m2 ) are now possible, and this, coupled
with recent developments by photoinitiator and resin for-
mulators, makes the expansion of LED-cured UV mate-
rials likely.
5.5 Ultraviolet lasers
Main article: Excimer laser
Gas lasers, laser diodes and solid-state lasers can be man-
ufactured to emit ultraviolet light, and lasers are available
which cover the entire UV range. The nitrogen gas laser
uses electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules to emit a
beam that is mostly UV. The strongest ultraviolet lines are
at 337.1 nm and 357.6 nm,wavelength. Another type of
high power gas laser is the excimer laser. They are widely
used lasers emitting in ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet
wavelength ranges. Presently, UV argon-uoride (ArF)
excimer lasers operating at 193 nm are routinely used in
integrated circuit production by photolithography. The
current wavelength limit of production of coherent UV is
about 126 nm, characteristic of the Ar2 * excimer laser.
Direct UV-emitting laser diodes are available at 375
nm.[27] UV diode lasers have been demonstrated using
Ce:LiSAF crystals (cerium doped with lithium strontium
aluminum uoride), a process developed in the 1990s
at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.[28] Wave-
lengths shorter than 325 nm are commercially generated
in diode-pumped solid-state lasers. Ultraviolet lasers can
also be made by applying frequency conversion to lower-
frequency lasers.
Ultraviolet lasers have applications in industry (laser
engraving), medicine (dermatology, and keratectomy),
chemistry (MALDI), free air secure communications,
computing (optical storage) and manufacture of inte-
grated circuits.
5.6 Tunable Vacuum Ultraviolet (VUV)
via sum and dierence frequency mix-
ing
The Vacuum Ultraviolet (VUV) band (100-200 nm) can
be generated by non-linear 4 wave mixing in gases by sum
or dierence frequency mixing of 2 or more longer wave-
length lasers. The generation is generally done in gasses
(e.g. Krypton, Hydrogen which are two-photon resonant
near 193 nm) or metal vapors (e.g. magnesium). By mak-
ing one of the lasers tunable the VUV light can be tuned.
If one of the lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas
or vapor then the VUV production is intensied. How-
ever, resonances also generate wavelength dispersion, and
thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range of the
4 wave mixing. Dierence frequency mixing (lambda1
6.2 Harmful eects 5

+ lambda2 - lambda3 ) has an advantage over sum fre- 6.2 Harmful eects
quency mixing because the phase matching can be more
perfect and provide greater tuning.[29] In particular, dif- Main article: Ultraviolet light and cancer
ference frequency mixing two photons of an ArF (193 The dierential eects of various wavelengths of light on
nm) excimer laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in
Hydrogen or Krypton provides resonantly enhanced tun-
able VUV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm.[29] Practi- 1
cally, the lack of suitable gas/vapor cell window materials Sunlight spectrum

Irradiance (W/m /nm)

above the Lithium Fluoride cut-o wavelength limit the 0.1
tuning range to longer than about 110 nm, and window-

2
free geometries are needed past this point. Erythemal action
0.01 spectrum

5.7 Plasma and synchrotron sources of ex-
treme UV
Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-
coherent extreme UV (EUV) light at 13.5 nm for extreme
ultraviolet lithography. The EUV light is not emitted
by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in an ex-
tremely hot tin or xenon plasma, which is excited by an
excimer laser.[30] This technique does not require a syn-
chrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X-ray
spectrum. Synchrotron light sources can also produce all
wavelengths of UV, including those at the boundary of
the UV and X-ray spectra at 10 nm.
6 Human health-related eects
Further information: Health eects of sun exposure
The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has
implications for the risks and benets of sun exposure,
and is also implicated in issues such as uorescent lamps
and health.
6.1 Benecial eects
0.001
Effective spectrum
0.0001
280 300 320 340 360 380
Wavelength (nm)
Sunburn eect (as measured by the UV Index) is the product
of the sunlight spectrum (radiation intensity) and the erythemal
action spectrum (skin sensitivity) across the range of UV wave-
lengths. Sunburn production per milliwatt is increased by almost
a factor of 100 between the near UVB wavelengths of 315-295
nm
the human cornea and skin are sometimes called the ery-
themal action spectrum..[32] The action spectrum shows
that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather
UV begins to cause photokeratitis and skin redness (with
Caucasians more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near
the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly
increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensi-
tive to damage by UV at 265275 nm, which is in the
lower UVC band. At still shorter wavelengths of UV,
damage continues to happen, but the overt eects are not
as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. The
WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized
measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that
cause sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure
for action spectrum eects at a given time and location.
This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to
UV at wavelengths near the boundary of the UVA and
UVB bands.

UVB induces production of vitamin D in the skin at rates

of up to 1,000 IUs per minute. The majority of UVs
positive health eects are related to this vitamin, which
helps to regulate calcium metabolism (vital for the ner-
vous system and bone health), immunity, cell prolifera-
tion, insulin secretion, and blood pressure.[31]
The amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin in-
creases after exposure to UV radiation at moderate levels
depending on skin type; this is commonly known as a sun
tan. Melanin is an excellent photoprotectant that absorbs
both UVB and UVA radiation and dissipates the energy
as harmless heat, protecting the skin against both direct In humans, excessive exposure to all bands of UV radi-
and indirect DNA damage.
6.2.1 Skin damage
Overexposure to UVB radiation not only can cause
sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However,
the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely
not caused by UVA) do not predict the long-term ef-
fects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage
of DNA by ultraviolet. The World Health Organization
(WHO) classies broad-spectrum ultraviolet radiation as
a Group 1 carcinogen.
ation can result in chronic harmful eects on the skin,
6 7 DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS, PIGMENTS AND DYES

eye, and immune system.[33] All bands of UV radiation Ordinary, untreated eyeglasses give some protection.
damage collagen bers and accelerate aging of the skin. Most plastic lenses give more protection than glass lenses,
Both UVA and UVB destroy vitamin A in skin, which because, as noted above, glass is transparent to UVA
may cause further damage.[34] and the common acrylic plastic used for lenses is less so.
UVB light can cause direct DNA damage. [35]
The Some plastic lens materials, such as polycarbonate, inher-
mutagenicity of UV radiation can be observed in bacte- ently block most UV. Protective coating is available for
rial cultures. This cancer connection is one reason for eyeglass lenses that need it, but even a coating that com-
concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole. pletely blocks UV will not protect the eye from light that
arrives around the lens.

7 Degradation of polymers, pig-

ments and dyes
Main article: UV degradation
UV degradation is one form of polymer degradation that

Demonstration of the eect of sunscreen. The mans face has

sunscreen on his right only. The left image is a regular photo-
graph of the face; the right image is taken by reected UV light.
The side of the face with sunscreen is darker because the sun-
screen absorbs the UV light. UV damaged polypropylene rope (left) and new rope (right)

Medical organizations recommend that patients protect
themselves from UV radiation by using sunscreen. Five
sunscreen ingredients have been shown to protect mice
against skin tumors. However, some sunscreen chemicals
produce potentially harmful substances if they are illumi-
nated while in contact with living cells.[36][37]
Ultraviolet radiation can aggravate several skin conditions bers like aramids. UV absorption leads to chain degra-
and diseases, including rosacea, lupus and others.[38]
6.2.2 Eye damage
aects plastics exposed to sunlight. The problem appears
as discoloration or fading, cracking, loss of strength or
disintegration. The eects of attack increases with ex-
posure time and sunlight intensity. The addition of UV
absorbers inhibits the eect.
Sensitive polymers include thermoplastics and speciality
dation and loss of strength at sensitive points in the chain
structure. Aramid rope must be shielded with a sheath of
thermoplastic if it is to retain its strength.

The eye is most sensitive to damage by UV in the lower

UVC band at 265275 nm. Light of this wavelength is
almost absent from sunlight, but is found in welders arc
lights and other articial sources. Exposure to these can
cause welders ash or arc eye (photokeratitis), and
can lead to cataracts, pterygium,[39][40] and pinguecula
formation. To a lesser extent, UVB in sunlight from 310
280 nm also causes photokeratitis (snow blindness),
and the cornea, the lens, and the retina can be damaged.
Protective eyewear is benecial to those exposed to ul-
traviolet radiation. Since light can reach the eyes from
the sides, full-coverage eye protection is usually war-
ranted if there is an increased risk of exposure, as in IR spectrum showing carbonyl absorption due to UV degradation
high-altitude mountaineering. Mountaineers are exposed of polyethylene
to higher-than-ordinary levels of UV radiation, both be-
cause there is less atmospheric ltering and because of Many pigments and dyes absorb UV and change colour,
reection from snow and ice. so paintings and textiles may need extra protection both
8.1 Photography 7

from sunlight and uorescent bulbs, two common sources

of UV radiation. Window glass absorbs some harmful
UV, but valuable artifacts need extra shielding. Many
museums place black curtains over watercolour paintings
and ancient textiles, for example. Since watercolours can
have very low pigment levels, they need extra protection
from UV light. Various forms of picture framing glass,
including acrylics (plexiglass), laminates, and coatings,
oer dierent degrees of UV (and visible light) protec-
tion.

8 Applications
Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and ex-
cite uorescence in materials, ultraviolet light has a num-
ber of applications. The following table[41] gives some
uses of specic wavelength bands in the UV spectrum

13.5 nm: Extreme ultraviolet lithography

30200 nm: Photoionization, ultraviolet photoelec-
tron spectroscopy, standard integrated circuit man-
ufacture by photolithography
A portrait taken using only UV light between the wavelengths of
230365 nm: UV-ID, label tracking, barcodes 335 and 365 nanometers.
230400 nm: Optical sensors, various instrumenta-
tion cameras sensors may have internal lters that block UV
to improve color rendition accuracy. Sometimes these
240280 nm: Disinfection, decontamination of sur- internal lters can be removed, or they may be absent,
faces and water (DNA absorption has a peak at 260 and an external visible-light lter prepares the camera for
nm) near-UV photography. A few cameras are designed for
200400 nm: Forensic analysis, drug detection use in the UV.
Photography by reected ultraviolet radiation is useful for
270360 nm: Protein analysis, DNA sequencing,
medical, scientic, and forensic investigations, in appli-
drug discovery
cations as wide spread as detecting bruising of skin, al-
280400 nm: Medical imaging of cells terations of documents, or restoration work on paintings.
Photography of the uorescence produced by ultraviolet
300320 nm: Light therapy in medicine illumination uses visible wavelengths of light.
300365 nm: Curing of polymers and printer inks
300400 nm: Solid-state lighting
350370 nm: Bug zappers (ies are most attracted
to light at 365 nm)[42]

8.1 Photography
Main article: Ultraviolet photography
Photographic lm responds to ultraviolet radiation but
the glass lenses of cameras usually block radiation shorter
than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV-blocking lters are of-
ten used for outdoor photography to prevent unwanted
bluing and overexposure by UV light. For photography
in the near UV, special lters may be used. Photography
with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special
quartz lenses which do not absorb the radiation. Digital
Aurora at Jupiter's north pole as seen in ultraviolet light by the
Hubble Space Telescope.
In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to
discern the chemical composition of the interstellar
medium, and the temperature and composition of stars.
Because the ozone layer blocks many UV frequencies
8 8 APPLICATIONS

from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most In some types of nondestructive testing UV light stimu-
UV observations are made from space. lates uorescent dyes to highlight defects in a broad range
of materials. These dyes may be carried into surface-
breaking defects by capillary action (liquid penetrant in-
8.2 Electrical and electronics industry spection) or they may be bound to ferrite particles caught
in magnetic leakage elds in ferrous materials (magnetic
Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected particle inspection).
by its ultraviolet emissions. Corona causes degradation of
electrical insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen
oxide.[43] 8.4 Analytic uses
Some EPROM (erasable programmable read-only mem- 8.4.1 Forensics
ory) modules are erased by exposure to UV radiation.
These modules have a transparent (quartz) window on the UV is an investigative tool at the crime scene helpful in lo-
top of the chip that allows the UV radiation in. cating and identifying bodily uids such as semen, blood,
and saliva.[45] For example, ejaculated uids or saliva can
be detected by high-power UV light sources, irrespective
8.3 Fluorescent dye uses of the structure or colour of the surface the uid is de-
posited upon.[46] UV-Vis microspectroscopy is also used
Colorless uorescent dyes that emit blue light under UV to analyze trace evidence, such as textile bers and paint
are added as optical brighteners to paper and fabrics. The chips, as well as questioned documents.
blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints
that may be present, and causes the colors and whites to Other applications include authentication of various col-
appear whiter or more brightly colored. lectibles and art, and detecting counterfeit currency. Even
materials not specially marked with UV sensitive dyes
UV uorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are may have distinctive uorescence under UV light, or may
used in paints, papers and textiles either to enhance color uoresce dierently under short-wave versus long-wave
under daylight illumination, or to provide special eects ultraviolet.
when lit with UV lamps. Blacklight paints that contain
dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and
esthetic applications. 8.4.2 Enhancing contrast of ink

Using multi-spectral imaging it is possible to read illegi-

ble papyrus, such as the burned papyri of the Villa of the
Papyri or of Oxyrhynchus, or the Archimedes palimpsest.
The technique involves taking pictures of the illegible
document using dierent lters in the infrared or ultravi-
olet range, nely tuned to capture certain wavelengths of
light. Thus, the optimum spectral portion can be found
for distinguishing ink from paper on the papyrus surface.
Simple NUV sources can be used to highlight faded iron-
based ink on vellum.[47]

A bird appears on many Visa credit cards when they are held 8.4.3 Sanitary compliance
under a UV light source
Ultraviolet light aids in the detection of organic material
To help prevent counterfeiting of currency, or forgery deposits that remain on surfaces where periodic cleaning
of important documents such as drivers licenses and and sanitizing may not have been properly accomplished.
passports, the paper may include a UV watermark or u- The phenyl and indole chemical moieties in proteins ab-
orescent multicolor bers that are visible under ultravio- sorb UV, and are made visible by blocking the uores-
let light. Postage stamps are tagged with a phosphor that cence of the material beneath themoften UV bright-
glows under UV light to permit automatic detection of eners in fabrics. Detergents are easily detected using
the stamp and facing of the letter. UV inspection. In ABS or alkylbenzenesulfonate de-
UV uorescent dyes are used in many applications (for tergents, the substituted benzine absorbs UV. Phosphate
example, biochemistry and forensics). Some brands of detergents with a phenyl moiety also absorb.
pepper spray will leave an invisible chemical (UV dye) Pet urine deposits in carpeting or other hard surfaces can
that is not easily washed o on a pepper-sprayed attacker, be detected for accurate treatment and removal of min-
which would help police identify the attacker later.[44] eral traces and the odor-causing bacteria that feed on pro-
8.5 Material science uses
After a training exercise involving fake body uids, a healthcare
workers personal protective equipment is checked with ultraviolet
light to nd invisible drops of uids. These uids could contain
deadly viruses or other contamination.
teins in urine. Many hospitality industries use UV lamps
to inspect for unsanitary bedding to determine life-cycle
for mattress restoration, as well as general performance
of the cleaning sta. A perennial news feature for many
television news organizations involves an investigative re-
porters using a similar device to reveal unsanitary condi-
tions in hotels, public toilets, hand rails, and such.
8.4.4 Chemistry
UV/VIS spectroscopy is widely used as a technique in
chemistry to analyze chemical structure, the most notable
one being conjugated systems. UV radiation is often used
to excite a given sample where the uorescent emission
is measured with a spectrouorometer. In biological re-
search, UV light is used for quantication of nucleic acids
or proteins.
A collection of mineral samples brilliantly uorescing at various occur in the photoresist. After removal of unwanted pho-
wavelengths as seen while being irradiated by UV light.
Ultraviolet lamps are also used in analyzing minerals and on or otherwise modify areas of the sample where no pho-
gems.
In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are
used to detect emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur com-
pounds, mercury and ammonia, for example in the ue
gas of fossil red power plants.[48] Ultraviolet light can
9
detect thin sheens of spilled oil on water, either by the
high reectivity of oil lms at UV wavelengths, uores-
cence of compounds in oil, or by absorbing of UV light
created by Raman scattering in water.[49]
8.5 Material science uses
8.5.1 Fire detection
See also: Flame detector
In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state de-
vice, such as one based on silicon carbide or aluminium
nitride, or a gas-lled tube as the sensing element. UV
detectors that are sensitive to UV light in any part of the
spectrum respond to irradiation by sunlight and articial
light. A burning hydrogen ame, for instance, radiates
strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only
very weakly in the IR region, whereas a coal re emits
very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wave-
lengths; thus, a re detector that operates using both UV
and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV de-
tector alone. Virtually all res emit some radiation in the
UVC band, whereas the Sun's radiation at this band is ab-
sorbed by the Earths atmosphere. The result is that the
UV detector is solar blind, meaning it will not cause
an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can
easily be used both indoors and outdoors.
UV detectors are sensitive to most res, including
hydrocarbons, metals, sulfur, hydrogen, hydrazine, and
ammonia. Arc welding, electrical arcs, lightning, X-rays
used in nondestructive metal testing equipment (though
this is highly unlikely), and radioactive materials can pro-
duce levels that will activate a UV detection system. The
presence of UV-absorbing gases and vapors will attenuate
the UV radiation from a re, adversely aecting the abil-
ity of the detector to detect ames. Likewise, the pres-
ence of an oil mist in the air or an oil lm on the detector
window will have the same eect.
8.5.2 Photolithography
Ultraviolet radiation is used for very ne resolution
photolithography, a procedure wherein a chemical called
a photoresist is exposed to UV radiation that has passed
through a mask. The light causes chemical reactions to
toresist, a pattern determined by the mask remains on the
sample. Steps may then be taken to etch away, deposit
toresist remains.
Photolithography is used in the manufacture of
semiconductors, integrated circuit components,[50] and
printed circuit boards. Photolithography processes used
to fabricate electronic integrated circuits presently use
10 8 APPLICATIONS

193 nm UV, and are experimentally using 13.5 nm UV less inert byproducts. The cleansing mechanism of UV is
for extreme ultraviolet lithography. a photochemical process. Contaminants in the indoor en-
vironment are almost entirely organic carbon-based com-
pounds, which down when exposed to high-intensity UV
8.5.3 Polymers at 240 to 280 nm. Short-wave ultraviolet light can destroy
DNA in living microorganisms. UVCs eectiveness is
Electronic components that require clear transparency for directly related to intensity and exposure time.
light to exit or enter (photo voltaic panels and sensors)
can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV UV light has also been shown to reduce gaseous contam-
[52][53][54]
light energy. The advantages are low VOC emissions and inants such as carbon monoxide and VOCs. UV
rapid curing. lamps radiating at 184 and 254 nm can remove low con-
centrations of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, if the
air is recycled between the room and the lamp chamber.
This arrangement prevents the introduction of ozone into
the treated air. Likewise, air may be treated by passing by
a single UV source operating at 184 nm and passed over
iron pentaoxide to remove the ozone produced by the UV
lamp.

Eects of UV on nished surfaces in 0, 20 and 43 hours. 8.6.2 Sterilization and disinfection

Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with Main article: Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light, Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and
polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or
cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include
glass and plastic bonding, optical ber coatings, the coat-
ing of ooring, UV Coating and paper nishes in oset
printing, dental llings, and decorative nger nail gels.
UV sources for UV curing applications include UV
lamps, UV LEDs, and Excimer ash lamps. Fast pro-
cesses such as exo or oset printing require high-
intensity light focused via reectors onto a moving sub-
strate and medium so high-pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe
(iron, doped)-based bulbs are used, energized with elec-
tric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power uorescent lamps
and LEDs can be used for static applications. Small high-
pressure lamps can have light focused and transmitted to
the work area via liquid-lled or ber-optic light guides.
A low-pressure mercury vapor discharge tube oods the inside
The impact of UV on polymers is used for modication of of a hood with shortwave UV light when not in use, sterilizing
the (roughness and hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. microbiological contaminants from irradiated surfaces.
For example, a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface can be
smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet.[51] tools used in biology laboratories and medical facil-
ities. Commercially available low-pressure mercury-
UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy
vapor lamps emit about 86% of their light at 254 nanome-
polymers for adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV light
ters (nm), which is near one of the peaks of the germi-
will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the poly-
cidal eectiveness curve. UV light at these germicidal
mer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has been
wavelengths damage a microorganisms DNA so that it
raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is
cannot reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the
stronger.
organism may not be killed). Since microorganisms can
be shielded from ultraviolet light in small cracks and other
8.6 Biology-related uses shaded areas, these lamps are used only as a supplement
to other sterilization techniques.
8.6.1 Air purication Disinfection using UV radiation is commonly used in
wastewater treatment applications and is nding an in-
Using a catalytic chemical reaction from titanium diox- creased usage in municipal drinking water treatment.
ide and UVC light exposure, oxidation of organic matter Many bottlers of spring water use UV disinfection equip-
converts pathogens, pollens, and mold spores into harm- ment to sterilize their water. Solar water disinfection[55]
 11

has been researched for cheaply treating contaminated

water using natural sunlight. The UV-A irradiation and
increased water temperature kill organisms in the water.
Ultraviolet radiation is used in several food processes to
kill unwanted microorganisms. UV light can be used to
pasteurize fruit juices by owing the juice over a high-
intensity ultraviolet light source.[56] The eectiveness of
such a process depends on the UV absorbance of the
juice.
Pulsed light (PL) is a technique of killing microorganisms
on surfaces using pulses of an intense broad spectrum,
rich in UV-C between 200 and 280 nm. Pulsed light
works with Xenon ash lamps that can produce ashes
several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed Entomologist using a UV light for collecting beetles in the
UV light [57][58] Paraguayan Chaco.

8.6.4 Therapy
8.6.3 Biological
Main article: Ultraviolet light therapy
Some animals, including birds, reptiles, and insects such
as bees, can see near-ultraviolet light. Many fruits, ow- Ultraviolet radiation is helpful in the treatment of skin
ers, and seeds stand out more strongly from the back- conditions such as psoriasis and vitiligo. Exposure to
ground in ultraviolet wavelengths as compared to human UVA light while the skin is hyper-photosensitive by tak-
color vision. Scorpions glow or take on a yellow to green ing psoralens is an eective treatment for psoriasis. Due
color under UV illumination, thus assisting in the con- to the potential of psoralens to cause damage to the liver,
trol of these arachnids. Many birds have patterns in their PUVA therapy may be used only a limited number of
plumage that are invisible at usual wavelengths but ob- times over a patients lifetime.
servable in ultraviolet, and the urine and other secretions
UVB phototherapy does not require additional medica-
of some animals, including dogs, cats, and human beings,
tions or topical preparations for the therapeutic benet;
is much easier to spot with ultraviolet. Urine trails of
only the light exposure is needed. However, photother-
rodents can be detected by pest control technicians for
apy can be eective when used in conjunction with cer-
proper treatment of infested dwellings.
tain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and Vi-
Butteries use ultraviolet as a communication system for tamin A and D derivatives, or systemic treatments such
sex recognition and mating behavior. For example, in the as methotrexate and soriatane.[60]
Colias eurytheme buttery, males rely on visual cues to lo-
cate and identify females. Instead of using chemical stim-
uli to nd mates, males are attracted to the ultraviolet- 8.6.5 Herpetology
absorbing color of female hind wings.[59]
Reptiles need long-wave UVA light for synthesis of vi-
Many insects use the ultraviolet wavelength emissions tamin D, which in turn is needed to metabolize calcium
from celestial objects as references for ight navigation. for bone and egg production. Thus, in a typical reptile
A local ultraviolet emitter will normally disrupt the navi- enclosure, a uorescent UV lamp should be available for
gation process and will eventually attract the ying insect. vitamin D synthesis. This should be combined with the
The Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) is often used in provision of heat for basking, either by the same lamp or
genetics as a marker. Many substances, such as proteins, another. Certain reptiles such as Bearded Dragons need
have signicant light absorption bands in the ultraviolet both UVA and UVB light.
that are of interest in biochemistry and related elds. UV-
capable spectrophotometers are common in such labora-
tories. 9 Evolutionary signicance
Ultraviolet traps called bug zappers are used to elimi-
nate various small ying insects. They are attracted to Evolution of early reproductive proteins and enzymes is
the UV light, and are killed using an electric shock, or attributed in modern models of evolutionary theory to ul-
trapped once they come into contact with the device. traviolet light. UVB light causes thymine base pairs next
Dierent designs of ultraviolet light traps are also used to each other in genetic sequences to bond together into
by entomologists for collecting nocturnal insects during thymine dimers, a disruption in the strand that reproduc-
faunistic survey studies. tive enzymes cannot copy. This leads to frameshifting
12
during genetic replication and protein synthesis, usually [8] Hockberger, Philip E. (2002).
killing the cell. Before formation of the UV-blocking
ozone layer, when early prokaryotes approached the sur-
face of the ocean, they almost invariably died out. The
few that survived had developed enzymes that monitored
the genetic material and removed thymine dimers by
nucleotide excision repair enzymes. Many enzymes and [9] James Bolton, Christine Colton, The Ultraviolet Disin-
proteins involved in modern mitosis and meiosis are sim-
ilar to repair enzymes, and are believed to be evolved
modications of the enzymes originally used to overcome
[10] The ozone layer protects humans from this. Lyman, T.
DNA damages caused by UV light.[61]
10 See also
High-energy visible light
UV stabilizers in plastics
Weather testing of polymers
Ultraviolet catastrophe
11 References
[1] Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William Charles (2001).
Color and Light in Nature (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press. p. 231. ISBN 978-0-521-
77504-5. Retrieved 12 October 2013. Limits of the
eyes overall range of sensitivity extends from about 310
to 1050 nanometers
[2] Dash, Madhab Chandra; Dash, Satya Prakash (2009).
Fundamentals Of Ecology 3E. Tata McGraw-Hill Educa-
tion. p. 213. ISBN 978-1-259-08109-5. Retrieved 18
October 2013. Normally the human eye responds to light
rays from 390 to 760 nm. This can be extended to a range
of 310 to 1,050 nm under articial conditions.
[3] Reference Solar Spectral Irradiance: Air Mass 1.5. Re-
trieved 2009-11-12.
[4] Haigh, Joanna D. (2007). The Sun and the Earths Cli-
mate: Absorption of solar spectral radiation by the atmo-
sphere. Living Reviews in Solar Physics 4 (2). Retrieved
July 12, 2014.
[5] On a new Imponderable Substance and on a Class of
Chemical Rays analogous to the rays of Dark Heat, J.W.
Draper, The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosoph-
ical Magazine and Journal of Science, 1842, LXXX,
pp.453-461
[6] Description of the Tithonometer, J.W. Draper, The
Practical Mechanic and Engineers Magazine, January
1844, pp.122-127
[7] Beeson, Steven; Mayer, James W. 12.2.2 Discoveries be-
yond the visible. Patterns of light: chasing the spectrum
from Aristotle to LEDs. New York: Springer. p. 149.
ISBN 978-0-387-75107-8.
11 REFERENCES
A history
of ultraviolet photobiology for humans, ani-
mals and microorganisms. Photochem. Pho-
tobiol. 76 (6): 56179. doi:10.1562/0031-
8655(2002)0760561AHOUPF2.0.CO2. PMID
12511035. (subscription required (help)).
fection Handbook, American Water Works Association,
2008 ISBN 978 1 58321 584 5, pp. 3-4
(1914). Victor Schumann. Astrophysical Journal 38:
14. Bibcode:1914ApJ....39....1L. doi:10.1086/142050.
[11] ISO 21348 Denitions of Solar Irradiance Spectral Cat-
egories (PDF).
[12] Gullikson, Korde, Caneld, Vest, " Stable Silicon Pho-
todiodes for absolute intensity measurements in the VU
V and soft x-ray regions, Jrnl of Elec. Spect. and Re-
lated Phenomena 80(1996) 313316 (PDF). Ts.nist.gov.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-01-09. Re-
trieved 2011-11-08.
[13] M A Mainster (2006). Violet and blue light blocking
intraocular lenses: photoprotection versus photorecep-
tion. British Journal of Ophthalmology 90 (6): 784792.
doi:10.1136/bjo.2005.086553. PMC 1860240. PMID
16714268.
[14] David Hambling (29 May 2002). Let the light shine in.
The Guardian. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
[15] Stark, W.S.; Tan, K.E.W.P. (September 1982).
Ultraviolet Light: Photosensitivity and Other Ef-
fects on the Visual System. Photochemistry and
Photobiology 36 (3): 371380. doi:10.1111/j.1751-
1097.1982.tb04389.x. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
[16] Solar radiation
[17] Solar constant at ground level
[18] Reference Solar Spectral Irradiance: Air Mass 1.5. Re-
trieved 2009-11-12.
[19] Understanding UVA and UVB, retrieved 2012-04-30
[20] Burnett, M. E. and Wang, S. Q. (2011), Current sunscreen
controversies: a critical review. Photodermatology, Pho-
toimmunology & Photomedicine, 27: 5867
[21] ELLIE ZOLFAGHARIFARD (15 October 2013). How
medieval stained-glass is creating the ultimate SPACE
camera: Nanoparticles used in church windows will help
scientists see Mars true colours under extreme UV light.
[22] Soda Lime Glass Transmission Curve.
[23] B270-Superwite Glass Transmission Curve.
[24] Selected Float Glass Transmission Curve.
[25] Insect-O-Cutor
[26] Klose, Jules Z.; Bridges, J. Mervin; Ott, William R. (June
1987). NBS Measurement Services: Radiometric Stan-
dards in the VUV (PDF). NBS Special publication (US
Dept. of Commerce) (250-3).

[27] UV Laser Diode: 375 nm Center Wavelength. Product
Catalog. United States: Thorlabs. Retrieved 14 Decem-
ber 2014.
[28] Marshall, Chris (1996). A simple, reliable ultraviolet
laser: the Ce:LiSAF". Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-01-11.
[29] Strauss, CEM; Funk, DJ (1991). Broadly tunable
dierence-frequency generation of VUV using two-
photon resonances in H2 and Kr. Optics Lett. 16 (15):
1192.
[30] EUV chip fab almost here
[31] Vitamin D. Oregon State University. Retrieved 2011-
11-08.
[32] Navy Ultraviolet Radiation Guide
[33] Health eects of UV radiation. World Health Organi-
zation.
[34] Torma, H; Berne, B; Vahlquist, A (1988). UV irradia-
tion and topical vitamin A modulate retinol esterication
in hairless mouse epidermis. Acta Derm. Venereol. 68
(4): 291299. PMID 2459873.
[35] Bernstein C, Bernstein H, Payne CM, Garewal H (June
2002). DNA repair/pro-apoptotic dual-role proteins in
ve major DNA repair pathways: fail-safe protection
against carcinogenesis. Mutat. Res. 511 (2): 14578.
doi:10.1016/S1383-5742(02)00009-1. PMID 12052432.
[36] Xu, C.; Green, Adele; Parisi, Alo; Parsons, Pe-
ter G (2001). Photosensitization of the Sunscreen
Octyl p-Dimethylaminobenzoate b UVA in Human
Melanocytes but not in Keratinocytes.. Photochemistry
and Photobiology 73 (6): 600604. doi:10.1562/0031-
8655(2001)073<0600:POTSOP>2.0.CO;2. PMID
11421064.
[37] Knowland, John; McKenzie, Edward A.; McHugh,
Peter J.; Cridland, Nigel A. (1993). Sunlight-
induced mutagenicity of a common sunscreen ingredi-
ent.. FEBS Letters 324 (3): 309313. doi:10.1016/0014-
5793(93)80141-G. PMID 8405372.
[38] European Guidelines for Photodermatoses > 2 Photoag-
gravated Disorders at European Dermatology Forum
[39] Nolan, Timothy M.; DiGirolamo, Nick; Sachdev, Nitin
H. et al. (2003). The Role of Ultraviolet Irradiation and
Heparin-Binding Epidermal Growth Factor-Like Growth
Factor in the Pathogenesis of Pterygium. Am. J. Pathol.
162 (2): 56774. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63850-3.
PMC 1851157. PMID 12547714.
[40] Di Girolamo, Nick; Coroneo, Minas; Wakeeld, Denis
(1 August 2005). Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor
Signaling Is Partially Responsible for the Increased Ma-
trix Metalloproteinase-1 Expression in Ocular Epithelial
Cells after UVB Radiation. Am. J. Pathol. 167 (2):
489503. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)62992-6. PMC
1603570. PMID 16049334.
[41] s-et.com at the Wayback Machine (archived August 20,
2008)
13
[42] Ultraviolet Light, UV Rays, What is Ultraviolet, UV
Light Bulbs, Fly Trap. Pestproducts.com. Retrieved
2011-11-08.
[43] Corona The Daytime UV Inspection Magazine.
[44] Pepper Spray FAQ.
[45] Springer, E; Almog, J; Frank, A; Ziv, Z; Bergman,
P; Gui Quang, W (1994). Detection of dry bodily
uids by inherent short wavelength UV luminescence:
Preliminary results.. Forensic Sci Int 66 (2): 8994.
doi:10.1016/0379-0738(94)90332-8. Retrieved 2012-
02-14.
[46] Anja Fiedler, Mark Benecke et al. Detection of Semen
(Human and Boar) and Saliva on Fabrics by a Very High
Powered UV-/VIS-Light Source (PDF). Retrieved 2009-
12-10.
[47] Digital Photography of Documents. wells-
geneaology.org.uk.
[48] N. E. Battikha (ed), The Condensed Handbook of Mea-
surement and Control 3rd Ed. ISA 2007 ISBN 1-55617-
995-2, pp. 65-66
[49] Mervin Fingas (ed.) Oil Spill Science and Technology El-
sevier, 2011 ISBN 978-1-85617-943-0 pp. 123-124
[50] Deep UV Photoresists. Archived from the original on
2006-03-12.
[51] R. V. Lapshin, A. P. Alekhin, A. G. Kirilenko, S.
L. Odintsov, V. A. Krotkov (2010). Vacuum ul-
traviolet smoothing of nanometer-scale asperities of
poly(methyl methacrylate) surface (PDF). Journal of
Surface Investigation. X-ray, Synchrotron and Neutron
Techniques (Russia: Pleiades Publishing) 4 (1): 111.
doi:10.1134/S1027451010010015. ISSN 1027-4510.
(Russian translation is available).
[52] Scott, K.J.; Wills, R.R.H.; Patterson, B.D. (1971).
Removal by ultra-violet lamp of ethylene and other
hydrocarbons produced by bananas. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture 22 (9): 4967.
doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740220916.
[53] Scott, KJ; Wills, RBH (1973). Atmospheric pollutants
destroyed in an ultra violet scrubber.. Laboratory Prac-
tice 22 (2): 1036. PMID 4688707.
[54] Shorter, AJ; Scott, KJ (1986). Lebensm-Wiss u Technol-
ogy 19: 1769. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[55] Solar Water Disinfection. Sodis.ch. 2 April 2011. Re-
trieved 2011-11-08.
[56] Rulfsorchard.com
[57] Ebola-Zapping Robots Unleashed in Hospitals
[58] Xenex Robot
[59] Silberglied, Robert E.; Taylor, Orley R. (1978). Ultravi-
olet Reection and Its Behavioral Role in the Courtship of
the Sulfur Butteries Colias eurytheme and C. philodice
(Lepidoptera, Pieridae)". Behavioral Ecology and Socio-
biology 3 (3): 20343. doi:10.1007/bf00296311.
14 12 FURTHER READING

[60] UVB Phototherapy. National Psoriasis Foundation,

USA. Archived from the original (PHP) on 22 June 2007.
Retrieved 2007-09-23.

[61] Margulis, Lynn and Sagan, Dorion (1986). Origins of

Sex: Three Billion Years of Genetic Recombination
(BOOK). 1. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-
04619-9.

12 Further reading
Hu, S; Ma, F; Collado-Mesa, F; Kirsner, R. S. (July
2004). UV radiation, latitude, and melanoma in
US Hispanics and blacks. Arch. Dermatol. 140 (7):
819824. doi:10.1001/archderm.140.7.819. PMID
15262692.

Strauss, CEM; Funk, DJ (1991). Broadly tunable

dierence-frequency generation of VUV using two-
photon resonances in H2 and Kr. Optics Lett. 16
(15): 1192.

Hockberger, Philip E. (2002). A His-

tory of Ultraviolet Photobiology for Hu-
mans, Animals and Microorganisms (
SCHOLAR SEARCH
). Photochemisty and Photo-
biology 76 (6): 561569. doi:10.1562/0031-
8655(2002)0760561AHOUPF2.0.CO2. PMID
12511035.

Allen, Jeannie (6 September 2001). Ultraviolet Ra-

diation: How it Aects Life on Earth. Earth Obser-
vatory. NASA, USA.
 15

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text
Ultraviolet Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet?oldid=671808421 Contributors: AxelBoldt, General Wesc, Marj Tiefert,
Sodium, Lee Daniel Crocker, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, AstroNomer~enwiki, Malcolm Farmer, Dragon Dave, Ed
Poor, Andre Engels, Scipius, Fredbauder, SimonP, DrBob, Waveguy, Heron, Bth, Lir, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Gdarin, Ixfd64, Alo,
Egil, Looxix~enwiki, Mdebets, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Jimfbleak, Docu, Muriel Gottrop~enwiki, Snoyes, Kingturtle, Glenn, Pizza Puz-
zle, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Sertrel, Saltine, Nv8200pa, Mignon~enwiki, Raul654, Finlay McWalter, Twang, Donarreiskoer,
Robbot, Justo, Altenmann, Peak, DHN, Xanzzibar, Tobias Bergemann, Alan Liefting, Tosha, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42,
MPF, Wolfkeeper, BenFrantzDale, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Netoholic, Tom harrison, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Dratman, Bensac-
count, Jfdwol, AJim, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Sundar, Eequor, Bobblewik, DougEngland, StuartH, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Beland, Onco p53,
Ctachme, Khaosworks, Andux, Nek, Satori, Sam Hocevar, Urhixidur, Paniq, Willhsmit, Neale Monks, Uaxuctum~enwiki, Deglr6328,
M1ss1ontomars2k4, Valmi, Mormegil, Zowie, Freakofnurture, Noisy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Qutezuce, Pjacobi, Clawed,
Rama, Vsmith, Mani1, Bender235, Mykhal, Rubicon, ReallyNiceGuy, JoeSmack, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Dkroll2, El C, Hayabusa fu-
ture, Shanes, Dennis Brown, Triona, Femto, Bobo192, Wisdom89, Brim, ParticleMan, Giraedata, Citruswinter, Kjkolb, MPerel, Sam
Korn, Jonathunder, Lysdexia, Alansohn, The RedBurn, Atlant, Keenan Pepper, Penwhale, Geke, Andrewpmk, Plumbago, Riana, Lec-
tonar, Axl, Goldom, Nasukaren, Iris lorain, Walkerma, Malo, MattWade, Hohum, Snowolf, Velella, BRW, Wtshymanski, Suruena, Rain-
bowOfLight, TenOfAllTrades, Sciurin, Vuo, Bsadowski1, DV8 2XL, Gene Nygaard, Ringbang, Vadim Makarov, Ceyockey, Kenyon,
Jimgeorge, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Camw, LOL, Aza~enwiki, Percy Snoodle, Bratsche, Pol098, Urod, Sengkang, Tsunade, Palica,
Dysepsion, Miroku Sanna, Paustin, Pypex, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Search4Lancer, Rjwilmsi, IanMc-
Greene, Koavf, Vegaswikian, Badhotra, Miserlou, Bubba73, Ttwaring, Borborygmus, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, PatVanHove,
Splarka, Ground Zero, AED, Old Moonraker, Gary Cziko, RexNL, BjKa, AnthonyA7, Srleer, Common Man, Scythe33, CJLL Wright,
Chobot, Sharkface217, Bgwhite, Digitalme, Gwernol, Banaticus, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Ste1n, RussBot, Musicpvm,
GLari, Bergsten, SluggoOne, SpuriousQ, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Yyy, Shaddack, Wimt, FakeSinatra, Nis81, Odysses, David R. Ing-
ham, Purodha, NawlinWiki, ENeville, Wiki alf, UCaetano, Bachrach44, Phobos042, Prickus, Retired username, Dppowell, RUL3R,
TDogg310, SFC9394, Mysid, DeadEyeArrow, Cardsplayer4life, Empty2005, Kermi3, Tetracube, Tigershrike, Jkelly, Ke6jjj, Light cur-
rent, 2over0, Bayerischermann, Theda, Closedmouth, GraemeL, CWenger, HereToHelp, Allens, Markbenecke, Katieh5584, Junglecat,
Selkem, RG2, Carlosguitar, SkerHawx, Mejor Los Indios, Victor falk, SmackBot, Slashme, KnowledgeOfSelf, TestPilot, Melchoir, Rok-
faith, Jacek Kendysz, KocjoBot~enwiki, Zachariasgeorge, CMD Beaker, Delldot, Gilliam, Buck Mulligan, Jushi, Skizzik, Eug, Anwar saa-
dat, Gauravjulka, AstareGod, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TimBentley, NCurse, Pieter Kuiper, MalafayaBot, Hibernian, Nbarth, Sbharris,
William Allen Simpson, Darth Panda, Attention whore, Hgrosser, Onceler, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jamse, Njl, KaiserbBot, Snow-
manradio, RHJesusFreak40, Addshore, Celarnor, SundarBot, T-borg, Duckbill, Kneale, Richard001, A.R., Minipie8, Drphilharmonic,
Zareste, Edgeris, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Kukini, Ged UK, Ohconfucius, Cast, Zearin, Sanya, Kuru, 3Jane, J 1982, Jaganath, Aleator, JorisvS,
Mr.K., Joelo, Mgiganteus1, Redsully, Peterlewis, Joshua Scott, Dysmachus, LightYear, Loadmaster, Lady of the dead, MarkSutton,
Rkmlai, Slakr, Waggers, Spi666, Doczilla, MTSbot~enwiki, Jose77, RMHED, Dl2000, ShakingSpirit, KJS77, Martynelmy, Iridescent,
Makgraf, Majora4, Rsteif, Tawkerbot2, Chetvorno, RSido, Vaughan Pratt, Dycedarg, Iced Kola, CWY2190, ShelfSkewed, FlyingToaster,
MaxEnt, Rudjek, Phatom87, CumbiaDude, Cydebot, Abeg92, Scoeld Boy, Mike Christie, MC10, Corpx, Zroutik, Raomap, Daniel J.
Leivick, Diuoroethene, Tawkerbot4, Christian75, DumbBOT, Me2000r, Mtpaley, Omicronpersei8, Gimmetrow, Thijs!bot, Epbr123,
Kablammo, Lbartlett16, Jakestew@mail.com, Headbomb, Marek69, West Brom 4ever, John254, Zaiken, NorwegianBlue, Electron9, Jk-
lumker, Sinn, Sturm55, Mentisto, Hmrox, Ileresolu, Cyclonenim, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Seaphoto, Opelio, Jj137, Dinferno, Quarked-
charm, MECU, L0b0t, Neur0X, Rcombe, Golgofrinchian, Res2216restar, Kariteh, Sluzzelin, Serpents Choice, Plumsforsale, JAnDbot,
MER-C, Paulomatsui, Jrennie, Andonic, Sitethief, Hut 8.5, Iastah, Vultur~enwiki, PhilKnight, Kerotan, .anacondabot, Sepul^, Magioladi-
tis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AtticusX, JamesBWatson, TARBOT, Freefry, Nikevich, Shablog, WhatamIdoing, Jimjamjak, Lutzv, Irisx,
LorenzoB, P.B. Pilhet, DerHexer, Esmith512, WLU, C4dn, Robin S, Wshallwshall, NatureA16, Rickterp, S3000, Adriaan, Kornfan71,
ClubOranje, Hdt83, MartinBot, Alikaalex, BetBot~enwiki, Ghostwo, Pruthvi.Vallabh, Gigaknight, Mschel, CommonsDelinker, Nono64,
LittleOldMe old, Ash, PrestonH, LedgendGamer, Tgeairn, Watch37264, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Rlsheehan, Cyanolinguophile, Uncle Dick,
Mike Winters, Dbiel, MrBell, Eliz81, Extransit, Johnnybriggs, Slow Riot, Benscripps, Theeurocrat, ABVS1936, Acalamari, Rod57, Roy-
alhistorian, Moebitar666, Hugh Hudson, Mikael Hggstrm, Youngjim, NewEnglandYankee, DadaNeem, Cavemanlawyer15, Imnowei,
Oldnoccer, Tangmo~enwiki, Cometstyles, Sofar 2, Mike V, Natl1, Dorftrottel, P-hockberger, Squids and Chips, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot,
Chummus, Lights, VolkovBot, ABF, Kirstieg223, Almazi, MenasimBot, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, GimmeBot, Lofaolain,
Gaylord123, Moogwrench, Bigumsq, MeStevo, A4bot, Rei-bot, Anonymous Dissident, Rostislav V. Lapshin, Goldfritter, Qxz, Martin451,
Dawaegel, LeaveSleaves, PDFbot, Vgranucci, Shadowlapis, Madhero88, Dirkbb, Feudonym, Atannir, Enviroboy, Spinningspark, Brianga,
Fltnsplr, Thunderbird2, Quantpole, PGWG, StevenJohnston, ConnTorrodon, EmxBot, The Random Editor, StefanNL, SieBot, StAnselm,
Sonicology, Brookeok, WereSpielChequers, Psbsub, Zbirdman, Malcolmxl5, BotMultichill, Bilbo701, Viskonsas, Caltas, Yintan, Jingee,
Andrewjlockley, Breakyunit, Jerryobject, Bentogoa, Iames, Aillema, Toddst1, Flyer22, Jasgrider, KMcGrane, Oxymoron83, Auriuss,
KoshVorlon, Lightmouse, Tomdaartichoke, Taggard, Francisco Tevez, BenoniBot~enwiki, Fratrep, Ryang124, Gangstamike, Mygerardro-
mance, Troy 07, Muhends, WikipedianMarlith, Martarius, ClueBot, Vinaybettada, Avenged Eightfold, Darkmagic300300, The Thing That
Should Not Be, LarsendeSLO, Acarrami, IceUnshattered, Shniken1, Nebrot, Cp111, AirdishStraus, CounterVandalismBot, The 888th
Avatar, Neverquick, Puchiko, Auntof6, PMDrive1061, House13, Mspraveen, Chimesmonster, Philip1111, Excirial, Naerii, Jusdafax,
Hunt9, Erebus Morgaine, PixelBot, Tylerdmace, Boltonuv, Acer81996, Mumia-w-18, Gerriet42, Lartoven, Cenarium, Jotterbot, Sing-
halawap, M.O.X, Rodom1008, Editor510, Saebjorn, Djabbe, Danika422, Fryn, Eshouthe, Quixxplayahead, Thingg, Aitias, Burner0718,
Meske, SoxBot III, HumphreyW, GF2MX, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, DumZiBoT, Bolosphex, Willipod, Otr500, D0nj03, Fastily,
Daman1408, Imagine Reason, Rror, Nepenthes, Hipporamp, Avoided, MatrixDweller, Buddyloveskendall, Skarebo, Bluthng, Mimarx,
Alexius08, Noctibus, Vianello, ZooFari, Sunscreen4444, Thatguyint, Geepian, Addbot, Xp54321, Proofreader77, Cantaloupe2, Some
jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Fyrael, Atethnekos, Ronhjones, MartinezMD, Giants131323, SpillingBot, Download, LaaknorBot, Prankster-
Turtle, Bernstein0275, Sillybluestarr, Glane23, Chzz, 5 albert square, Ehrenkater, Dyuku, Tide rolls, Bguras puppy, Teles, Zorrobot,
CountryBot, 2parkway, Legobot, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, WikiDan61, Cm001, N3hima, Lalalalala the Great, Azylber, KamikazeBot,
Daniel 1992, Eric-Wester, D1psh17305, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, Nutriveg, Rubinbot, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Mintrick,
Kingpin13, Flewis, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Jonatp, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, PizzaofDoom, Biscotta, Franken-
puppy, Serveux, ArthurBot, Bobsmellslikeshit, Xqbot, Cinagua, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Gigemag76, Eric Yurken, DSisyphBot, Rush-
more888, Almabot, Mouagip, Karimjb, Chasdobie, Sharkboy230, Frosted14, Wizardist, SciberDoc, Brandon5485, RibotBOT, The tur-
boman, Masterguyz, Nerdseeksblonde, Dad kendle, Sheeson, Thugatron1234, Danfa1971, Kinodont, Shadowjams, Darkest tree, A. di
16 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

M., Erik9, Sesu Prime, Haploidavey, Dougofborg, Dan6hell66, FrescoBot, Avidiax, Recognizance, Haeinous, Vishnu2011, Miscelaine,
Redrose64, Pinethicket, Rameshngbot, Yahia.barie, A8UDI, SpaceFlight89, Chezz444, LoverOfTheRussianQueen, Meaghan, Immor-
talYawn, Beht, TobeBot, CarolinahurricanesEr, Aytrus, , XAtsukex, Lotje, Hpyoup, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, Dragonof-
Fire, Digitallib, Inthedryer, , Jhenderson777, PleaseStand, Derild4921, Gerardwi, Edit28, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, MeatTaco,
RjwilmsiBot, Blackandwild1344455, Midhart90, Sammy416, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Gfoley4, Dewritech, GoingBatty,
Blakedmiller, Wikipelli, Kane112, Gverez, Hhhippo, Ronk01, ZroBot, Susfele, Ida Shaw, Red wolf401, Shewlett95, H3llBot, Lawn-
daledigger, Trahana22, Erianna, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Myko0lbro, Donner60, Jcaraballo, Staticd, Nomoreliesplease, Berberisb,
ResearchRave, Petrb, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Mickeybone, Mr. Berty, Linzer57, Loginnigol, DieSwartzPunkt,
O.Koslowski, Widr, Harrihealey02, Watchmyvidsplease, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Pl09bryal, JohnSRoberts99, DBigXray, WNYY98,
ThomasGalloway, Wmjduncan, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Vagobot, Silve Slade, Tpfuller, Patrug, Zyxwv99, Onewhohelps, Treble-
Seven, ZFT, Maxellus, Kuzuryu66, Snow Blizzard, Billythelizard, Cape00330, Shisha-Tom, Bhaktigirl48, Samwalton9, AdleyEskridge,
Vizipaci, Liam987, W.D., Nm77, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, John from Idegon, Ere7, Ekren, Megascam, Kelvinsong, Redxrider, Automat-
icStrikeout, BrightStarSky, Webclient101, Mogism, Cerabot~enwiki, Saehry, Lugia2453, Frosty, 93, Reatlas, Carinameqwerty3, Rfass-
bind, Mikkimikki123, Epicgenius, Lemnaminor, Jamesmcmahon0, AmericanLemming, Broomfoot, Jakec, ElHef, MaskedHero, Cen-
soredScribe, Watermelonguy, Ginsuloft, EtymAesthete, Dough34, Mfb, OccultZone, Kzyoung, Mr D.J.Wu, JaconaFrere, Tobgreywolf,
Behgal.jai, Lagoset, Monkbot, WlfSprtd23, Scanmap, Ninjabeard99, Whirpaar1, Landswords1, Chadeyg, FourViolas, Xx--W4lker--xX,
Talkingtech, Azand222, Seashark002, Amazinfo, Supdiop, KasparBot, Bullets and Bracelets and Anonymous: 1323

13.2 Images
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Erythemal_action_spectrum.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Erythemal_action_spectrum.svg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hankwang
File:Failedrope1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/16/Failedrope1.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Fluorescent_minerals_hg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Fluorescent_minerals_hg.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hannes Grobe (Hgrobe 06:16, 26 April 2006 (UTC))
File:Germicidal_Lamp_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Germicidal_Lamp_1.jpg License: CC
BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Atlant
File:Irspec2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Irspec2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: User:Peterlewis
File:Jupiter.Aurora.HST.UV.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Jupiter.Aurora.HST.UV.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2000/38/image/a/, http://apod.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/
ap001219.html Original artist: John T. Clarke (University of Michigan), ESA, NASA
File:Ozone_altitude_UV_graph.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Ozone_altitude_UV_graph.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: [1]
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ozone_altitude_UV_graph.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Ozone altitude UV graph.jpg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Ozone_altitude_UV_graph.jpg' width='504' height='380' data-le-
width='504' data-le-height='380' /></a> Original artist: NASA
File:Pipefitter_welder_kutzo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Pipefitter_welder_kutzo.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brainass
File:RBC_Visa_UV.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/RBC_Visa_UV.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nebrot
File:Two_black_light_fluorescent_tubes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Two_black_light_
fluorescent_tubes.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chetvorno
File:Two_black_light_lamps.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Two_black_light_lamps.jpg License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chetvorno
File:UV-handlamp_hg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/UV-handlamp_hg.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hannes Grobe
File:UV-ontsmetting_laminaire-vloeikast.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/UV-ontsmetting_
laminaire-vloeikast.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:UV_LED_Fluoresence.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/UV_LED_Fluoresence.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wtshymanski
File:UV_Portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/UV_Portrait.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: Spigget
File:UV_and_Vis_Sunscreen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/UV_and_Vis_Sunscreen.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Spigget
File:UV_effect_on_finished_wood.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/UV_effect_on_finished_wood.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dennis Brown
File:Ultra-violet_screening_for_potentially_Ebola-carrying_liquids_(15811190376).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Ultra-violet_screening_for_potentially_Ebola-carrying_liquids_%2815811190376%29.jpg License: CC BY
2.0 Contributors: Ultra-violet screening for potentially Ebola-carrying liquids Original artist: DFID - UK Department for International
Development
13.3 Content license 17

File:Ultraviolet_trap_entomologist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Ultraviolet_trap_

entomologist.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bolvar R. Garcete-Barrett
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
File:_.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%
80%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B0.JPG License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Ivan Chernyenko

13.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0