Introduction

Boilers are pressure vessels designed to heat water or produce steam, which can then be used to
provide space heating and/or service water heating to a building. In most commercial building
heating applications, the heating source in the boiler is a natural gas fired burner. Oil fired burners
and electric resistance heaters can be used as well. Steam is preferred over hot water in some
applications, including absorption cooling, kitchens, laundries, sterilizers, and steam driven
equipment. Boilers have several strengths that have made them a common feature of buildings.
They have a long life, can achieve efficiencies up to 95% or greater, provide an effective method
of heating a building, and in the case of steam systems, require little or no pumping energy.
However, fuel costs can be considerable, regular maintenance is required, and if maintenance is
delayed, repair can be costly.
Boilers are often one of the largest energy users in a building. For every year a boiler system goes
unattended, boiler costs can increase approximately 10%. Boiler operation and maintenance is
therefore a good place to start when looking for ways to reduce energy use and save money.
The boiler system is made up of:
1. Feed water system
2. Steam system
3. Fuel system
The feed water system - provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the
steam demand. The water supplied to boiler that is converted to steam is called feed water. The
sources of feed water are:
1. Condensate or condensed steam returned from the processes
2. Makeup water which is the raw water which must come from outside the boiler room and
plant processes.
The steam system - collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed
through a piping system to the point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated
using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges.
The fuel system - includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat. The
equipments required in the fuel system depend on the type of fuel used in the system.
How Boilers Work
Both gas and oil-fired boilers use controlled combustion of the fuel to heat water. The key boiler
components involved in this process are the burner, combustion chamber, heat exchanger, and
controls.
 Figure 1: Firetube Boiler
The burner mixes the fuel and oxygen together and, with the assistance of an ignition device,
provides a platform for combustion. This combustion takes place in the combustion chamber,
and the heat that it generates is transferred to the water through the heat exchanger. Controls
regulate the ignition, burner firing rate, fuel supply, air supply, exhaust draft, water temperature,
steam pressure, and boiler pressure.
Hot water produced by a boiler is pumped through pipes and delivered to equipment throughout
the building, which can include hot water coils in air handling units, service hot water heating
equipment, and terminal units. Steam boilers produce steam that flows through pipes from areas
of high pressure to areas of low pressure, unaided by an external energy source such as a pump.
Steam utilized for heating can be directly utilized by steam using equipment or can provide heat
through a heat exchanger that supplies hot water to the equipment.
Types of Boilers
Boilers are classified into different types based on their working pressure and temperature, fuel
type, draft method, size and capacity, and whether they condense the water vapor in the
combustion gases. Boilers are also sometimes described by their key components, such as heat
exchanger materials or tube design. These other characteristics are discussed in the following
section on Key Components of Boilers.
Two primary types of boilers include Firetube and Watertube boilers. In a Firetube boiler, hot
gases of combustion flow through a series of tubes surrounded by water. Alternatively, in a
Watertube boiler, water flows in the inside of the tubes and the hot gases from combustion flow
around the outside of the tubes.
 Figure 2: Watertube Boiler
Firetube boilers are more commonly available for low pressure steam or hot water applications,
and are available in sizes ranging from 500,000 to 75,000,000 BTU input. Watertube boilers are
primarily used in higher pressure steam applications and are used extensively for comfort heating
applications. They typically range in size from 500,000 to more than 20,000,000 BTU input.
Cast iron sectional boilers (figure 3) are another type of boiler commonly used in commercial
space heating applications. These types of boilers dont use tubes. Instead, theyre built up from
cast iron sections that have water and combustion gas passages. The iron castings are bolted
together, similar to an old steam radiator. The sections are sealed together by gaskets. Theyre
available for producing steam or hot water, and are available in sizes ranging from 35,000 to
14,000,000 BTU input.
Cast iron sectional boilers are advantageous because they can be assembled on site, allowing
them to be transported through doors and smaller openings. Their main disadvantage is that
because the sections are sealed together with gaskets, they are prone to leakage as the gaskets
age and are attacked by boiler treatment chemicals.
 Figure 3: Cast Iron Sectional Boiler
Working Pressure and Temperature
Boilers are classified as either low pressure or high pressure and are constructed to meet ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code requirements. Low-pressure boilers are limited to a maximum
working pressure of 15 psig (pound-force per square inch gauge) for steam and 160 psig for hot
water. Most boilers used in HVAC applications are low-pressure boilers. High-pressure boilers
are constructed to operate above the limits set for low-pressure boilers, and are typically used for
power generation. Operating water temperatures for hot water boilers are limited to 250o F.
Fuel Type
In commercial buildings, natural gas is the most common boiler fuel, because it is usually readily
available, burns cleanly, and is typically less expensive than oil or electricity. Some boilers are
designed to burn more than one fuel (typically natural gas and fuel oil). Dual fuel boilers provide
the operator with fuel redundancy in the event of a fuel supply interruption. They also allow the
customer to utilize the fuel oil during peak time rates for natural gas. In times when the rates
for natural gas are greater than the alternate fuel, this can reduce fuel costs by using the cheaper
alternate fuel and limiting natural gas use to occur only during off peak times.
Electric boilers are used in facilities with requirements for a small amount of steam or where
natural gas is not available. Electric boilers are known for being clean, quiet, and easy to install,
and compact. The lack of combustion results in reduced complexity in design and operation and
less maintenance. Heating elements are easily replaced if they fail. These types of boilers can be
used to produce low or high-pressure steam or water, and may be good alternatives for customers
who are restricted by emissions regulations. Sizes range from 30,000 to 11,000,000 BTU input
with overall efficiency generally in the range of 92% to 96%.
Draft Methods
The pressure difference between the boiler combustion chamber and the flue (also called the
exhaust stack) produces a draft which carries the combustion products through the boiler and up
the flue. Natural draft boilers rely on the natural buoyancy of hot gasses to exhaust combustion
products up the boiler flue and draw fresh air into the combustion chamber. Mechanical draft
boilers include: Forced Draft, where air is forced into the combustion chamber by a fan or
blower to maintain a positive pressure; and Induced Draft, where air is drawn through the
combustion chamber by a fan or blower to maintain a negative pressure.
Size and Capacity
Modular Boilers are small in size and capacity and are often intended to replace a large single
boiler with several small boilers. These modular boilers can easily fit through a standard
doorway, and be transported in elevators and stairways. The units can be arranged in a variety of
configurations to utilize limited space or to accommodate new equipment. Modular boilers can
be staged to efficiently meet the demand of the heating load.
Condensing Method
Traditional hot water boilers operate without condensing out water vapor from the flue gas. This
is critical to prevent corrosion of the boiler components. Condensing Boilers operate at a lower
return water temperature than traditional boilers, which causes water vapor to condense out of
the exhaust gasses. This allows the condensing boiler to extract additional heat from the phase
change from water vapor to liquid and increases boiler efficiency. Some carbon dioxide dissolves
in the condensate and forms carbonic acid. While some condensing boilers are made to handle
the corrosive condensation, others require some means of neutralizing the condensate.
Traditional non-condensing boilers typically operate in the range of 75% 86% combustion
efficiency, while condensing boilers generally operate in the range of 88% to 95% combustion
efficiency.
Key Components of Boilers
The key elements of a boiler include the burner, combustion chamber, heat exchanger, exhaust
stack, and controls. Boiler accessories including the flue gas economizer are also commonly used
as an effective method to recover heat from a boiler and will be discussed briefly in the section
Best Practices for Efficient Operation. Natural gas boilers employ one of two types of burners,
atmospheric burners, also called natural draft burners and forced draft burners, also called power
burners. Due to more stringent federal and state air quality regulations, low NOx burners and
pre-mix burners are becoming more commonly used and even required in some areas. By
ensuring efficient mixing of air and fuel as it enters the burner, these types of burners can ensure
that NOx emissions are reduced.
 Figure 4: Forced Draft Boiler
The combustion chamber, usually made of cast iron or steel, houses the burners and combustion
process. Temperatures inside the combustion chamber can reach several hundred degrees very
quickly.
Heat exchangers may be made from cast iron, steel tube bundles, or, in the case of some smaller
boilers, copper or copper-clad steel.
The exhaust stack or flue is the piping that conveys the hot combustion gasses away from the
boiler to the outside. Typically, this piping is made of steel, but in the case of condensing boilers
it needs to be constructed of stainless steel to handle the corrosive condensate. Another
consideration is whether the exhaust stack will be under a positive or negative pressure. This can
determine how the joints of the exhaust stack must be sealed.
Boiler controls help produce hot water or steam in a regulated, efficient, and safe manner.
Combustion and operating controls regulate the rate of fuel use to meet the demand. The main
operating control monitors hot water temperature or steam pressure and sends a signal to control
the firing rate, the rate at which fuel and air enters the burner. Common burner firing sequences
include on/off, high/low/off and modulating.
Boiler safety controls include high pressure and temperature, high and low gas/oil pressure, and
high and low water level and flame safeguard controls. These controls are considered safeties or
limits that break the electrical circuit to prevent firing of the boiler. For example, in the event
pressure in the boiler exceeds the pressure limit setting, the fuel valve is closed to prevent an
unsafe, high pressure condition. The safety circuit of a flame safeguard control system typically
includes switch contacts for low water cutoff, high limits, air proving switches, redundant safety
and operating controls, and flame detectors. Flame detectors often consist of flame rods, and
ultraviolet or infrared scanners to monitor the flame condition and deactivate the burner in the
event of a non-ignition or other unsafe condition. Flame safeguard controls are programmed to
operate the burner and cycle it through the stages of operation.
Design/Fabrication
Steels are alloys of iron and carbon, usually with one or more alloying elements added to
improve some properties of the material (strength, high-temperature strength, oxidation or
corrosion resistance, for example). By definition, steels contain at least 50% iron. For welded
construction, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code limits the carbon content to less than
0.35%. Thus, virtually all of the materials used in the construction and repair of pressure parts of
boilers fall into this classification. Some high-temperature, corrosion-resistant alloys of nickel
and chromium with less than 50% iron are not, strictly speaking, steels, but are still occasionally
used. Further, steels are divided into two subcategories: ferritic steels and austenitic steels,
depending on the arrangement of atoms within the solid.

Steels are used in boiler construction because they are inexpensive, readily available, easily
formed and welded to the desired shape and, within the broad limits, are oxidation- and
corrosion-resistant enough to provide satisfactory service for many years. Table 1 lists the most
frequently used steels, some common tubing specifications and the maximum recommended
service temperatures.

Table 1 - Most Frequently Used Steels

These five alloys cover probably 85% to 90% of the steels used of the many acceptable grades
listed in the Code. There are others that may find specific applications, for example 1/2
Chromium-1/2 Molybdenum alloy SA213 T-2, 9 Chromium-1 Molybdenum alloy SA213 T-9,
and corrosion-resistant, high-temperature alloys of nickel and chromium, SB-407.

The maximum useful temperature is determined either by corrosion or oxidation concerns that
limit the useful life before premature failure or changes within the microstructure occur that
weaken the steel too much for elevated-temperature service.

In order to understand the behavior of steels in boiler environments, a working knowledge of the
fundamentals of the metallurgy of these materials is needed. For our model, we will take the
alloy of iron and carbon, historically the first steel. All matter is made up of atoms, and iron and
steels are no exception. The way these atoms arrange themselves to form a solid is referred to as
a "lattice." For convenience, assume the atoms of the metal are solid spheres in contact, similar
to the stacking of billiard balls. For steels, there are two arrangements that are important. Both
are cubes, but the arrangement of the atoms within the cube differ. In one, referred to as "body-
centered cubic" (BCC), one atom is at each of the eight corners of the cube, and one atom in the
center, as shown in Figure la. The other arrangement, the "face-cantered cubic" (FCC), has one
atom at the eight corners of the cube, and one atom in the center of each of the six faces of the
cube, as shown in Figure lb. The body-cantered cubic arrangement is referred to as "ferrite," and
the face-cantered cubic arrangement is called "austenite." The addition of the element carbon
does not alter this arrangement. Carbon is a small atom and some will fit within the holes
between the spheres of iron.

The amount of carbon that can fit within these FCC and BCC lattice arrangements differs. For
the body-cantered cubic arrangement of ferrite, the amount of carbon that will dissolve, (that is,
fit into the holes), is virtually nil, about 0.02%. For the face centered cubic austenite
arrangement, about 2% carbon will dissolve in the lattice holes.

To start with, in our steel model, only iron and carbon is cooled from the molten condition as, for
example during the fabrication of a steel casting or the solidification of a weld. The following
changes occur during the slow cooling:

At about 2760oF, the steel begins to solidify. The first solid that forms is a body-centered cubic
"delta ferrite." At a temperature of about 2700o F (the precise temperature depends on the exact
composition), the steel is completely solid. On further cooling, at a temperature of about 2500
degrees F, the delta ferrite (body-centered cubic) transforms to austenite (face-centered cubic).

As an aside, all hot forming and shaping employed to make boiler tubes and piping is done in the
austenite temperature range of 1650oF to 2000oF. With the continued cooling, the face-cantered-
cubic austenite begins to transform to body-centered-cubic ferrite at a temperature of around
1600oF, and again, the exact temperature depends on the composition. Continuous cooling to
1340oF changes the relative amounts of ferrite and austenite until at 1340o F, the remaining
austenite transforms to pearlite. The pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and a carbon-rich constituent
called "iron carbide" or "cementite." The ferrite is nearly pure iron, dissolving less than 0.02%
carbon. The iron carbide has a lattice arrangement that is referred to as "hexagonal" and is more
complex than the simple cubic arrangements shown in Figures 1a and 1b. The relative amounts
of ferrite and iron carbide will differ depending on the amount of carbon within the alloy; higher
carbon grades will have more pearlite than lower carbon grades.

The transformation from austenite to ferrite and iron carbide requires an un-mixing of the
carbon. The carbon completely dissolves in austenite, and virtually none dissolves in ferrite.
When the cooling is slow enough, this separation of dissolved carbon in austenite to a separate
constituent, iron carbide, occurs in an orderly way, and pearlite forms. Pearlite is a sandwich of
alternating layers of ferrite and iron carbide. When cooling rates are too rapid, there is no time
for the formation of iron carbide and pearlite. The carbon is trapped in the austenite, which is
unstable at low temperatures. Rapidly cooled austenite does change its atomic arrangement to
martensite, a hard, brittle material with a lattice that is a distorted cube, called "body-cantered
tetragonal." This transformation can be an important concern during welding and can lead to
underbead cracking.

Ferritic steels are "ferrite" and iron carbide (pearlite) at room temperature. Other than carbon, the
principal alloying elements are chromium and/or molybdenum; T-l, T-ll, and T-22 are the
common examples. When sufficient chromium and nickel (18% Cr and 8% Ni) are added, the
FCC "austenite" lattice remains stable to room temperature; hence this class of steels is called
"austenitic." Since these 18-8 chromium-nickel alloys have excellent corrosion resistance and do
not show rust-colored corrosion products, they are referred to as "stainless" steels. The nickel-
chromium alloys with less than 50% iron (for example, SB 407) are also austenitic, as their
lattice arrangement is FCC as well.

Atoms of iron are quite small, about 100,000,000 would fit in an inch. Thus, useful sizes of
material contain a huge number of individual atoms.

The next step in the building block of making useful shapes is a crystal or grain. All of the atoms
arranged within a given lattice in the same orientation defines a crystal. The grain size is
variable, but within steels is fairly small; about 1,000 to the inch or about 1 mil (0.001") in
diameter, for example. Thus, there are about 100,000 atoms of iron across and perhaps 1015
atoms (10 followed by 15 zeros) in an individual crystal.

Since crystals are small, another large number is needed to make a useful shape. Neighboring
crystals or grains do not have the same orientation of the lattice. Where two grains come together
and meet, they form a crystal or grain boundary. The lattice arrangement in these two crystals is
the same, but the orientation is different. A grain may be characterized by long-range order in the
atomic arrangement. At the grain boundary, individual atoms are not arranged regularly and
therefore short-range disorder characterizes the grain boundaries.

The observation and interpretation of grain structure is called metallography; and, as shall be
evident later, the appearance under the microscope can tell a great deal about the past history of a
piece of steel. Grain boundaries will play important roles in the interpretation of some failures,
and these features will be more fully covered then. The region of short-range atomic disorder is
more easily corroded because of the imperfect bonding of neighboring atoms within the
confusion of the grain boundary. A more rapid corrosion of these grain boundaries allows the
crystal structure to be examined. A controlled corrosion, called "etching", of a smoothly polished
surface attacks the disorganized grain boundary more rapidly than it does the well-organized
crystals themselves. When examined at a high magnification in a microscope, the light reflects
off the crystals like a mirror, but is trapped within the groove of a grain boundary; and thus, the
grain boundary shows up as a black line within the field of view.

The addition of other metals to iron improves the strength. There are two kinds of alloying
elements, substitutional and interstitial. When the metallic atoms are similar in size to iron, for
example chromium, nickel, molybdenum, manganese, and silicon, the atoms can substitute for
iron at individual lattice points, and are called "substitutional solid solutions." When small atoms
are used, for example carbon, nitrogen, or boron, the small atoms (relative to the size of the iron
atom), fill the holes within the lattice and are called "interstitial solid solutions." Carbon is by far
the most common alloying element and has importance all out of proportion to its content. For
example, 0.2% carbon will increase the strength of pure iron from about 40,000 psi to about
60,000 psi. To get the same 50% improvement in strength takes more than 2 1/ 2% chromium
and 1% molybdenum, as a comparison of the strength of SA192 and SA213 T-22 will indicate.

Safety Issues
All combustion equipment must be operated properly to prevent dangerous conditions or
disasters from occurring, causing personal injury and property loss. The basic cause of boiler
explosions is ignition of a combustible gas that has accumulated within the boiler. This situation
could arise in a number of ways, for example fuel, air, or ignition is interrupted for some reason,
the flame extinguishes, and combustible gas accumulates and is reignited. Another example is
when a number of unsuccessful attempts at ignition occur without the appropriate purging of
accumulated combustible gas.
There is a tremendous amount of stored energy within a boiler. The state change of superheated
water from a hot liquid to a vapor (steam) releases an enormous amount of energy. For example,
1 ft3 of water will expand to 1600 ft3 when it turns to steam. Therefore, if you could capture all
the energy released when a 30 gallon home hot water tank flashes into explosive failure at 332o
F, you would have enough force to send the average car (weighing 2,500 lbs) to a height of
nearly 125 feet. This is equivalent to more than the height of a 14 story apartment building,
starting with a lift off velocity of 85 miles per hour!.
Boiler safety is a key objective of the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
This organization reports and tracks boiler safety and the number of incidents related to boilers
and pressure vessels each year. Their work has found that the number one incident category
resulting in injury was poor maintenance and operator error. This stresses the importance of
proper maintenance and operator training.
Boilers must be inspected regularly based on manufacturers recommendations. Pressure vessel
integrity, checking of safety relief valves, water cutoff devices and proper float operation, gauges
and water level indicators should all be inspected. The boilers fuel and burner system requires
proper inspection and maintenance to ensure efficient operation, heat transfer and correct flame
detection.

OBSERVING BOILER SAFETY RULES

The rules that follow are brief reminders of the possible consequences in a boiler plant of
inappropriate operator response or questionable action in maintaining the boiler plant. In all
cases, follow the published or oral safety rules of your employer, jurisdiction, and the Federal
OSHA safety regulations to avoid possible disciplinary actions. In addition, study the safety
guidelines of the manufacturer of your boiler.
 NEVER
NEVER fail to anticipate
emergencies. Do not wait until
something happens to start thinking.
NEVER start work in a strange
plant without tracing every pipeline
and learning the location and
purpose of every valve. Know your
job.
NEVER allow sediment to
accumulate in gaugeglass or water-
column connections. A false water
level may fool you and make you
sorry.
NEVER give verbal orders for
important operations or report such
operations verbally with no record.
Have something to back you up
when needed.
NEVER light a fire under a boiler
without a double check on the water
level. Many boilers have been
ruined and many jobs lost this way.
NEVER light a fire under a boiler
without checking all valves. Why
take a chance?
NEVER open a value under
pressure quickly. The sudden
change in pressure, or resulting
water hammer may cause piping
failure.
NEVER cut a boiler in on the line
unless its pressure is within a few
pounds of header pressure. Sudden
stressing of a boiler under pressure
is dangerous
NEVER bring a boiler up to
pressure without trying the safety
valve. A boiler with its safety valve
stuck is nearly as safe as playing
with dynamite.
NEVER take it for granted that the
safety valves are in proper
condition. The power plant is no
place for guesswork.
ALWAYS
ALWAYS study every conceivable emergency and
know exactly what moves to make.
ALWAYS proceed to proper valves or switches rapidly
but without confusion in time of emergency. You can
think better walking than running
ALWAYS blow out each gauge-glass and watercolumn
connection at least once a day. Forming good habits
may mean longer life for you.
ALWAYS accompany orders for important operations
with a written memorandum. Use a logbook to record
every important fact or unusual occurrence.
ALWAYS have at least one gauge of water before
lighting off. The level should be checked with the
gauge cocks. You will not be fired for being too
careful.
ALWAYS be sure blow down valves are closed and
proper vents, water-column valves, and pressure-gauge
cock are open.
ALWAYS use the bypass if one is provided. Crack the
valve from its seat slightly and await pressure
equalization. Then open it slowly.
ALWAYS watch the steam gauge closely and be
prepared to cut the boiler in, opening the stop valve
only when the pressures are nearly equal.
ALWAYS lift the valve from its seat by the hand lever
when the pressure reaches about threequarters of
popping pressure.
ALWAYS raise the valve from its seat with the lifting
level periodically while the boiler is under pressure.
Test by raising to popping pressure at least once per
year.
NEVER increase the setting of a
safety valve without authority.
Serious accidents have occurred
from failure to observe this rule.
NEVER change adjustments of a
safety valve more than 10 percent.
Proper operation depends on the
proper spring.
NEVER tighten a nut, bolt, or pipe
thread under steam or air pressure.
Many have died doing this.
NEVER strike any object under
steam or air pressure. This is
another sure path to the undertaker.
NEVER allow unauthorized persons
to tamper with any steam-plant
equipment. If they do not injure
themselves, they may cause injury
to you.
NEVER leave an open blow down
valve unattended when a boiler is
under pressure or has a fire in it.
Play safe; memory can fail.
NEVER allow anyone to enter a
drum of a boiler without following
OSHA rules for entering a confined
space.
NEVER allow major repairs to a
boiler without authorization. If you
do not break a law, you may break
your neck.
NEVER try to light a second burner
from the flames of the first on-line
burner. You might be inviting a
serious puff back.
NEVER attempt to light a burner
without venting the furnace until
clear. Burns are painful.
NEVER fail to report unusual
behavior of a boiler or other
equipment. It may be a warning of
danger.
ALWAYS consult an authorized boiler inspector and
accept his or her recommendations before increasing
the safety-valve pressure setting.
ALWAYS have the valve fitted with a new spring and
re-stamped by the manufacture for changes over 10
percent.
ALWAYS play safe on this rule. The one that is going
to break does not have a special warning sign.
ALWAYS play safe on this rule. You cannot tell which
straw might break the camels back.
ALWAYS keep out loiterers and place plant operation
in the hands of qualified persons. A boiler room is not a
place for a club meeting.
ALWAYS check the water level before blowing down
and have a second person watch the water gauge level
while you blow down the boiler. Close the blow down
valve, and then recheck the water level. You will avoid
dry-firing the boiler this way.
ALWAYS make sure the boiler is cool to enter, has
enough oxygen per OSHA rules, has a sign by the
entrance stating Worker Inside, has an emergency
person at the entrance, and that all valves going to and
from the boiler are locked and closed.
ALWAYS consult an authorized boiler inspector before
proceeding with boiler repairs.
ALWAYS follow the starting sequence of the
manufacturer on multi-burner boilers, including
ignition and main flame proving by installed burner
controls, and you will avoid a furnace explosion.
ALWAYS allow draft to clear furnace of gas and dust
for prescribed purge period. Change draft conditions
slowly.
ALWAYS consult someone in authority. Two heads are
better than one.
References:
https://betterbricks.com/sites/default/files/operations/om_of_boilers_final.pdf
http://www.worksafe.govt.nz/worksafe/information-guidance/all-guidance-items/acop-
boilers/boiler-code.pdf
http://www.nationalboard.org/Index.aspx?pageID=178
 UNIVERSITY OF THE EAST
COLLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CALOOCAN CAMPUS
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Boilers

SAFETY ENGINEERING
NME 417 1ME

BY:
LAGAZO, EDRABONI O
ADVISER:
ENGR. TAVARES
JULY 19, 2017