CHEMICAL

MONITORING

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OBJECTIVE
State the principles of sampling and
monitoring
State the equipments that are used to
conduct sampling and monitoring
activities
Explain the strategies for sampling and
monitoring
State 3 methods of chemical analysis

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PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING
AND MONITORING
Monitoring is conducted to monitor the
pollution levels in the work environment
through measurement and sampling

Monitoring of noise, heat stress, dust etc.

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Principle of sampling & monitoring

Sampling is to collect air samples to identify

the levels of airborne pollution or that may be
inhaled by workers
To monitor the effectiveness of control
measures after installation.
Only applicable to airborne contaminants such as
dust, fume, gas and vapour

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 Sampling is also performed at sites where a hazardous
material is release or spill.
Sampling information is used
a) to formulate evacuation plans
b) To select appropriate equipments to be used & PPE
c) To alert the employee about the hazard.
d) To comply with legal requirements. (29CFR 1910.134)
e) To have baseline exposure information about hazards
at work place.

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TYPES OF HAZARDS MONITORED

Particles
Dust
Fume
Fibre
Gas
Vapour

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TYPES OF MONITORING
Area monitoring

Personal monitoring

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TYPES OF MONITORING
AREA MONITORING

Monitor hazard levels in a specific area/work

area

Monitoring equipment placed in locations

around the workplace, whether near or a
distance away from the source of
hazard. The pump is usually placed near
the source.

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TYPES OF MONITORING
PERSONAL MONITORING

Monitor the exposure level of a worker to a

specific hazard

Equipment is placed on the worker where the

sensor of sample collector is positioned close to
the route of entry of the hazard. Example: for dust
sampling, the dust sampler is positioned near the
worker breathing zone
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PERSONAL SAMPLING

Sampling equipment

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 TYPES OF SAMPLING
Equipment(Sampling approaches)
Direct reading equipment (real time
monitoring)
Immediate or rapid feedback
Integrated air sampling equipment
(sample collector sampling media
sampling pump sampling train
The lower flow rate for gases and
vapours
The high flow rate for particulates
Sample is analyzed in a laboratory
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 TYPES OF SAMPLING
EQUIPMENT
DIRECT READING EQUIPMENT

Spontaneous results on the pollution/hazard

levels

Shows current condition of current environment

Example: Draeger tube, Miran, Chassell

respirable dust monitor

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 TYPES OF SAMPLING
EQUIPMENT
INTEGRATED AIR SAMPLNG EQUIPMENT
Samples are collected to be analysed
Gives a reading of the actual worker exposure
Example: pump+silicon tube+cassette,
pump+silicon tube+coal tube, pump+silicon
tube+impinger container

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Sampling Pumps
Individual exposures
Small, light-weight (1-2 lb)
Rates from 1 cc/min to 4 l/min
Low end for gases
High end for particulates
Worn for an entire shift
Area Sampling
Bigger and heavier
Higher rates (2 15 l/min)
Fixed location for an entire work area
Sampling Particulates
Filters
Commonly used (25% of sampling methods)
Type depends on the contaminant and the method
Thin filters placed in rigid holders (cassettes) with a
support pad beneath
Open Face Sampling
Top portion of cassette is removed
When distribution across media is important (asbestos)
Closed Face Sampling
Small plug in top cassette is removed for sampling
As in metal sampling
Filter Structure
Not like a regularly-shaped screen or sieve
Maze of interconnected tunnels and pores
Passing air turns, branches, changes speed
Impaction contaminants collide with surface
Interception contaminants stick to surfaces
Electrostatic attraction electrically charged particles
stick to attracted to media
Factors: particle size, electric charge of
particle/filter, type of filter, flow rate
The capture efficiency of a filter is not limited by
the size of the pores
 Mixed Cellulose Ester Filters
MCEF a commonly used filter
Manufactured from a polymer that starts as a liquid, is spread out in
a thin layer
As it solidifies (or dries) small pores open up
Average size of openings can be controlled by the manufacturing
process
0.4 0.8 mm pore sizes
For metal fumes
Entire filter is dissolved(digested) in con. acid and analyzed for metal
content
For asbestos
A section of the filter is cut, treated with acetone vapor to make it clear, then
viewed through a microscope for fibers
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) Filters
Have good resistance to acids and bases
Do not absorb much water vapor (hydrophobic)
Used to collect dusts (e.g. silica)
Gravimetric Analysis
Placed in a dessicator and pre-weighed
After sampling, back to the dessicator and post-weighed
Mass of collected dust and sampled air volume determine
the airborne concentration
Filters can further be analyzed with x-ray diffraction
to identify forms of crystalline structure
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) Filters
Recall the three fraction ranges of dust:
Inhalable
Thoracic
Respirable
A cyclone filter can be placed on the inlet side of the
filter cassette to allow only the desirable fraction(s) to
enter
Teflon Filters
Polymer filter
Teflon (PTFE)
Polytetraflouroethylene
Like PVC filters, they are chemical-resistant and
hydrophobic
Used for aromatic hydrocarbons
Benzopyrene (given off from hot tar or asphalt)
Glass Fiber Filters
Layers of fibers arranged in a seemingly tangled
mat
Used for collecting particulates and some droplets
of contaminants, such as mercury and acid gases
Sometimes used as an upstream, pre-collection
device, so that larger particles do not reach a
second filter of another type
This allows simultaneous collection of two different
physical forms
Potential Problems Associated with
Filter Collection
Overloading
Too much particulate collection can overload the filter
and cause an error
Static Electricity
Filters pick up a charge and can cause an error in
gravimetric analysis
Moisture or physical damage
After getting wet, filters can tear or burst
Contamination with interfering substances
Contaminant material causes error in determination of
desired material
Sampling Gases and Vapors
1. Sorbent Tubes
2. Passive Samplers
3. Impingers
4. Grab Samples
Sorbent Tubes
ACTIVE VAPOUR AND GAS
SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
to pump

to pump
50 mg
arang
separator

100 mg
arang
absorbent liquid

jet

ABSORBER ADSORBER

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Passive Samplers
Collection accomplished by diffusion into a
sampling device
No pump
Passive samplers (sample badges)
Small clip-on devices worn on the collar throughout the
work shift
Then sealed in a container and sent to a lab for analysis
Some use a color change agent in presence of a specific
contaminant
Simple
PASSIVE VAPOUR AND GAS
SAMPLING EQUIPMENT

clip clip

Monitor badge Monitor tube

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Impingers
For contaminants that are nonreactive and highly
soluble in a specific solution
Impinger is a glass container with a measured volume
of the specific solution
A sample pump creates a vacuum drawing air through
the solution
Sealed and sent to lab for analysis
 Grab Samples
Integrated sample from a very brief sampling period, like a
snapshot
Useful for evaluating
compliance with a ceiling or peak limit
Screening or basic identification
Sample bags
Teflon or Tedlar bag connected to a pump
Bag is then sealed and shipped to lab for analysis
Evacuated container
Cylinder from which air has been removed and sealed
Seal is broken and contaminated air is drawn in
Container is then sealed and shipped to lab for analysis
Standard Sampling and Analysis
Methods
Sampling and analysis methods have been developed and
validated for many airborne contaminates
OSHA Reference Methods and NIOSH Manual of
Analytical Methods
Sampling media to be used
Sampling flow rate
Volume of air to be sampled
Instructions for sample preservation and handling
Detailed procedures for analysis
Standard Sampling and Analysis
Methods
Before acceptance a NIOSH method must be shown to be able
to provide a result that is within 25% of the actual
concentration, 95 times out of 100 tries
Flow rates must be calibrated
Laboratory techniques have boundaries of reliability
LOD, Limit of Detection
LOQ, Limit of Quantification
Smallest amount of contaminant that can be reliably detected and
quantified, respectively
Study the NIOSH method for sampling and analyzing
Ammonia in Table 5-2 of text
Gas and Vapor Analysis
Gases and vapors may be collected on sorbent tubes,
filters, or in solutions
A titration method adds chemical reagents until an
endpoint is reached (color change)
Intensity of the color is proportional to concentration
and measured with spectrophotometer
Gas Chromatography (GC)
Works like a still
Contains a distillation tower
Different molecules pass through at different speeds
A graph is produced
The area under the peak in the graph is
proportional to the amount of material
Graph is compared to known concentrations
 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY

injection port

recorder
transporting gas

packed column detector amplifier

attenuator
retention Time

AREA AMOUNT
copyright@NIOSH 2005 SAMPLED 21
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 METHODS OF CHEMICAL

ANALYSIS

Gravimetric
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS)
Gas Chromatography (GC)
Infra-red Spectrophotometry
Asbestos count using the Phase Contrast
microscope

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Mass Spectrometry
Mass Spec or MS
Sample is bombarded with beam of electrons, causing
ionization (charged particles, or ions)
Each ion has a specific mass
The mass to charge ratio is unique, m/e
The intensity of each m/e value is proportional to the
amount of the ion produced
The highest m/e value is assigned 100
The MS plot is like a fingerprint unique to each
compound
Mass Spectrometry:
Similar to gas
chromotography,
the output
produced by the
mass spectrometer
must be compared
against a known or
reference output to
determine the
compound that is
present. These
mass spectra are
for n-octane (A)
and 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane
(B).
Absorption Spectroscopy
Involves the amount of energy absorbed by a
compound
The wavelength where the energy is absorbed
indicates the identity of the compound
See Electromagnetic Spectrum (next slide)
Ultraviolet and Infrared Spectrometry
organics
Atomic Absorption (AA)
metals
Absorbance of energy at
specific wavelengths is a
characteristic of organic
compounds. These
patterns of absorbance
are like fingerprints, in
the sense that they allow
the specific compound to
be identified. Shown
here are the absorbance
spectra of wavelengths
in the ultraviolet region
for benzene and toluene.
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons tend
to absorb energy
in the infrared
region. Shown
here are IR spectra
for five common
industrial solvents.
Wavelengths are in
micrometers.
Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP)
Utilizes ability of electrons to absorb energy
However this technique measures the energy loss
Intensity of emissions is proportional to the amount
present
Used for metal scans
Fluorescence Spectrometry
Similar to ICP, but used for organic compounds,
especially aromatic rings
Summary of the
common methods
used to analyze
air samples in the
laboratory.
Direct-Reading Methods
Calibration, maintenance, and recordkeeping are
critical
Types
1. Combustible Gas Meters
2. Oxygen Meters
3. Photoionization Detectors
4. Flame Ionization Detectors
5. Length-of-Stain or Detector Tubes
Gas Meters
Field use, lightweight
Uses: leak detection, initial evaluation, screening
for contaminants, oxygen deficient or enriched
Multi-gas or multi-function units
Sensors
Wheatstone bridge circuit (see next slide)
Metal-Oxide semiconductor (MOS)
Detects changes in electrical conductivity

Thermal conductivity
Tests the ability of tested air to conduct heat
Direct-Reading, Multi-Function Gas Meter
LEL, LFL, UEL, UFL
Word of Caution:
The presence of a
combustible gas just above
the UEL is potentially worse
than a concentration
approaching the LEL. This is
because a little dilution of
the mixture will push the
concentration into the
combustible range. Any
reading above the UEL
should be considered
potentially very hazardous!
Other Cautions on Combustible
Gas Meters
Sensors have a limited life
Follow mfg specs and change on schedule
Sensors can be contaminated by interfering
compounds
Heated filament or flame devices can present a risk
of igniting an explosive or combustible
atmosphere
Flashback arrestor
Electronic components can also present an
ignition source
Photoionization Detectors
PIDs
Utilizes light energy from a tiny UV lamp
The energy is absorbed by the contaminant
molecules
Detects organic vapors such as alcohols, ketones,
ethers
But, detection is non-specific
Useful for screening purposes
Flame Ionization Detectors
FIDs
Utilizes energy from a heat source hydrogen
flame
Energy is absorbed by the contaminant molecules
Useful in detection of hydrocarbons and most
organic compounds
Also non-specific, but useful for screening
unknown atmospheres
Detector Tubes
Also known as Length-of-Stain tubes
Similar to an oversized sorbent tube
Sealed at both ends
Contains a solid sorbent coated with a reagent that
reacts with a contaminant and causes a color
change
Marked with graduations along the length
Length of stain indicates the concentration
Snap off both ends and attach to a pump
Useful for screening and leak detection
Blanks
Field blank : it consists of sample media that are
exposed to the same condition as the actual sampling
media, but not connected to the pump.
Laboratory blank : samples media that are not
sampled on , but are prepared and analysis by the
laboratory.
Samples with blank analysis are called blank corrected
is a quality control step.

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Sources of error in field sampling
Using inappropriate sampling media
The direct reading instrument used is outside its
limitations /applications
Using the incorrect flow rates
The instruments is not calibrated.
Overloading the sample collector
Errors in calculation
Sampling in the presence of interfering compounds
Failure to follow special handling procedures
Wrong location
Neglecting to keep accurate records
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Sources of error in laboratory
Improper storage/handling of samples before analysis
Exceed the max time limits
Use of incorrect analytical techniques
Failure to prepared the samples for analysis
Contamination od samples
Mixing of samples
Loss of samples

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Limits of air sampling
Age and gender
Health status/level of fitness
Nature of job
Breathing rate
Pre-exiting health conditions, medications, allergies
Concurrent exposures, including hobbies and non
occupational sources.

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Requirement for Chemical
Monitoring
Factories and Machinery (Lead) Regulations 1984
Factories and Machine (Asbestos Process) Regulations
1986
Factories and Machinery (Mineral Dust) Regulations
19849
Occupational Safety and Health (Use and Standard of
Exposure of Chemicals