In English there are two basic classes of words they belong to;

1. Open Class

2. Closed-Class

Open class words are called content words and they are stressed words. Some word classes
are open, that is, new words can be added to the class as the need arises. The class of nouns, for instance,
is potentially infinite, since it is continually being expanded as new scientific discoveries are made, new
products are developed, and new ideas are explored. In the late twentieth century, for example,
developments in computer technology have given rise to many new nouns:
Internet, website, URL, CD-ROM, email, newsgroup, bitmap, modem, multimedia,etc.
New verbs have also been introduced:
download, upload, reboot, right-click, double-click, etc.
The adjective and adverb classes can also be expanded by the addition of new words, though less
prolifically.
Closed-classwords are called function or grammatical words and they are unstressed words. We
never invent new prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions. These classes include words like of, the,
and but. They are called closedword classes because they are made up of finite sets of words which are
never expanded (though their members may change their spelling, for example, over long periods of time).
The subclass of pronouns, within the open noun class, is also closed.
Words in an open class are known as open-class items. Words in a closed class are known
as closed-class items.

Open Class:

1. Nouns
2. Verbs
3. Adjectives
4. Adverbs

Closed-class:

1. Pronouns
2. Auxiliary Verbs
3. Modal Verbs
4. Prepositions
5. Conjunctions
6. Interjections
7. Determiners
8. Quantifiers
9. Articles, etc.

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Noun
A noun is the part of speech that is used to name a person, place, thing, quality, or action. A noun can function as
a subject, object, complement, appositive, or object of a preposition.
There are two basic types of a noun- concrete noun and abstract noun.
1. Concrete Noun:
The nouns that can be experienced through five senses: sight, touch, hearing, taste, and smell, are called concrete
nouns.
Examples: Sajjad, chair, boy, woman, city, flower, milk, Pakistan etc.
Concrete nouns are further divided into different sub-types:
i. Proper Noun: The name of a particular thing, person and place is called proper noun. Proper noun is always written
with a capital letter at the beginning of the word.
Examples: Pakistan, Hafizabad, Kiran, Indus River, Sajjad etc.
ii. Common noun: The name of a common person, thing and place is called a common noun.
Examples: country, city, girl, river, boy, chair etc.
iii. Collective noun: Collective noun is a name of number or collection of person, thing and animal taken together and
spoken as a whole.
Examples: class, army, police, family, community, herd, flock, bouquet etc.
iv. Material noun: Material noun is the name of materials or substances out of which things are made.
Examples: wood, iron, gold, silver, glass, plastic etc.
2. Abstract Noun:
Abstract nouns refer to feelings, ideals, concepts, qualities etc. Abstract nouns are intangible and cannot be
touched or seen.
Examples: Qualities: beauty, bravery, brutality, compassion, curiosity, fear, ego, honest, wisdom etc.
Feelings: anger, anxiety, despair, excitement, joy, love, power, sadness, worry etc.
Some other types of nouns are:
i. Compound Nouns: A compound noun contains two or more words which join together to make a single noun.
Examples: softball (soft + ball), toothpaste (tooth + paste), daughter-in-law etc.
ii. Countable Nouns: Countable nouns are for things we can count using numbers. They have a singular and a plural
form.
Examples: Singular: man, city, dog, apple, lady etc
Plural: men, cities, dogs, ladies etc.
iii. Uncountable Nouns: Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count with numbers. Uncountable nouns
are used with a singular verb and they usually do not have a plural form.
Examples: tea, sugar, water, safety, love, beauty, air etc.
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Pronoun
A word or a phrase that/which is used instead of a noun or noun phrase is called a pronoun. A pronoun can do all
the things that a noun does. It can be a subject, a direct object, an indirect object,anobject of the preposition, and more.
Example: I, you, they, that, nobody, all, none etc.
Pronouns can be divided almost into 9 types.
1.Personal Pronouns:
Personal pronouns are mostly used to replace noun representing persons.
I, you, he, she, it, we, they etc.
Examples:
i. He is our senior teacher.
ii. She couldnt help laughing.
iii. We have got 12 members in group B.
2. Relative Pronouns:
A relative pronoun is used to connect a relative clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun. Relative pronouns mark
adjective clauses. Adjective clause usually starts with a relative pronoun.
who, which, whom, whoever, that, which, whose etc.
Examples:
i. I like the nickname which you gave me.
ii. Sajjad is my best friend who often teaches me.
iii. Hamza is a doctor whose clinic is in Lahore.

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3. Demonstrative Pronouns:
A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to point to something specific within a sentence. These
pronouns are used to demonstrate or indicate things in space or time.
Near in time or space: this, these
Far in time or space: that, those
Examples:
i. These are my pencils.
ii. That is your book.
iii. It was my brother who topped the class.
4. Indefinite Pronouns:
Indefinite pronouns are used for non-specific things. We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things
without saying exactly who or what they are. We use pronouns ending in body or one for people and pronouns ending
in thingsfor things.
somebody, anybody, everybody, anyone, someone, no one, everyone, anything, something, nothing everything etc.
Examples:
i. Everybody enjoyed the party.
ii. My cell phone has been stolen by somebody.
iii. Everything is ready for the party.
5. Interrogative Pronouns:
These pronouns are used to ask questions.
who, what, which, where, how etc.
Examples:
i. Who is at the door?
ii. What makes me cry is something secret.
iii. Whom do you prefer to vote for?

5. Possessive Pronouns/ Absolute Pronouns:

Possessive pronouns are used to attribute ownership to someone or something.
mine, yours, ours, theirs, its, hers, his etc.
Examples:
i. This house is mine.
ii. That bike is his.

6. Reciprocal Pronouns:
A reciprocal pronoun expresses a mutual action or relationship. This pronoun is used to indicate that two or more
people are carrying out or have carried out an action of some type, with both receiving the benefits of that action
simultaneously.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns in English- each other and one another.
Examples:
i. They like one another.
ii. They are talking to each other.

7. Reflexive Pronouns:
Reflexive pronouns are pronouns that refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause. They end in self or
-selves.
myself, itself, himself, yourself, themselves, ourselves etc.
Examples:
i. She accidently cut herself.
ii. Allah helps those who help themselves.
iii. I have prepared/compiled these notes myself.

8. Intensive/Emphatic Pronouns:
An intensive/emphatic pronoun places emphasis on its antecedent by referring back to another noun or pronoun
used earlier in the sentence. When reflexive pronouns are used to put emphasis on a particular noun they are called
emphatic/intensive pronouns.
myself, itself, himself, yourself, themselves, ourselves etc.
Examples:
i. He himself cut the cake.
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ii. Imran himself admitted his mistake.
iii. Zara finished the job herself.
Note: Intensive pronouns cannot be used as subjects. There is a miner difference between reflexive pronouns and
intensive pronouns.
A pronoun is a reflexive one if the action of the subject reflects upon the doer while emphatic pronouns just emphasize
the action of the subject.
She burnsherself. (Reflexive: here the subject and object refers to the same person.)
She herself burns the paper. (Intensive: here the subject and object are not the same and herself merely puts emphasis on
the noun she.)
We can remove emphatic pronoun from the sentence and its meaning will not be changed while reflexive
pronoun cannot be removed.

9. Distributive Pronouns:
A distributive pronoun considers members of a group separately, rather than collectively. They are used to
indicate particular person or things.
each, either, neither, everyone, any, none, all etc.
Examples:
i. Each of the girls deserved a gift.
ii. Neither of them was present.
iii. All are absent.
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Verb
An action or doing work is called verb. A verb can express a physical action, a mental action, or a state of being.
A verb can be divided into different types according to syntax, morphology, and semantics.

1. Syntactically
Verbs can be divided according to the job they do in a sentence. It is called syntactically division.
Syntactically verbs are divided into two types.
1. Finite Verbs
These verbs change according to tenses, subject, and persons (pronouns).
i. Sana goes to university.
ii. Sana went to university.
iii. Sana has gone to university.
Finite verbs are further divided into six types.

a). Transitive Verbs:

These verbs need/require object to perform their action.
i. He met her yesterday.
Ii.Rust destroys iron.
It often answer the question whom? What? Etc.

b). Intransitive Verbs:

A verb which does not take an object is called an intransitive verb.
i. She laughs.
ii. We walked to the railway station.
iii. Sajjadruns fast.

c). Ditransitive Verbs:

The verbs which take a direct and and indirect object are known as ditransitive verbs.
i. Zia gave a pencil to Saeed.
ii. Shazias husband bought some flowers for her.
Some common ditransitive verbs are:
bring, buy, catch, give, pass, trade etc.

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d). Ambitransitive Verbs:
Ambitransitive verbs are verbs that/which may be either transitive/ditransitive orintransitive depending on
context.
Some common ambitransitive verbs are:
break, drink, open, pay, read, sink,etc.
i. The little boy broke the lamp. (Transitive)
ii. My oven broke yesterday. (Intransitive)

e). Linking/Copula/State-of-being Verbs:

Linking verbs are verbs that/which link the subject complement in the predicate to the grammatical subject.
Some common linking/copula verbs are:
be, become, feel, seem, smell, taste, etc.
i. Farooq is a teacher.
ii. Sajjad appeared ill yesterday.
iii. That apple smells delicious.
f). Helping Verbs:
Auxiliary verbs or helping verbs are the verbs that help main verbs in verb phrase. These verbs give more detail
to main verbs that how time is portrayed in sentence or clause.
There are two types of auxiliary verbs;
Primary Auxiliaries
Modal verbs

Primary Auxiliaries:
These helping verbs are further divided into three types;
i. Be:
These verbs show the state of being or the state of existing. They are a bit deceiving as they are more than one word/verb
be.
is, are, am, was, were, been, being, and be.
Examples:
I am watching a movie.
They were dancing in the evening.
ii. Have:
The verb have is used to make perfect tense.
has, have, had.
Examples:
i. I have completed my word.
ii. She had already watched that movie.
iii. Do:
These verbs are used to ask question or make negative sentences in present indefinite tense (simple present
tense).
do, does, did, done.
i. Do you have a pen? (asking question)
ii. She did not called me. (negative)
iii. Modal Verbs:
Modal helping verbs help modify the main verb so that is changes the meaning somewhat. They help express
possibility or necessity.
can, may, might, could, should, would, must, etc.
Examples:
i. I can drive a car.
ii. You should obey your parents.
iii. Sajjadmight top the class.
2. Non-finite Verbs:
A non-finite verbalso known as verbalis the term used to describe a verb that is not showing tense. A non-
finite verb is a form of verb that does not have a subject an does not exhibit tense and number in an independent clause or
sentence.
Types of non-finite verbs are:

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a). Gerunds:
The gerund does the work of a noun in a sentence. It can be the subject, object or object of a preposition.
i. Smoking is injurious to health.
ii. Hamza enjoy learning a new language.
iii. She is interested in joining our group.

b). Participles:
There are three types of participles in English present participle, past participle and perfect particples.
Present Participle:
The present participle is often used when we want to express an active action. In English we add -ing to the
infinitive of the verb.
i. The sun was shiningso Arsalan went for a walk. (progressive tense)
ii. The man speaking English is our teacher. (adjective)
iii. Zia has got intoxicating eyes. (adjective)
Past Participle:
Third form of the verb is called past participle. It is often used to show some passive action.
i. Farooq has forgottonabout the pencil. (perfect tense)
ii. A house is built. (passive voice)
iii. Saeed is looking at the washed car. (Adjective)
Perfect Participle:
The perfect participle indicates completed action. There is a time gap between the actions.We use present
participle before the past participle.
i. Having finished exercise the boy went out of the gym.
ii. Having eatenmeal she washed the plates.
c). Infinitives:
Infinitive is the basic form of verb that is often used as noun.Infinitives are divided into two types;
i. With to
Most infinitives have to before the first or basic form of the verb; to come, to go, to sleep, to speak, etc.
i. Murtaza wants to marry her.
ii. To dance is her passion.
ii. Bare infinitive:
Bare infinitives are the basic form of verb without preposition to. Bare infinitives are mostly used with some
certain verbs such as causative verbs (make, have, let, etc.) and others.
i. I have cobbler mend my shoes.
ii. Let Zia come here.
2. Morphologically:
1. Regular Verbs:
Tense verbs that form their past and past participle forms with d, ied or ed are regular verbs.
Present Form Past Form Past Participle Form
Ask Asked Asked
Call Called Called
Share Shared Shared

2. Irregular Verbs:
The verbs that undergo substantial changes when changing forms between tenses are called irregular verbs.
Present Form Past Form Past Participle Form
Go Went Gone
Run Ran Run
Think Thought Thought

3. Phrasal Verbs:
Phrasal verbs are usually two-word phrases consisting of verbs + adverb or verb + preposition.
ask out, ask around, blow up, break downetc.

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4. Compound Verbs:
A compound verb is a verb that is made up of multiple words. The compound verb can include:
A prepositional phrase e.g. ask for, believe in etc.
A phrasal verb e.g. tear up, take away etc.
With auxiliaries e.g. was swimming, has gone etc.
Single-word verbs e.g. colour-code, water-proof etc

3. Semantically:

1. Action Words/Verbs:
An action verb is a verb that expresses physical or mental action. The action verb tells us what the subject of our
clause or sentence is doing physically or mentally.
To find an action verb:
Find the word in the word in the sentence that is something or someone can do.
i. Zia walkedto university.
ii. Sajjadthought about keeping notes secret.

2. Being:
Being verbs are words which show a state of being: am, is, are, was, were etc.
i. I am a teacher.
ii. Murtazais a cop.
iii. We were at university yesterday.

3. Having:
Having verbs are words which show if someone has or had somethimg.
i. I have a Samsung phone.
ii. She had a car.

Stative verbs:
Stative verbs usually refer to a state or condition which is quite static or unchanging. They can be divided into
verbs of perception or cognition (which refer to things in mind) or verbs of relation(which describe the relationships
between things). They cannot be used as progressive -ing state.
Some common stative verbs are:
hate, believe, contain, own, love, like, see, miss, hear, sound think, mind, recognize, seem, prefer, doubt, consist of,
mean etc.
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Adjective:
Adjectives are the words that describe, clarify or modify nouns or pronouns.Adjectives describe nouns or
pronouns by giving some information about objects size, shape, age, colour, origin, material etc.
Examples:
Its a big table. (size)
Its a squire room. (shape)
Sajjad is an old man. (age)
She has got black hair. (colour)
Its anIranian rug. (origin)
I have a plastic table. (material)
Kiran is a lovely girl. (opinion)

Kinds of Adective
Adjectives have some certain kinds.
1. Attributive and Predicative Adjectives:
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 Most adjectives can be used in two positions. When they are used before the noun they describe, they are
called attributive adjectives. Attributive adjectives talk about specific traits, qualities, or features.Predicative adjectives
are used after a verb such as be, become, grow, look, or see. A predicate adjective is an adjective that follows a linking
verb and modifies (i.e., refers back to) the subject of the linking verb.
Attributive Adjectives:
i. Sana wears black coat.
ii. I dont like slow journey.
iii. Farooq has bought a large pizza.
Predicative Adjectives:
i. Her hair was black.
ii. The future looks gloomy.
iii. The journey seemed slow.
2. Gradable Adjectives and non-gradable Adjectives:
Most adjectives are gradable. This means that their meaning can be modified (made stronger, weaker, or
otherwise altered) by placing one or more adverbs in front of them. Non-gradable adjectives are those with meanings
which cannot be modified by adverbs.
Gradable Adjectives:
i. I have an expensive mobile phone.
I have a veryexpensive mobile phone.
ii. Arsalan ate a large pizza.
Arsalan ate a fairlylarge pizza.
Non-gradable Adjectives:
i. Zara bought an Iranian rug. (Here, you cannot say that a very Iranian.)
ii. Mobile phone is an electronic device. (you cannot add adverb to modify electronic.)
3. Qualitative Adjectives and Classifying Adjectives:
Qualitative adjectives describe the qualities of a person or thing whether they are large or small, happy or sad, etc. This
type of adjective is gradable.Classifying adjectives place people and things into categories or classes.
Qualitative Adjectives:
i. Yesterday, I saw a very tall man in Jhang Bazar.
ii. Raees is a very interesting film.
Classifying Adjectives:
i. Dawn is a daily newspaper.
ii. Akhbar-e-Jahan is a weekly newspaper.
Types of Adjective
Adjectives are divided into different types as given below:
1. Descriptive Adjectives:
The descriptive adjectives can be simply defined as the type of adjectives that are used to express the size, color,
or shape of a person, a thing, an animal, or a place. They are used to provide more information to a nounor pronoun by
describing or modifying it. To find out these adjectives, ask Which one?or more appropriately, What does it look like?in
reference to a noun or pronoun.
i. She brushed her black hair. (What does her hair look like? Black, so black is a descriptive adjective.)
ii. Sir Mudassar is a witty teacher. (What does sir look like? Witty)
iii. I am tired.
2. Demonstrative Adjectives:
Demonstrative adjectives point out pronouns and nouns, and always come before the words they are referring
to.
This, that, former, latter, these, those are the demonstrative adjectives.
i. I have prepared these notes.
ii. Our former boss was a good person.
iii. Those books are mine.
3. Possessive Adjectives:
A possessive adjective is an adjective that is used to show ownership. It comes before a noun in the sentence and
lets us know to whom the noun belongs.
My, his, her, your, their, its, our etc. are called possessive adjectives.
i. Murtaza often forgetshis purse.
ii. Rida lost her book.

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iii. I have already taken my share.
4. Adjectives of Number/Quantity:
Adjective which states the number of persons or things is called the Adjective of Number or Numeral Adjective.
This kind of adjective answers the question, how many?orhow much?
i. Ten students are failed. (how many students are failed? Tenstudents.)
ii. He needs more food. (how much food does he need? More food.)
5. Interrogative Adjectives:
Interrogative adjectives ask questions and are always followed by a noun.These adjectives are similar to
interrogative pronouns, but they cant stand on their own. In other words, they serve to modify another term, specifically
a noun. The words which and what are the two interrogative adjectives and are used in interrogative sentences to modify
nouns found in the question.
i. What movie are you watching?
ii. Whichcolour do you like?
6.Indefinite Adjectives:
An indefinite adjective is an adjective formed from an indefinite pronoun.These adjectives are used to describe a
noun in a non-specific sense.
The most common indefinite adjectives are any, each, few, many, much, most, several, and some.
i. I have studied many books.
ii. Each topic is supervised by seniors.
iii. Zia wants to eat some mangoes.
7.Distributive Adjectives:
An Adjective used to refer to each and every person / thing separately is called Distributive Adjective.
Each, Every, either, neither, any, one, both etc. are some distributive adjectives.
i. I gave one chocolate to each boy.
ii. Neither of them came here.
iii. Every nation is proud of its culture.
Order of Adjectives:
There are certain rules regarding the placement of different kinds of adjectives in a sentence. The general order
followed is:
1. Determiners These are the various articles (the, a, an), demonstratives (this, that, these, those), possessives (my,
your, her etc.), quantifiers (all, many etc.), numerals (one, twenty, thirty-seven etc.) and distributives (each, every, neither,
either etc.)
2. Observations/Quantity and Opinion - Then come the adjectives that give a quantity (also known as post-determiners)
and subjective opinion to the noun, telling how much and how was the noun.
Few, Most, One, Three, Beautiful, Ugly, Difficult etc.
3. Size - The position after Observations is for the adjectives that tell about the size of the noun, they can be used for an
object as well as living thing.
Huge, Little, Bulky, Thin, Vast, Tiny, Lean etc.
4. Age -Then is the turn of the Adjectives that tell about the age of a noun either by itself or in relation to another noun.
Young, Old, Teenage, Mature, Recent, Bygone etc.
5. Shape - Next are the adjectives that tell about the shape or appearance of the noun.
Circular, Crooked, Triangular, Oval, Wavy, Straights etc.
6. Colour - After that are the adjectives that tell the shade and hue of a noun.
Pastel, Red, Blue, Metallic, Colourless, Translucent etc.
7. Origin - Next are the adjectives that show the different geographical locations associated with a noun.
Southern, Northern, Lunar, Mexican, Pakistani etc.
8. Material - Next are the adjectives that talk about the raw material or texture of the objects or the behaviour of the living
nouns.
Wooden, Plastic, Steely, Metallic, Cottony etc.
9. Qualifier Lastly, the qualifier or the grammatical modifier comes, which is an additional word or phrase provided to
change the meaning of the noun in a sentence.
Pink + eye, Royal + treatment, Hot + fudge etc.
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Adverb:
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 A word or a group of words that modifies the meaning of verb, adjective or another adverb is called anadverb. It
describes or gives more information about verb, adjective or another adverb.
It is one of the parts of speech which tells us how, where, when, in what manner, and to what extent an action is
performed in the sentence.

Types of Adverb
Adverbs are divided into different types which are given below:
1. Adverb of Time:
Adverb of time is an adverb which tells us about time of happenings or time of something is done in the sentence.
Adverbs of time are used in the beginning (as a form of emphasis) or end of the sentence.
Adverbs of time are like already, afterwards, immediately, always, last month, soon, then, now, and yesterday etc.
i. He came here yesterday.(When?)
Yesterday, he came here. (Adverb of time can be mobilized)
ii. I am preparing notes now.
2. Adverb of Place:
Adverb of place is an adverb which tells us about the place where something is done or happens in the sentence. It
is used generally after the verb, object or end of the sentence.
Some common adverb of place are:
here, above, inside, outside, there, over there, under, upstairs, etc.
i. Yesterday, he came here. (Where did he come? He came here)
ii. I saw a cat upstairs.
3. Adverb of Manner:
Adverb of manner is an adverb which tells us about manner of how something is done or happens in the sentence.
Such type of adverbs are generally end with 'ly'.
Angrily, slowly, sadly, happily, fast, hard, etc. are some common adverbs of manner.
i. Riffat drove the car slowly. (How did Riffat drive the car? She drive the car slowly)
ii. Saeed runs fast. (How does Saeed run? He runs fast)
4. Adverb of Degree or Quantity:
Adverb of degree or quantity is an adverb which tells us about the level, intensity or extent of something is done
or happens in the sentence. It is used before the adjective or adverb.
Adverbs of degree or quantity are like almost, nearly, quite, much, really, too, very, so, etc.
i. It was too difficult for me to prepare these notes.
ii. The water was extremely cold.
iii. Youre running fast enough. (In some cases, these adverbs come after adjective or adverbs they modify.)
5. Adverb of Frequency:
Adverb of frequency is an adverb which tells us how often something is done or happens in the sentence.
Following are some adverbs of frequency:
Frequently, generally, ever, hardly, nearly, always, occasionally, often, rarely, never, seldom, twice, usually,
sometimes,weekly, etc.
i. I always go to bed before 12pm.
ii. Theyoccasionally visit Lahore.
iii. Amjadnormally forgets his purse in car.
6. Adverb of Affirmation and Negation:
Adverb of affirmation and negation is an adverb which confirms or denies the action of verb in the sentence. It is
also used to reinforce the action of verb.
Adverb of Affirmation: definitely, surely, absolutely, yes, etc.
Adverb of Negation: no, cant, dont, never, etc.
i. Sajjad will certainly top the class.
ii. I cant leave you.
7. Adverb of Probability:
We use adverbs of probability to show how certain we are about something (when it is done). The most frequent
adverbs of probability are:
Certainly, definitely, maybe, possibly, clearly, obviously, perhaps, probably, etc.
i. Perhaps Sir TallatQamar comes today.
ii. I will possibly go to Saudi Arabia next year.

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8. Adverb of Reason:
Adverb of reason is used to express the reason for, answer the question or purpose of an action in the sentence.
Hence, further, henceforth, so, hereafter, therefore, onwards, though, thence, in addition, yet, etc.
i. I therefore left her alone.
ii. He is hence unable to refuse the charge.
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Preposition:
Prepositions are words that show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word or element
in the rest of the sentence. A preposition precedes a noun or a pronoun to show the nouns or pronouns relation to
another word in the sentence or clause. The word preposition comes from the idea of being positioned before.
The word or group of words that follows a preposition is called the objectof the preposition. If theres a
preposition, therell always be an object of the preposition. Preposition cannot exist by itself.
Examples:
i. The pen is on the table.
ii. Shes sitting under the tree
iii. I am standing in front of your house.
Types of Prepositions
Prepositions are divided into five major types.
1. Simple Prepositions:
Simple prepositions are used in simple sentences.These prepositions are translated from Spanish Prepositions.
in, on, at, over, off, of, to, for, etc.
i. Zara sat on the sofa.
ii. Arsalanfell offthe ladder.
2. Compound Prepositions:
Compound prepositions are those prepositions which are formed by prefixing the preposition to a noun, an
adjective or an adverb.Compound prepositions are used to join two connect nouns, pronouns and phrases.
above, about, along, among, against, around, between, behind, beyond, outside, within, inside, without,
across, beside, besides, since, through, towards, etc.
i. He was driving the car above the speed limit.
ii. Murtaza asked me about my phone.
3. Double Prepositions:
Double preposition is a preposition that is made by combining two simple prepositions.
out + of = out of, from + behind = from behind, etc.
4. Phrasal Prepositions:
Prepositional phrases are groups of words having prepositions indicating relationships among various
elements in the sentence.
according to, due to, by means of, in front of, with reference to, etc.
i. He is standing in front of my house.
ii. She could not come to university due to illness.
5. Participle Prepositions:
A participle preposition is a participle (like an, ed, or ing verb) which acts as a preposition.
assuming, considering, barring, given, concerning, notwithstanding, pending, during, regarding, respected,
provided,etc.
i. I visit Murreeduring holidays.
ii. My tasks are still pending.
There are some other types of prepositions:
Prepositions of Time:
These prepositions are used to show the relationship of time between nouns or pronouns.
1. At
At is used for precise time. Its used for a part of the day, time of day, celebrations, and fixed phrases.
i. I sleep at night. (part of the day)
ii. We usually meet at Eids. (celebration)
2. In
In is used for months, years, seasons, part of the days, and durations.
i. Our exams are in April. (month)
ii. He received a bullet injury and died in a second. (duration)
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3. On
On is used for days of week, date, special holidays, and a special part of the day.
i. Sana meets Zara on Sunday. (day of week)
ii. I met MohsinNaqvion the morning of July the 7th. (special part of the day)

Prepositions of Place:
These prepositions are used to show that where something or someone is located.
1. At
At is used to show a specific point or the exact location. Its often used for small cities or towns or where we work.
i. I am a lecturer at City of Knowledge.
ii. The book is placed at the end of the corner.
2. In
Inis used for larger cities or wider places(cities, countries, continents etc.)
i. I live in Pakistan.
ii. Hamza is in Lahore at this time.
3. On
On is used to name the streets and roads, avenues etc.
i. She lives on Ravi Road.
ii. They are on Jinnah Avenue.
while, during, near, over, under, between, behind, etc. are also prepositions are place which are used to tell where is
something or someone located.
i. Sajjad is sitting behind me.
ii. I have built my house over there.
Prepositions of Movement:
These prepositions are used to show where something or someone is moved. It may also be called preposition of
direction.
to, toward/towards, into, over, etc.
i. She is going to school.
ii. Saeed ran towards the bus.
Note: We dont use any preposition withhome, downstairs, upstairs, downtown, etc.
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Conjunction:
A conjunction is a joiner. Conjunctions join words, phrases, clauses and sentences.Conjunctions make our writing
beautiful. It connects different ideas together.
There are several types of conjunctions as given below.
1. Coordinating Conjunctions:
These conjunctions are used to join or connect words, phrases, clauses or sentences having/containing equal
grammatical status or rank.These conjunctions are used to make compound subjects, compound predicates, compound
sentences and compound and complex sentences, etc.
An easy way to remember/memorize coordinating conjunctions is to memorize this formula FAN BOYS.
F= for
A= and, also
N= neither, nor
B= but
O= only, or
Y= yet
Examples:
i. SajjadandMurtaza are very intelligent students.
ii. She is very fatty, yet she eats a lot.
iii. Zara plucked the flowers and sold them in the bazar.
iv. It was raining heavily, so we couldnt go outside.
v. Misbah played a vital innings, but his team couldnt crossthe line.

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 There are two school of thoughts according to the rule of putting comma (,) before a coordinating conjunction.
Some grammarian put comma (,) before using coordinating conjunction every time while others usually dont use.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions:
A subordinating conjunction is also called a subordinator or dependent.These conjunctions come at the
start/beginning of a dependent clause to show its relationship with the rest of the sentence or independent clause. It turns
the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence to show or convey its complete meanings and sense.
if, although that, though, because, since, after, till, until, than, as, when, whenever, etc.
Examples:
i. If he works hard, he will pass the examination.
ii. He donated a big amount to the charity fund although he is a poor.
iii. Farooq came back to home asit was raining.
iv. Pakistan could not win the World Cup because our management is such a bullshit.
v. Sincehe has got long stature, she got married with him.

3. Correlative Conjunctions:
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They always
travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal. They always come with
pair.
Some correlative conjunctions are:
both---- and, not only------- but also, neither------ nor, both----- and, as------ as, not----- but, either----- or, etc.
i. Both------ And
BothMahnoorand Aqsa are intelligent.
ii. Not Only------- But Also
Misbah lead his team not onlyin ODIs but alsoin Tests.
iii. Neither------- Nor
Neither Zia norSaeed came yesterday.
iv. Whether----- Or
Whetheryou win or lose, dont lose your hope.
4. Conjunctive Adverbs:
The conjunctive adverbsare used to create complex relationships between ideas.These adverbs always connect one
clause to another, and are used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships.
however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result, etc.
i. He ran fast as a result he wins the race.
ii. Salma didnt study well consequently she failed.
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Interjection:
Interjections show emotions of the speaker. Interjections dont relate any word to other and dont help reader to
understand the relationship between phrases, clauses and sentences, etc. according to many grammarians, interjections are not
much important.
Most are designed to express strong emotions, such as love, hate, surprise, happiness, anger, enthusiasm,
disgust, boredom, confusion or unhappiness.
aha, oh, oho, uff,ouch, alas, what, how, oops, goodness, gosh, hurrah,etc.
Usually we use sign of exclamation (!) after the interjection, however, some grammarian dont use it after interjection
but at the end of the sentence or clause.
Conjunctions can be placed at the start of a sentence, in the middle of the sentence or can also stand alone as a full
sentence.
i. Aha! We have won the match.
ii. Alas! Her father is dead.
iii. What a beautiful scene it is!
iv. It is so exciting, my goodness, I cant believe it.
v. He is carrying milk, oops, he dropped it.
vi. Oh my goodness!
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Article:
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 An article is a word used to modify a noun.Technically, an article is an adjective, which is any word that modifies a
noun. There are two different types of articles that we use in writing and conversation to point out or refer to a noun or group
of nouns: definite and indefinite articles.
1. Definite Article:
The word the is the only definite article.The definite article is used to refer to a particular member of a group or
class. It may be something that the speaker has already mentioned or it may be something uniquely specified.
We use the definite article in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/reader knows exactly what we are
referring to.
The article the is called the definite article because it points out a particular person or thing.
We use definite article:
because we have already mentioned it:
A player played a good innings. The player scored a century.
To say something about all the things referred to by a noun:
The dog is a faithful animal.
The lion is a very dangerous animal.
We should help the poor.
To refer to a system or service:
You should get on the bus carefully.
The radio is invented by Marconi.
He told the police about the robbery.
With adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk about groups of people:
The poor should be helped by the rich.
Imran Khan wants to help the disabled through his hospitals.

We usually do not use articles with names but we use definite article with:
Countries whose names include words like kingdom, states or republic:
theUnited Kingdom; the Kingdom of Nepal; the United States; the Peoples Republic of China.
Countries which have plural nouns as their names:
the Netherlands; the Philippines
Geographical features, such as mountain ranges, groups of islands, rivers, seas, oceans and canals:
the Himalayas; the Canaries; the Atlantic; the Atlantic Ocean; the Amazon; the Panama Canal.
Newspapers:
The Times; The Washington Post; The Dawn; The News.
Well known buildings or works of art:
the Empire State Building; theTajMahal; the Mona Lisa; the Sunflowers
Organisations:
the United Nations; the Seamens Union
Hotels, pubs and restaurants*:
the Ritz; the Ritz Hotel; the Kings Head; the Wings.
*Note: We do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name of the owner.
Families:
the Obamas; the Jacksons; the Khichis; the Hanjras; theSyeds.
2. Indefinite Article:
Indefinite articles are the words a andan. Each of these articles is used to refer to a noun, but the noun being
referred to is not a specific person, place, object, or idea. It can be any noun from a group of nouns.
Indefinite article a is placed before a consonant sound while an is placed before a vowel sound.
apen, a boy, a country,aEuropean, etc.
anumbrella, anideal, an industry, an MA English, etc.
We use the indefinite article, a/an, with count nouns when the hearer/reader does not know exactly which
one we are referring to:
He saw a boy in the street.
We also use it to show the person or thing is one of a group:
She is a pupil at London Road School.
I have an umbrella.
We use a/an to say what someone is or what job they do:
Hamza is a doctor.
Saeed is a cop.
We use a/an with a singular noun to say something about all things of that kind:
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 A man needs friends. (= All men need friends)
A dog likes to eat meat. (= All dogs like to eat meat)
Use a with nationalities and religions in the singular:
He is a Pakistani.
Sajjad is a Muslim.
Kohli is an Indian.
Use a with the names of days of the week when not referring to any particular day.
He came here on a Saturday.
Farooq was born on a Sunday.
Use a to refer to an example of something:
The elephant has a long trunk.
She has a tiny nose.
We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns and uncountable nouns:
She was wearing blue jeans. (= plural noun)
She has short blonde hair. (= uncountable noun)
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