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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8100422
CRIBARO, CHRISTOPHER DANIEL
URBAN PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION IN FLORENCE: 1400-1600
The University of Nebraska - Lincoln PH.D. 1980
University
Microfilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M I 4S106
Copyright 1980
by
CRIBARO, CHRISTOPHER DANIEL
All Rights Reserved
^iP-
URBAN PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
IN FLORENCE: 1400-1600
by
C h r i s t o p h e r D. Cribaro
A DISSERTATION
P r e s e n t e d to the Faculty of
The Graduate C ollege in the U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a
In Partial F u l f i l l m e n t of Requirements
For the D e g r e e of Doctor of Philosophy
Major: Hi s t o r y
U nd e r the S u p e r v i s i o n of Professor John K. Y o s t
Lincoln, N e b r a s k a
A ugust, 1980
T IT L E
URBAN PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION
IN FLORENCE: 1400-1600
BY
Christopher D. Cribaro
APPROVED DATE
John K. Yost________ 10 July 1980
Patrice Berger______ 10 July 1980
Benjamin G. Rader 10 July 1980
Nels W. Forde_______ 10 July 1980
Edward L. Homze_____ 10 July 1980
Dale L. Gibbs 10 July 1980
SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE
GRADUATE COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
omao saooa aoo -m
m
Arno
,.3
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
FIRENZE
Roman to Medieval Times
- most densely built area
= iess densely built area
N = least densely built area
0 200 400 600m

* *
Futa Pass
Firenze
i
Lucca I . -.v v. \ * - J Prato
Firenze
LIG URIAN /!>
SEA
San Mihiato
V/o'lterra
li

Florentine Lands c. 1300
Aquisitions 1 3 0 0 -1 3 8 0
Aquisitions 1381 -14 54

30 Km
Aquisitions 1554 -15 58
T A B L E OF CONTENTS
A B B R E V I A T I O N S ............................................... i-ii
C O I N A G E A N D C H R O N O L O G Y ......................... iii
I N T R O D U C T I O N ..................................... 1
Chapter
1: FLORENCE: O R I G I N A N D D E V E L O P M E N T ................... 17
R o m a n Florence
M e d i e v a l Florence: 500-1400
2: E A R L Y M O D E R N FLORENCE: 1 4 0 0 - 1 6 0 0 .................. 109
3: E A R L Y M O D E R N U R B A N T H E O R Y ............................ 151
Fili p p o B r u n e l l e s c h i 1 3 7 7-1446
L e o n e B a t i s t a A l b e r t i 1 4 0 4-1472
A n t o n i a di Piero A v e rlino 15th c e n t u r y
Leona r d o da V i n c i 1452-1519
E a r l y M o d e r n U r b anists
4: R E G I O N A L U R B A N A D M I N I S T R A T I O N ....................... 217
The Tower O f f icials and the G u e l f P a r t y

The Cinque, Otto, and Nove
5: A D M I N I S T R A T I O N A N D TRANSPORTATION: A PERIOD
OF T R A N S I T I O N 1 3 7 0 - 1 4 1 5 .............................. 254
Policy Administration: 1 3 70-1396

P o l i c y and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Change: 1 3 9 6-1415
6: I N T E R U R B A N TRANSPORTATION: FLORENCE, SIENA,

V O L T E R R A , PISTOIA, P I S A .............................. 278
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Norht and South: S i e n a to

Pistoia
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n East and West: F l o r e n c e to
P isa
7: I N T E R U R B A N TRANSP ORTATION: FLORENCE, AREZZO,

B O L O G N A ................................................. 309
Fl o r e n c e to Ar e z z o
F l o r e n c e to B o l o g n a
8: J U R I S D I C T I O N A ND U R B A N S P A C E ............................. 336
1 4 t h and 15th C e n t u r y J u r i s d i c t i o n : The

To w e r Officials
16th Century Jurisdiction: The N o v e and
the P a r t e
9: U R B A N I Z A T I O N A N D T H E N A T U R A L E N V I R O N M E N T ............. 365
F o r e s t and Timber Legi s l a t i o n : 15 5 1 - 1 5 8 1

F o r e s t a nd Timber L e g i s l a t i o n : 1590-1607
10: F L O RENCE: P A T T E R N S A N D D I R E C T I O N S OF E A R L Y M O D E R N
U R B A N I Z A T I O N A N D U R B A N PL.VNNING....................... 388
B I B L I O G R A P H Y ........................ 404
ABBREVIATIONS
A SF A r c h i v i o do S t a t o di F i r e n z e
AS I Archivio Storico Italiano
B o tero B otero, Giovanni. Delle

P r i n c i p a l i M a t e r i e che si
t r a t t a n o ne Tre Libri delle
Cause d e l l a G r a n d e z z a e M a g -
n i f i c e n z a del l a C i t t a . V e n i c e :
1. Gioliti, 1589.
Cantini Cantini, Lorenzo, ed. Legis-

laz iorie Tos c a n a , 32 volsT
F l o r e n c e : A l b i z z i n i a n a da
S. M a r i a in Campo, 1800-1808.
CEH C a m b r i d g e E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y of
E u r o p e , Eds. M. Postan, D.C.
Coleman, P e t e r Mathias. 7 vols.
Dizionario D i z i o n a r i o B i o g r a f i c o deg l i
ItalianT^ R o m e : Instituto
d e l l a E n c i c l o p e d i a Italiana,
1960- .
Libro L u n a C a p i t a n i di Par t e e U f f i c i a l i
dei F u i m i : N u m e r i Rossi Libro
della L u n a .
Nove N o v e tC o n s e r v a t o r ! della Giur-

isdizione e Dominio Fiorentino
Quaderno Q u a d e r n o del Libro de l l a L u n a

( n o tebook c o p y o f part of the
Libro d e l l a Luna)
Repetti Dizionario E. Repetti, Dizion-

ario g e o g r a f i c o fisico s t o r x c o
i d e l l a Toscana. Florence, 1841.
Statuti Caggese, Romolo. S tatuti d e l l a

R e pubb 1 ica Fiorentina~I F l o r e n c e
T i p o g r a f i a Galileiana, 1910.
. V i l l a n i , Giovanni. Cronica.
Viliam g v o ]_s> Florence: II MagJieri,
1823.
Ill
COINAGE
D u r i n g the medieval and e a r l y m o d e r n periods the

F l o r e n t i n e m o n e t a r y system was b a s e d on two s t a n d a r d s - - g o l d
and silver. The m o n e t a r y units q u o t e d in the text refer to
the F l o r e n t i n e gold s t a ndard g e n e r a l l y k n o w n as the florin.
Like the E n g l i s h p ound m o n e t a r y system, the Florentine m o n e
tary s y s t e m was divi d e d into p o u n d s , s h illings, and pence
a c c o r d i n g to the following ratios.
G old F l o r i n
1 f l o r i n = 20 soldi a or o = 240 deniers a oro
CHRONOLOGY
1333 T h i r d wall com p l e t e d
1338 Florentine medieval economic production peaked
1348 Pl a g u e struck F l o rence
137 5 - 1 3 7 8 Florentine-Papal war
1 3 78- 1381 Ciompi revolt
1381-1433 Rule of the F l o r e n t i n e o l i g a r c h y
1433 F i r s t exile of the M e d i c i
1 4 34- 1494 R e t u r n and rule of the M e d i c i

Co s i m o Pater Patriae (1389-1464)
P iero di Cosimo (1418-1469)
Lore n z o the M a g n i f i c e n t (1449-1492)
P i e r o the Y o u n g e r (1471-1503)
1494 F r e n c h invasion of I taly

S e c o n d exile of the M e d i c i
1 4 9 4-1512 F l o r e n t i n e republic e s t a b l i s h e d
1512-1527 S e c o n d return of the M e d i c i
1527-1530 S iege of Florence

T h i r d exile of the M e d i c i
1531-1537 T h i r d return of the M e d i c i
1537-1737 M e d i c e a n Principate
Cosimo I (1519-1574)
Francesco (1541-1587)
Ferdinandol (1549-1609)
1
INTRODUCTION
During the f i f t e e n t h and s i x teenth c e n t u r i e s Florence
made the t r a n s i t i o n from the capital of a c i t y state to the
m e t r o p o l i t a n c e nter of a h i g h l y u r b a n i z e d r e g i o n a l state.
The change in scale of e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l acti v i t y wrote
a n e w agenda of i n t e r u r b a n and a r e a w i d e n e e d s and i s s u e s --
for example, regio n a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l ities, inter
governmental and i n t e r d e p a r t m e n t a l j u r i s d i c t i o n a l issues,
and e n ergy and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s - - t h a t offers a new
avenue of a p p r o a c h to the r i c h l y d iverse a n d m a n y l a y e r e d
u r b a n his t o r y of Flore n c e and Tuscany. U r b a n studies of
Renaissance and early m o d e r n Flor e n c e have p r o v i d e d varied
p erspectives on the i n novative a r c h i t e c t u r a l a nd ur b a n
design changes that r e m o d e l l e d the f o r m and look of the
structures, squares and streets w i t h i n the city, while
those changes and issues that e x t e n d e d b e y o n d the scope of
urb a n r e d e s i g n p r o g r a m s alone and the limits of the city
walls have not b e e n c o n s i d e r e d from a p l a n n i n g v i e w p o i n t
or have been left l a r g e l y in the background.
This study attempts to chart at least in p a r t the
u n e x p l o r e d te r r i t o r y o f the p o l i c y r e s p o n s e of early m o d e r n
Florence to the n e w a g e n d a of i n t e r u r b a n a n d areawide
issues of the time and to address the f o l l o w i n g ba s i c q u e s
tions as fully as the evidence and the e x a m p l e s of the
chapters ahead allow. H o w did early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e ur b a n
2
policymakers look at the u r b a n issues and probl e m s of t h e i r
day? What thought p r o cesses and a p p r o a c h e s did they d e v e l o p
in f a c i n g these issues and p r o b l e m s ? W e r e they c a s e - b y - c a s e ,
i s s u e - b y - i s s u e p r o b l e m - s o l v e r s or long-term planners? The
r e s p o n s e g i v e n to the above q u e s t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the last
one, and the theme su g g e s t e d here is that early m o d e r n
F l o r e n t i n e p o l i c y m a k e r s b e c a m e l i m i t e d planners b e c a u s e they
h a d to be la r g e - s c a l e p r o b l e m - s o l v e r s . The f o l lowing c h a p
ters p o r t r a y the general h i s t o r i c a l context of the d e v e l o p
m e n t o f e a r l y m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e p l a n n i n g policy.
H o w e v e r , w h e n a t t e m p t i n g to u n d e r s t a n d city and u r b a n
planning in the past, it is h e l p f u l to cl a r i f y first the
different meanings and usages of b a s i c terms that h a v e
d e v e l o p e d in the field of m o d e r n c i t y a nd u r b a n planning.
Since the terms city p l a n n i n g and u r b a n p l a n n i n g t h e m s e l v e s
are u s e d o f t e n in different ways in the m o d e r n p e r i o d and
since also the views of the t i m e - f r a m e and the extent o f the
role of m o d e r n p l a n n i n g in u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y
it is n e c e s s a r y here to ou t l i n e at least br i e f l y some o f the
b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n s r elated to the above terms and v i e w s in
the h o p e o f sk e t c h i n g a general fra m e of re f e r e n c e and a
w o r k i n g v o c a b u l a r y for the d i s c u s s i o n a h e a d . *
* For d i s c u s s i o n of p l a n n i n g terms, the e m e rgence of n e w

terms, and the different m e a n i n g s g i v e n to terms in d i f
f e rent c o u n t r i e s see: Giovanni Astengo. "Town P l a n n i n g " in
E n c y c l o p e d i a of W o r l d Art (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company
15)67), vol. 14: pp. 172-267, p a r t i c u l a r l y pp. 172-186; C h r i s
topher Tunnard, "The Cu s t o m a r y a nd the C h a r a t e r i s t i c : A
Note o n the .Pursuit of City P l a n n i n g H i s t o r y , " in The
3
One m a j o r d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n city p l a n n i n g and u r b a n
planning in r e l a t i o n to their u s e in this essay is b a s e d on
the p l a n n i n g area e n c o m p a s s e d by each term. Due p a r t i c u l a r l y
to the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e v o l u t i o n of the
pas t c e n t u r y , individual cities h ave dev e l o p e d into systems
of cities and u r b a n i z e d regions w i t h m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n ters,
and this d e v e l o p m e n t has e x t e n d e d the p l a n n i n g area b e y o n d
the limits of any one city to a n interurban, reg i o n a l , and

2
eve n l a r g e r s cale at times. Thus, c i t y p l a n n i n g r e f e r s
here to the p l a n n i n g activity w i t h i n the limits of one city
or m u n i c i p a l i t y w h i l e u r b a n p l a n n i n g refers to p l a n n i n g
a c t i v i t y e x t e n d i n g b e y o n d the i m m e d i a t e limits of any one
such center. In re g a r d to e a r l y m o d e r n Florence the u r b a n
H i s t o r i a n an d the C i t y , ed. O s c a r H a n d l i n and J o h n B u r c h a r d

(Cambridge, Ma s s a c h u s e t t s : The M.I.T. Press, 1963): p p . 216-
224; P h i l i p M. Hauser, "Urbanization: A n O v erview," in The
Study o f U r b a n i z a t i o n , ed. P h i l i p M. Hau s e r and Leo F. Schn a r e
(New York: J o h n W i l e y Sons, Inc., 1965): p p . 1-47, e s p e c i a l l y
p p . 1-19.
2
Ha n s B lumenfeld, "The M o d e r n M e t r o p o l i s , " M e t r o p o l i t a n
Area P l a n n i n g , " "Regional P l a n n i n g " in The M o d e r n M e t r o p o l i s :
I t s G r i g i n s , Growth, C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and P l a n n i n g ,
Se l e c t e d E s s a y s , ecT! Paul D. S p r i e r e g e n ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a -
c h u s e t t s : M.I.T. Press, 1967): p p . 61-76, 79-83, 84-87;
Joh n C. B o l l e n s and H e n r y J. Schmandt, The M etropolis:
I t s People, Politics, and Economic. L i f e , Third E d i t i o n
(New York: H a r p e r $ Row, Publishers, 1975), Chs. 1-8, 15,
16, p p . 1-191, 333-372; B e n j a m i n Chinitz, "New York: A
M e t r o p o l i t a n R e g ion," in Cities: A S c ientific A m e r i c a n Book,
eds. G e r a r d Piel, Dennis F l a n a g a n and others (New York:
A l f r e d A Knopf, 1972): p p . 105-121; Ph i l i p M. Hauser,
" U r banization: A n Overv i e w , " in The Study of U r b a n i z a t i o n ,
eds. P h i l i p M. Ha u s e r and Leo F. Schnore (New York: John
W iley 8 Sons, Inc., 1965): p p . 1-47; H a r o l d M. Mayer, "A
Survey o f U r b a n G e o g r a p h y , " in T h e Study of U r b a n i z a t i o n , e d s .
Philip M. H a u s e r and Leo F. S c h n o r e (New York: John Wiley
6 Sons., Inc:, 1965): p p . 81-113; The following three r e f e r e n c e s
c o n t a i n n u m e r o u s helpful essays for a compar a t i v e and h i s t o r i c a l
p l a n n i n g area unit means b a s i c a l l y the area beyond the walls
of the city and, depending on the issue or p r o b l e m c o n s i d
ered, e x t e n d i n g generally to the limits of the Florentine
regional e c o n o m i c and political system.
T h o u g h there is a wide va r i e t y of time frames s u g g e s
ted for p l a n s , the fast pace of change in the m o d e r n era
has g e n e r a t e d a trend away from fixed toward flexible and

*7
al t e r n a t i v e p l a n n i n g schedules. A l t e r n a t i v e schedules may
include short-, mid- and l o n g - t e r m p r o j e c t i o n s , however,
this m e t h o d raises n ew questions' about h o w short is s h o r t
term and h o w long is long-term. Moreover, some issues or
p r o b l e m s m a y req u i r e a p a r t i c u l a r time-frame. For example,
can t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , utility, and w a t e r systems whi c h have
l o n g - t e r m effects be p l a n n e d adeq u a t e l y and c o herently on
a n y t h i n g less than a lon g - t e r m b a s i s ? A n o t h e r ques t i o n
a ccompanies the above question: H o w far into the future
can u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t be p r o j e c t e d a c c u r a t e l y ?
E v e n a b r i e f review of a few examples illustrates just
h o w d i f f e r e n t p e r s pectives are c o n c e r n i n g the time frame
for planning. Is the f o l lowing quote an example of a short-
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m o d e r n and p r e m o d e r n u r b a n i z a t i o n : ' Sylvia

Fieis Fava, e d . , U r b a n i s m in W o r l d Perspective: A Reader
(New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1968); Lloyd Rodwin,
e d . , The Future: Metropolis (New York: George Braziller,
1960); Os c a r H a n d l i n ana J o h n Burchard, eds., The H i s t o r i a n
and the City (Cambridge, M a s s a c husetts: The M.I.T. Press,
1963).
^ Bol l e n s and Schmandt, The M e t r o p o l i s , C h . 9, " P l anning

Urb a n D e v e l o p m e n t , " p p . 193-211.
5
term p l a n n i n g sched u l e or p r o j e ction?
Until quite recent years town plans w e r e always

made as i n f l e x i b l e patterns but h i s t o r y has shown
that a p l a n of this de s c r i p t i o n i n e v i t a b l y breaks
down in time unless the town's life b e c o m e s a t r o
phied. ... Tod a y it is r e c o g n i z e d that the plan
can only a n t i c i p a t e d evelopment over fi x e d p e r i o d
of years. It is e s s e n tially a p r o g r a m m e for
future d e v e l o p m e n t and, since no one c an be c e r
tain w h e t h e r the p r o posals w i l l be v a l i d w h e n
the time comes to execute them, the p l a n is a
flexible docum e n t w h i c h is amended as the n e e d
a r i s e s - - E n g l i s h p l a n n i n g authorities are requi r e d
to r e v i e w their plans every five years.
H o w long is long- t e r m ?
The first p o i n t is that we m u s t define our era

in terms o f time. I so be l i e v e that for our
pre s e n t efforts this time s h o u l d i nclude t o
m o r r o w t h r o u g h to the end of the next c e n t u r y ,
that is n o m o r e than four to five g e n e r a t i o n s .
A n d c h o o s i n g the p r o p e r size area is n o t s u f

ficient for success; w e m u s t also r e m e m b e r that
our p h e n o m e n a change dynamically, and w e t h e r e
fore m u s t study t h e m over the longest p o s s i b l e
pe r i o d of time, c e r tainly not less than s e v
eral decades. W h y do we think of the f u ture of
our c h i l d r e n and not of the city they are going
to live i n ? 5
The fol l o w i n g len g t h i e r quote summarizes a n u m b e r of issues
re l a t e d to p l a n n i n g future development and responds directly
to the p r o p o s a l o f a century long time-frame.
^ F r e d e r i c k Gibberd, Town D e sign (London: The A r c h i t e c

ture Press, 1970), p . 27.
^ C o n s t a n t i n o s A. Doxiadis, A n t h r o p o l i s : City for

Hu m a n Develo p m e n t (New York: W.W. Norton Company, Inc.,
1974,1973), p . 6; Consta ntinos A. Doxiadis, study
It fol l o w s that the p l a n p e r i o d s h o u l d not be
s h o r t e r t h a n the m i n i m u m a m o r t i z a t i o n p e r i o d
of the investments a nd not longer than we can
p r e d i c t w i t h i n acce p t a b l e limits of p r o b a b i l
ity, that is, a p r o b a b i l i t y s u b s t a n t i a l l y
g r e a t e r than the 50 p e r cent p r o b a b i l i t y r e
s u l t i n g f r o m tossing a coin. As a m i n i m u m
p e r i o d w e m a y accept the ,20-to-25 y e a r p e r i o d
usu a l for f i n ancing o f investments by m o r t
gages or bonds. M o s t p l a n n e r s share the b a n
kers' o p i n i o n that p r e d i c t i n g f urther ahe a d
is too risky, and do not attempt to p r e d i c t or
p l a n f or m o r e than 20 to 25, or at most, 30
to 40 y e a r s ....
In v i e w o f the a c c e l e r a t i n g pace of social,

e c o nomic, and t e c h n o l o g i c a l change, it is
i n d e e d q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r we can p r e d i c t
the goals that p e o p l e will p u rsue 50 or 100
y ea r s f r o m n o w and, e v e n m o r e so, the means
that w i l l be at the i r dispo s a l and that they
w i l l u s e to achieve these goals....
Thus, the q u e s t i o n remains: For h o w long

can w e h o p e to p r e d i c t ? The C o p e n h a g e n
p l a n n e r s , in p u b l i s h i n g their " finger plan"
in 1947, a t t e m p t e d to p r e d i c t for about 30
y e ars, u p to 1980. T h e i r p l a n has b e e n u n i
v e r s a l l y a nd rightly a c c l a i m e d as an o u t
s t a n d i n g achievement. Yet, after o n l y 12
years, a c tual d e v e l o p m e n t h a d so far d e v i a t e d
director, E m e r g e n c e and G r o w t h of an U r b a n Region: The

'Developing U r b a n Detroit A r e a (Detroit: The Detroit
E d ison Company, 1967), v o l . 2, p p . 10-12; "T i m e - F r a m e of
the Study" in E m e r g e n c e a nd G r owth is an a s s e s s m e n t o f the
small e s t a nd largest units of time in a p l a n p r o j e c t i o n
d e s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g to Doxiadis' appro a c h to planning;
C o n s t a n t i n o s A. Doxiadis, A r c h i t e c t u r e in T r a n s i t i o n
(New York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1963), p a r t i c u l a r l y
136-142 in C h . 5, and 143-148 in C h . 6; C o n s t a n t i n o s A.
D o x i a d i s , Ek i s t i c s : An I n t r o d u c t i o n to the Science of
H u m a n S e t t l e m e n t CNew York: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1968);
Cons t a n t i n o s A. Doxiadis, E c u m e n o p o l i s : The S e t t l e m e n t of
the Future ( A t h e n s : Athens T e c h n o l o g i c a l O r g anization,
Athens C e n t e r of Edistics, 1967).
fro m t heir pr e d i c t i o n s that they felt it n e c
e ssary to revise them and to m o d i f y their
p r o p o s a l s .6
Is this the m i d d l e ground o f p l a n n i n g a n d t i m e - f r a m e s ?
W h a t e v e r its form, the c o m p r e h e n s i v e pla n

seeks to p r o j e c t a p h y s i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t
p a t t e r n to w h i c h the m u n i c i p a l i t y is to
aspire ove r a given p e r i o d of time, u s u
ally 10 to 20 years.'
For h o w long can we h o p e to p r e d i c t ? The d e b a t e c o n
tinues. Perhaps one of the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t aspects of
this q u e s t i o n is the fact that w e ask it at all. The
q u e s t i o n i t s e l f ack n o w l e d g e s h u m a n a w a r e n e s s of the ability
to p r o j e c t into the future a n d to p l a n at least to some
degree. This awareness and eve n a m i n i m a l e x e rcise of this
c a p a c i t y is to take a d e c i s i v e step t o w a r d h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t
and to w a r d the s o u n d a d a p t a t i o n and p l a n n i n g of the built
and n a t u r a l environments. This c a p a c i t y o f future p r o
j e c t i o n an d o r i e n t a t i o n does not a p p e a r o n l y in the m o d e r n
period, but is f ound in a l i m i t e d a n d h e s i t a n t w a y in earlier
i periods. It is found, speci f i c a l l y , in the u r b a n p o l i c y
of early m o d e r n Florence.
A l o n g w i t h the debate over an a p p r o p r i a t e s p a t i a l area
B l u m e n f e l d , "A H u n d r e d - Y e a r Plan: The E x a m p l e of

C o p e n h a g e n , " The M o d e r n M e t r o p o l i s , p . 94. This arti c l e was
par t of the debate betw e e n Doxiadis and B l u m e n f e l d over the
p r o p e r t i m e - f r a m e for p l a n n i n g w h i c h t o o k p lace in the A pril
1963 and F e b r u a r y 1964 issues of E k i s t i c s .
7
B oll e n s and Schmandt, The M e t r o p o l i s , p. 196.
and time-frame for p l a n n i n g the mod e r n u r b a n complex, there
has b e e n the s e a r c h for the approp r i a t e role or d e f i n i t i o n
of city and u r b a n p l a nning. The approaches to p l a n n i n g
run the c o n t i n u u m f rom p i e c e m e a l , seg m e n t e d to integrated,
comprehensive approaches to the diverse c h a r a c t e r of u r b a n
life.8 City p l a n n e r s h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y v i e w e d the u r b a n
c omp l e x in a p i e c e m e a l w a y and hav e focu s e d n e a r l y c o m p l e t e l y
on a limi t e d p h y s i c a l p l a n n i n g a p p roach to the city. This
approach u s u a l l y too k the f orm o f land use and lan d occ u p a n c y
regulations and g u i d e l i n e s (commercial, industrial, residen
tial zoning, etc.). The broader, more i n t e g r a t e d and
c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r o a c h to p l a n n i n g has e m p h a s i z e d the
interrelationship and i n t e r p l a y of the m a n y s i d e d c h a r a c t e r
of u r b a n life and act i v i t y , and has r e l a t e d p h y s i c a l p l a n n i n g
to social, economic, environmental, energy, health,
i nstitutional, jurisdictional, political, and o ther issues
aff e c t i n g u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t . The latter a p p r o a c h has b e e n
d e s c r i b e d in vari o u s w a y s b y different planners and urbanists.
For each and e very cit y we n e e d a syst e m a t i c

survey, of its d e v e l o p m e n t and origins, its
O
H e n r y Fagin, "The E v o l v i n g P hilosophy o f U r b a n
P lan n i n g , " in U r b a n R e s e a r c h and Policy Planning, eds.
Leo F, Schnore and H e n r y Fagin, Urban Affairs An n u a l
Reviews (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1967): p p . 309-
328; Francis Ferguson, A r c h i t e c t u r e , Cities and the Systems
A p p r o a c h (New York: Ge o r g e Braziller, 1975); For an excel-
lent c o l l e c t i o n of a r t i c l e s addre s s i n g the scope, content,
and functional issues e n c o m p a s s e d by urban studies and
policies see: Louis K. L owenstein, e d . , U r b a n S t u d i e s :
A n Introductory Rea d e r (New York: The Free P r e s s , 1971).
h i s t o r y and its present. This survey is re- y
q u i r e d n ot m e rely for m a t e r i a l buildings,
but also for the c i t y s life and its i n s t i
tutions, for of these the b u i l d e d city is but
the external shell.
At this stage the city be c o m e s again reviewed

as a whole, as he w ho u n d e r s t a n d s a town-plan
sees all the town as f r o m an aeroplane. All
our a c t i v i t i e s - - i n d u s t r i a l and commercial,
h y g i e n i c and educational, legal and political,
cultural, and what n o t - - b e c o m e seen in r e
l a tion to one another, as so m a n y aspects and
a nalyses of the city's l i f e . 9
T o w n p l a n n i n g is the sci e n c e that studies all

aspects of the urban phenomena.-*-9
We are dea l i n g w i t h a v e r y complex, dynamic

s y s t e m o f life on the sur f a c e of the earth,
w h e r e every part has an i n f luence on the
others.H
C o o r d i n a t i o n of m a n y social units w i t h i n one

larger unit is the s p e c i f i c task of city
p l a n n i n g . 12
Like the m o d e r n u r b a n i z a t i o n process, urban p l a n n i n g
has e n t e r e d a n e w era of development. The trend of m o d e r n
p l a n n i n g is toward a broader, more interdisciplinary, and
h i s t o r i c a l l y related a p p r o a c h to urb a n issues. The p l a n
n i n g pr o c e s s includes c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m people of m a n y
b a c k grounds, from m a n y levels of government, and f r o m v a r i e d
interests and different areas of the u r b a n complex. The
result of this interaction p r o d u c e s a sequence of choices
g
P a t r i c k G e d d e s , Cities in E v o l u t i o n , New and R evised
E d i t i o n (London: Williams No r g a t e L t d . , 1949), p p . 80-81, 8
1 Astengo, "Town P l a n n i n g , " E W A : 172.
H Doxiadis, A n t h r o p o l i s , p . 12.
12 Blumenfeld, "Form and F u n c t i o n in Urban C o m m u n i t i e s , "

in The M o d e r n M e t r o p o l i s , p . 8.
and alternatives b a s e d on n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p s of the
m u l t i f a c e t e d c h a r a c t e r of a c h a n g i n g u r b a n w a y of life.
In this n ew co n t e x t of urb a n h i s t o r y the p l a n n e r p a r t i c i p a t e s
in a p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s that acts as a b a l a n c e w h e e l b e t w e e n
mpvement and settl e m e n t patterns, diverse time and space
projections for development, and c h a n g i n g i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
of the m a n y s i d e d h u m a n a c tivities in an u r b a n setting. The
role of the u r b a n p l a n n e r and the p l a n n i n g process m a y be
described as two-fold: to achieve a coherent d i s t r i b u t i o n
of the diverse a c t i v i t i e s and of the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and
communi c a t i o n n e t w o r k s that link these d i v e r s e a c t i v i t i e s of
the dynamic u r b a n c o m p l e x and to v i s u a l i z e the future i n t e r
relationships b e t w e e n the c h a n g i n g forms and functions of
an ur b a n way of life.
This b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f m o d e r n u r b a n p l a n n i n g is in
tended to serve as a re f e r e n c e poi n t for topics d i s c u s s e d
in this essay. It m a y also serve as a basis for a c o m p a r i s o n
and contrast b e t w e e n two eras of ijrban t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a nd
the responses to si g n i f i c a n t changes d u ring each period.
At the same time, it is not i n t e n d e d to indicate that all the
historical condi t i o n s a f f ecting u r b a n de v e l o p m e n t and the
approaches to u r b a n p o l i c y are identical in each situation. Nor

v
is it sug g e s t e d here that the r e cipe of u r b a n p o l i c y and p l a n
ning of y e s t e r d a y mat c h e s e n t i r e l y the r e cipe of today. However,
noting some of the s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences b e t w e e n the
ingredients of u r b a n p l a n n i n g approaches p a s t and p r e s e n t
may help in a d v a n c i n g a f u ller u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the continu-
ities and changes in E u r o p e a n u r b a n h i s t o r y and in the h i s
tory of u r b a n planning. It ma y also h e l p to b r i n g f o r w a r d
some of the elements that influence c o h e r e n t or i n c o h e r e n t
responses to u r b a n issues and that s h a p e the f o r m a t i o n of
a sound or u n s o u n d r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n city a n d c o u n t r y
side.
T h e r e are i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n m o d e r n and early
m o d e r n u r b a n h i s t o r y in at least three m a j o r areas: the
d e v e l o p m e n t of f a r - r e a c h i n g n e w m o v e m e n t and s e t t l e m e n t p a t
terns and the s i m u l t a n e o u s i n terplay of c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and
d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n trends, the t r a n s i t i o n from a s i m p l e r to a
mor e c o m p l e x u r b a n sett i n g w h e r e b y individual cities became
i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e r d e p e n d e n t w i t h o t h e r cities and towns of
their region, an d the e x p r e s s i o n of a n e w u r b a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s
in the l i t e r a t u r e of the early m o d e r n period.
The E u r o p e a n search for n e w trade routes an d the sea
e x p l o r a t i o n of the f i f teenth and s i x t e e n t h c e nturies
w i d e n e d the m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s a f f e c t i n g E u r o p e a n cities to
a global scale, m o v e d the e c o n o m i c - p o l i t i c a l c e n t e r of Europe
from the M e d i t e r r a n e a n to the At l a n t i c , and a d v a n c e d the
d e v e l o p m e n t of cities along the w e s t e r n r i m of E u r o p e - - f o r
example, Seville, Lisbon, Antwerp, A m s t e r d a m a n d London. At
the same time, the o r g a n i z a t i o n of l a r g e r t e r r i t o r i a l states
and p o l i t i c a l units in early m o d e r n E u r o p e also a f f e c t e d the
economy and d e v e l o p m e n t of cities. Various production
activities m o v e d f r o m o lder centers of p r o d u c t i o n to n e w e r
ones forming a more decentralized economic pattern within
larger and more c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l units. The n ew
sp a t i a l c ontext of early m o d e r n culture made w i d e r n e t w o r k s
of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n incr e a s i n g l y i m p ortant
for e c o n o m i c and urb a n d e v e l o p m e n t . Land as w e l l as w a t e r
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p l a y e d a k ey role in shaping the d i r e c t i o n
of the early m o d e r n and m o d e r n u r b a n i z a t i o n process.
Eve r y h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t requi r e s some degree of planning.
Site s e l e c t i o n i t s e l f r e q u i r e s some type of a dvance d e c i s i o n
m a k i n g or c o n s i d e r e d choice in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e to settle
one p l a c e r a t h e r than another. As a s e ttlement d e v elops,
there is also an i n c r e a s i n g d i v i s i o n of labor that needs a
m ore d e t a i l e d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f resources and p r o d u c t i o n
f a cilities and a more c a r e f u l c o o r d i n a t i o n o f the v a r i o u s
f u n ctions of the community. The more s p e c i a l i z e d the econ-
omy a nd the so c i e t y of a h u m a n settlement becomes the w i d e r
the range of o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d needs. This, in turn, calls
for an e a r l i e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of basic needs and a more
a d v a n c e d p r e p a r a t i o n to m e e t those needs w i t h i n the c a p a b i l
i ti e s and c o n s t r a i n t s of a p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t a l and
historical situation.
Cities are an e s p e c i a l l y c o m p l e x form of h u m a n settlement.
They do m a n y things a nd are i n f l u e n c e d by many factors simul
taneously. The larger the s c a l e of activity, the m o r e things
that go on and the m o r e fa c t o r s at w o r k s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in an
u r b a n setting, the gr e a t e r is the need for some form of
c o o r d i n a t i o n and p l a n n i n g to all o w for coher e n t d e v e l o p m e n t ,
or, at least, to keep things m o v i n g at a m i n i m a l l y func t i o n a l
13
level. In brief, the n e e d for u r b a n p l a n n i n g is largely
p r o p o r t i o n a t e to the scale of u r b a n i z a t i o n re a c h e d in an area.
The degree of a n t i c i p a t i o n p r e s e n t in the response to m e e t
f u ture u r b a n needs is an i m p o r t a n t m e a s u r e of the level
of p l a n n i n g r e a c h e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r c i v i l i z a t i o n or city.
By the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y F l o r e n c e h a d r e a c h e d such a
stage of u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t and a c h i e v e d such d i v e r s i f i e d
c h a r a c t e r that w i t h o u t s o m e f o r m o f c o o r d i n a t i o n and u r b a n
p o l i c y Florentines c o u l d n o t h a v e m a i n t a i n e d the u r b a n c o m p l e x
t h e y did d u r i n g the m e d i e v a l a nd e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d s , More
over, d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h a nd s i x t e e n t h centuries the old e r
p a t t e r n of a d i v i s i o n of lab o r w i t h i n ^ F l o r e n c e b e g a n to y i e l d
to a g reater d i v i s i o n of l a b o r b e t w e e n Florence and other
u r b a n centers o f Tuscany, a n d this ac c e n t u a t e d the n e e d for
a c o o r d i n a t i o n of a c t i v i t i e s on a larger scale than b e f o r e
in the city's history. W h a t o c c u r r e d in Florence and T u s c a n y
o c c u r r e d e l s e w h e r e in E u r o p e also.
A l o n g w i t h n e w m o v e m e n t a nd sett l e m e n t patterns and the
t r a n s i t i o n from a s impler to a m o r e com p l e x urban setting, a
n e w urb a n consci o u s n e s s also i n d i c a t e d that the f i f t e e n t h and
s i x t e e n t h centuries w e r e a n era o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n for
E u r o p e a n cities. D u ring this p e r i o d architects and w r i t e r s
v i e w e d the city in a n ew way. Architectural treatises and
essays d e s c r i b e d the ideal as w e l l as the histo r i c a l city,
a n d i ntroduced n e w u r b a n d e s i g n concepts and n e w i n t e llectu al
frameworks for u n d e r s t a n d i n g u r b a n development.
Besides these sources, there are the m a n y records and
14
statutes of ke y departments of the F l o r e n t i n e government
that p l a y e d m a j o r roles in i m p l e m e n t i n g and i n f l u e n c i n g u r b a n
p o l i c y du r i n g the f i fteenth and s i x t e e n t h centuries. The
T ower O f ficials, o r ganized by the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t in the
y ear f o l l o w i n g the disastrous pl a g u e of 1348, was perh a p s
the e a r l i e s t p e r m a n e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d o f f i c e in Eu r o p e that
could be c o n s i d e r e d the clos e s t t h i n g the e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d
h a d to a m o d e r n u r b a n p l a n n i n g department. The reco r d s of
their office p a i n t a pictire of e a r l y m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e urban
p o l i c y and its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n f r o m t h e m i d - f o u r t e e n t h century
to the later s i x t e e n t h century, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the t r a n s p o r
t a t i o n field. O t h e r key offices of the F l o r e n t i n e government,
namely, the R i v e r Officials, the Parte, the Cinque, and the
Nove, came to p l a y a role in u r b a n a f f a i r s in the six t e e n t h
century eve n m o r e significant than the role p l a y e d by the
T ower Officials in the fif t e e n t h century. The role of these
m ore c e n t r a l i z e d offices is also t r a c e a b l e f r o m the statutes
and records o f the early m o d e r n period. All o f the above
offices and the topics already and ye t to be m e n t i o n e d find
a p lace in the chapters ahead.
The c h a p t e r s follow topical lines. C h a p t e r one p r o v i d e s
a b a c k g r o u n d h i s t o r y of F l o rence from its R oman c o l onial origins
in the first c e n t u r y B.C. to its d e v e l o p m e n t into a m e d i e v a l
u r b a n ce n t e r o f p r o d u c t i o n and i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade during
the t h i r t e e n t h and fourteenth centuries. The emphasis is on
the for m a t i v e influences and p o l i c y a p p r o a c h e s that have
shaped the city's development fro m a s i m p l e r to a m o r e complex
urban entity. Ch a p t e r two discusses the general d i r e c t i o n
of the political, economic, demographic, and urb a n features
of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f Florence f r o m the capital of a
medieval c i ty-state to the m e t r o p o l i t a n c e nter of an early
m o d e r n regional state.
M any Florentines as w e l l as others c o n t r i b u t e d to n e w
ways of vi e w i n g the city. Chapter three describes some of
the urban theories that outline a s i g n i f i c a n t part of the i n
tellectual h i s t o r y of R e n a i s s a n c e and early m o d e r n Florence
and that pla c e in c l e a r e r p e r s p e c t i v e the n e w u r b a n c o n s c i o u s
ness of the times. The spirit of p u b l i c dialogue and the d i s
c u s s i o n - o r i e n t e d c h a r a c t e r of Renaissance Florence raises
questions about the i n t e r p l a y be t w e e n t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e and
ideas and official u r b a n policy. Did one generate the other?
Were they m u t u a l l y s u p p o r t i n g ? Were they isolated occurrences
These questions m a y be e a s i e r raised than resolved.
Chapter four outlines the history of the role p l a y e d
in u r b a n affairs by m a j o r offices of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t
the Tower Officials, the Gue l f Party, the Cinque, the Otto,
and the Nove, and d e s cribes the d e v e l o p m e n t of these offices
into a regional u r b a n administration. Chapters five, six,
and seven focus on the f o r m a t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of an
areawide t r a n s p o r t a t i o n policy. The in c r e a s e d importance
attri b u t e d by the F l o r e n t i n e government to an effective
tran s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m on a br o a d e r scale s i g n a l l e d a growing
re c o g n i t i o n of the i n t e r u r b a n character of their early m o d e r n
economic a nd p o l i t i c a l system.
16
C h a p t e r eight treats the j u r i s d i c t i o n a l issues and
problems that em e r g e d on an i n t e r u r b a n and i n t e r d e p a r t m e n t a l
scale. A r e a w i d e needs a nd p o l i c i e s required new definitions
of the scope of a u t h o r i t y and a c t i v i t y o f cities and g o v e r n
me n t departments. The r e s o l u t i o n o f the s e issues m a r k e d the
g r o w i n g i n f luence of the Nove officials.
Ch a p t e r nine p o r t r a y s one side of the interdependence
b e t w e e n early m o d e r n u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t a nd the n a t u r a l en
vironment. Forest l e g i s l a t i o n of the late s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y
p o i n t e d to increased d e f o r e s t a t i o n in the m o u n t a i n s a nd hills
o f T u s c a n y and, c o nsequently, growing problems of e r o s i o n
and f l o o d i n g in the v a l l e y areas. In addition, t i m b e r was
the m a i n energy source of the time a n d the i n c r e a s e d w o o d
s h o r t a g e led to e n ergy s c a r c i t i e s in F l o r e n c e a nd other areas.
The p o l i c y response of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t d e f i n e d
c l e a r l y the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of city and c o u n t r y s i d e and the
n e w stage of re l a t i o n s h i p s r e a c h e d d u r i n g the early m o d e r n
p e r i o d b e t w e e n urb a n d e v e l o p m e n t and the n a t u r a l environment.
Finally, chapter ten summa r i z e s p a t t e r n s of ea r l y
m o d e r n Flore n t i n e u r b a n i z a t i o n and p l a n n i n g p o l i c y and d i s
cusses F lorentine trends in r e l a t i o n to some of the u r b a n
developments taking p l a c e in other p a r t s of Europe.
17
C H A P T E R 1: FLORENCE: ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
This c h a p t e r o u t l i n e s the d e v e l o p m e n t of Florence f r o m
an ancient R o m a n p r o v i n c i a l town to a late medie v a l metropolis.
D i s c u s s i o n focuses on the c h a n g i n g role of Florence in the
distinct h i s t o r i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s of the a ncient and m e d i e v a l
periods and empha s i z e s m a j o r influences on F l orentine urban
d e v e l opment d u ring these m a n y centuries. The chapter divides
into two s e c t i o n s - - R o m a n Flore n c e and then Medie v a l Florence:
500-1400. S p e c i f i c t o p i c s c o n s i d e r e d include: E t r u s c a n and
Ro m a n u r banization, the o r i g i n of R o m a n Florence d u r i n g the
first c entury B.C., and its role w i t h i n the context of a
ce n t r a l i z e d state system, and, secondly, the progress of
m e d i e v a l Florence b e t w e e n the fifth and f i f teenth c e n t u r i e s - -
the long p e r i o d of c o n t r a c t i o n f o l l o w i n g the decline of the
w e s t e r n part of the R o m a n Empire, the E u r o p e a n commercial and
ur b a n revolutions b e g i n n i n g in the, ten t h cen t u r y A . D . , F l o r e n
tine e x p a n s i o n b e t w e e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1100 and 1300, and the
p i v o t a l crisis of the 1 3 4 0 s for m e d i e v a l Florence.
The h i s t o r y of an c i e n t and m e d i e v a l Florence provi d e s a
b a c k g r o u n d s k etch for the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of Florence from
the capital of a c i t y - s t a t e to the m e t r o p o l i t a n c e nter of a
regional state s y s t e m in Tus c a n y b e t w e e n 1400 and 1600. The
distinct h i s t o r y of the p r e c e d i n g and early m o d e r n periods
in fluenced u r b a n d e v e l o p e m n t s in p a r t i c u l a r ways. Each of the
above period? r e f l e c t e d di f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l conditions and a
18
change in the s c a l e and direction of the u r b a n i z a t i o n
process. E a r l y m o d e r n Florence was a m u c h different
u r b a n c e n t e r t h a n ancient Florence.
Ro m a n F l o r e n c e
The E t r u s c a n s bui l t the first u r b a n i z e d c i v i l i z a t i o n
in Italy. T h e y w e r e the first to u r b a n i z e Tus c a n y and
oth e r r egions o f n o r t h and central Italy. Their e s t a b
lishment of the h i l l t o p settlement of Fiesole, about three
miles to the n o r t h of the future site of R o m a n Florence,
f i g u r e d large in the i magination a nd accou n t s of medieval
and early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e c h r o n iclers a n d historians
w h e n they r e v i e w e d the origins of the i r city. These and
o t h e r reasons r e f e r r e d to later su g g e s t at least a general
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f E t r u s c a n civilization.
T h o u g h the o r i g i n of the E t r uscans is a still much-
d e b a t e d qu e s t i o n , namely, w h e t h e r E t r u s c a n civi l i z a t i o n
was an i n d i g e n o u s development or the p r o d u c t of m i g r a t i o n
to Italy f r o m the A e g e a n area, A s i a M i n o r or elsewhere,
historians t e n d to suggest that the o r i g i n a l home of the
Etruscans was outside Italy and likely in A s i a M i n o r . *
W h e t h e r i n d i g e n o u s p e ople or i m m i g r a n t s , the Etruscans
settled primarily in the region of T u s c a n y by 800 B.C. and
^ For a c l e a r summary of debate p o s i t i o n s on the

q u e s t i o n of E t r u s c a n origins see: M a s o n Hammond, The City
in the A n c i e n t W o r l d (Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H arvard
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1972), p p . 243-249; M. Cary, A H istory of
Rome Down to the Rei g n of Constantine (London: Macmillan
Co., Ltd., 1962), p p . 18-23.
19
d e v e l o p e d the first u r b a n i z e d c i v i l i z a t i o n o f I t a l y . 2
Before long they b e g a n to expand. Between approximately
650 a n d 550 B.C. the Etruscans e x t e n d e d their m i l i t a r y rule
and c i v i l i z a t i o n into the C a m p a n i a r e g i o n of s o u t h e r n Italy
and the Po V a l l e y of n o r t h e r n Italy. D u r i n g this tim e p e r i
od t h e y also c o n q u e r e d m o s t of the a r e a of L a t i u m in central
Italy an d the hill settle m e n t s of R ome a long the T i b e r River.
Mos t li k e l y the Etruscans h a d e s t a b l i s h e d m u c h e a r l i e r than
650 B.C. the hilltop fort of Fiesole to p r o t e c t the travel
and t r a d e routes across the A rno R i v e r and the p l a i n s of
Tuscany.3
Th e changes the Etruscans introduced where they settled
w e r e m a n y a n d significant. Productive c a p a c i t y of regions

I
i m p r o v e d by the i n t r o d u c t i o n of n e w kinds of economic ac
tivity. The y brought iron-working tech n i q u e s w i t h t h e m and
u s e d these techniques to exploit the iron, copper, a n d tin
deposits on the island of Elba in the L i g u r i a n Sea o f f the
central I t a l i a n coast and on the 'Italian mainland. They
p r o m o t e d a d i v e r s i f i e d a n d t r a d e - o r i e n t e d e c o n o m y b a s e d on
l u m b e r i n g and mining, p o t t e r y and l e a t h e r indust r i e s , and
e s p e c i a l l y the m a n u f a c t u r e of iron and br o n z e p r o d u c t s for
2 Cary, H i s t o r y of R o m e , p p . 22-23; H a m mond, City in the

A n c i e n t W o r l d , p p . 244-245.
3 The E t r u s c a n ec onomy and the l i s t i n g o f E t r u s c a n

cities are d i s c u s s e d in the f o llowing reference: Fritz M.
H e i c h e l h e i m and Cedric A. Yeo, A H i s t o r y of the R oman
P e o p l e (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: P.rentice-Hall, Inc., 1962),
p p . 28-30, 31-33; on E t r u s c a n e x p a n s i o n see: Cary, H i s t o r y
of R o m e , p p . 22-23.
20
c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y purposes. Their pottery a nd g o l d
smi t h workers b e c a m e r e n o w n e d for the art of their crafts.
By w a y of the Greek cities they t r aded with in s o u t h e r n
Italy and Sicily the E t r uscans b o r r o w e d and then ad a p t e d
a d e rivative f o r m o f the Greek alphabet and i n t r o d u c e d a
m o n e y e conomy into c entral and n o r t h e r n Italy. Etruscan
trade e x t e n d e d from s o u t h e r n Italy to the north A f r i c a n
coast to the e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . 4
A g r i c u l t u r e rem a i n e d , however, the basis of their
wealth. They w e r e v e r s a t i l e land users and i n i t i a t e d major
land r e c l a m a t i o n p r o j e c t s in Tuscany and elsewhere in Italy.
T h e i r m a i n a g r i c u l t u r a l products incl u d e d grain, flax,
vines and olive trees. They also r a i s e d horses, cattle
a nd sheep on p a s t u r e la n d . 5 Socially the Etruscans
f o r m e d a m i l i t a r y a r i s t o c r a c y in the culture they e s t a b
lished. Wh e r e they conquered, they subjected p e o p l e to the
conditions o f s e r f d o m and r e q u i r e d their labor in a g r i
culture, industry, a n d the forests and the mines. Serf
revolts w e r e a c o n t i n u i n g element of instability in the
E t r u s c a n social and p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . 6
P o l i t i c a l l y the E t r uscans m a i n t a i n e d a d e c e n t r a l i z e d
form of g o v e r n m e n t for most o f their history. T w e l v e self-
4 Hamm o n d , The C i t y in the An c i e n t W o r l d , p . 247;

H e i c h e l h e i m and Yeo, H i s t o r y of the Roman Pe~ople, p. 33.
5 H e i c h e l h e i m a n d Yeo, H istory of the Roman P e o p l e ,

p. 31.
6 Cary, H i s t o r y of R o m e , p . 23.
21
g o v e r n i n g Etrus c a n cities formed a loose a s s o c i a t i o n or
l e a g u e b a s e d on c u l t u r a l and religious ties. Not until
v e r y late in th e i r h i s t o r y did the E t r u s c a n cities j o i n in
a federal uni o n to f o r m a central p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y or
g o v e r n m e n t .^ The local m i l i t a r y a r i s t o c r a c y was the basis
o f s u p p o r t for the t r a d i t i o n a l d e c e n t r a l i z e d f o r m of g o v e r n
m e n t b e t w e e n and w i t h i n E t r u s c a n cities. They e l e c t e d
t h r o u g h a n d from their local councils a non-hereditary
monarch of limited powers and of a l a r g e l y cere m o n i a l
office. Still, these " c i t y - k i n g s " in ea r l y E t r u s c a n h i s t o r y
h e l d also important m i l i t a r y , religious, a n d judic i a l o f
fices. They w e r e the c o m m a n d e r s - i n - c h i e f of the army, the
h i g h pr i e s t s of r e l igion, and the judges of the law. The
a r i s t o c r a t i c councils r e d u c e d i n c r e a s i n g l y these royal
po w e r s a n d e v e n t u a l l y r e p l a c e d the kings w i t h a n n u a l l y
e l e c t e d m a g i s t r a t e s b y the sixth cen t u r y B.C.
B o t h dome s t i c and f oreign p o licy w e r e u n d e r the control
o f the local E t r u s c a n m i l i t a r y aristocracy. In the absence
o f a u n i f i e d p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y indiv i d u a l E t r u s c a n cities
c a r r i e d out an e x p a n s i o n i s t p o l i c y on an u n c o n c e r t e d and
i s o l a t e d basis. The local ar i s t o c r a c y led the sepa r a t e c o n
q u e r i n g a n d c o l o n i z i n g efforts of their i n d i v i d u a l cities.
T he s e conquests l a sted un t i l Greek cities in s o u t h e r n Italy
7
Cary, H i s t o r y o f R o m e , p p . 20, 22-23; H e i c h e l h e i m
a n d Yeo, H i s t o r y of the Rom a n P e o p l e , p . 29.
8 Ibid.
22
and S i cily d e f e a t e d Etrus c a n land a nd naval forces b e t w e e n
525 a n d 474 B.C. a n d c hecked their e x p a n s i o n in I t a l y . 0
A l o n g w i t h the r e c u r r i n g r evolts of serfs, the b a s i c
p o l i t i c a l d i s u n i t y b e t w e e n E t r u s c a n cities, and the gen e r a l
failure of a n E t r u s c a n d i p l o m a c y b a s e d on conquest, the
above m i l i t a r y defeats m a r k the r e t r e a t of E t r u s c a n p o w e r
and culture. D u r i n g the si x t h c e n t u r y B.C. the c o m m u n i t i e s
in L a t i u m h a d a l r e a d y gone into r e v o l t against E t r u s c a n
rule. The E t r u s c a n m i l i t a r y defeats in s o u t h e r n Italy
only h a s t e n e d the r e j e c t i o n p r o c e s s o f Etrus c a n domination.
Later invasions f r o m the n o r t h b y the Gauls w e a k e n e d f u r
ther the E t r u s c a n h o l d in c entral and n o r t h e r n I t a l y . 10
Given this b r i e f survey, w h a t part did E t r u s c a n cities
play in E t r u s c a n c i v i l i z a t i o n ? W e r e they p l a n n e d c i t i e s ?
The role of the city in a ncient Italy and Greece m a y be
v i e w e d g e n e r a l l y on a c o n t i n u u m v a r y i n g from the ideal
type of the s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , independent, and s o v e r e i g n

I
c i t y - s t a t e to the city i n t e g r a t e d into a c e n t r a l i z e d state
of some k i n d - t h e c i t y - w i t h i n - a - s t a t e . Also, there was
usu a l l y no m a j o r p o l i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n drawn in a n c i e n t
culture b e t w e e n the city a nd the countryside, the two t o
gether f o r m e d a p o l i t i c a l - a d m i n i s t r a t i v e unit. The c i t
izen re s i d e n t s of the one and the oth e r c o n s t i t u t e d a
single p o l i t i c a l e n tity and the c i t y f u n c t i o n e d admin i s -
q
H e i c h e l h e i m and Yeo, H i s t o r y of the Roman P e o p l e ,
p p . 30-31.
10 Cary, H i s t o r y of R o m e , p . 23.
23
t r a t i v e l y for b o t h areas. The role of the E t r u s c a n city is
n ot e n t i r e l y cle a r nor does it a p pear to fit n e a t l y one
or the o t h e r extremes of the continuum.
Besides the use of e n g i n e e r i n g and p l a n n i n g skills in
land r e c l a m a t i o n programs, the Et r u s c a n s a p p l i e d similar
abilities to c i t y - b u i l d i n g . 11 They e m p l o y e d a regular
and p r e c o n c e i v e d formal p l a n in the internal layout of
some o f t h e i r cities. The E t r u s c a n city p l a n c e n t e r e d on
a ri g h t angle i n t e rsection of two m a i n equal axes that
d i v i d e d the city into quarters. These two axes, orien t e d
to the cardi n a l directions n o r t h - s o u t h a nd east-west, tyere
the guide l i n e s o f the twc p r i n c i p l e s treets of the city.
O t h e r str e e t s r an parallel to these axial avenues. The
E t r u s c a n s p a v e d the m a i n streets of the city, a l l o w e d for
street drainage, and built n e w streets w h e n n e e d e d by
s i m p l y e x t e n d i n g or devel o p i n g the lines o f the square or
r e c t a n g u l a r city plan. For the E t r uscans their city plan
was a m i c r o c o s m of their religious u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the
universe. Just as the hea v e n s w e r e d i v i d e d into quaters
for r e l i g i o u s divin a t i o n p u r poses, so the city s h o u l d be
similarly a r r a n g e d to reflect these h i g h e r d e s i g n s . 12
D id this p l a n perhaps also reflect more p r a c t i c a l con
cerns, for example, the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the city for ad-
11 Hammond, City in the Ancient W o r l d , p . 245; Cary,

History of R o m e , p . 23.
12 H e i c h e l h e i m and Yeo, H i s t o r y o f the Ro m a n P e o p l e ,

pp. 28-29; J. B. W a r d - P e r k i n s ,"Cities of A n c i e n t Greece and
24
m i n i s t r a t i v e or e c o n o m i c pur p o s e s ?
M a n y questions r e m a i n c o n c e r n i n g E t r u s c a n urbanization.
Did the Etruscans e s t a b l i s h a c o m m o n m a r k e t or free trade
c o m m u n i t y among their cities? D i d the E t r u s c a n a r i s t o c
racy live in the city or c o u n t r y s i d e or did t hey divide
s o m e h o w their time a n d interest b e t w e e n the two? Were
their cities p r i m a r i l y centers for the control of local
populations and the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f r e g i o n a l resou r c e s ?
Were the cities the centers for local p r o d u c t i o n and trade
or m a n u f a c t u r i n g centers for l o n g - d i s t a n c e tr a d e ? Did the
cities h a v e their own active c ivic life and p l a y an active
role in the E t r u s c a n p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m ? D i d an u rban middle
class ever develop in E t r u s c a n s o c i e t y ? W h a t w e r e the
m a j o r i n t e r u r b a n issues of t heir t ime? W h a t k i n d of t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m did the Etruscans deve l o p an d mai n t a i n ?
W h a t p o l i c i e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d to m e e t these issues? Did
E t r u s c a n city p l a n n e r s influence later R o m a n city planning?
If so, h o w ? These que s t i o n s c o n t i n u e to seek mor e definite
a n s w e r s .13
With the decline o f E t r u s c a n influence, Roman ur b a n
i z a t i o n gra d u a l l y s u c c e e d e d E t r u s c a n u r b a n i z a t i o n in central
and n o r t h e r n Italy. A c c o r d i n g to tradition, the Romans
o u s t e d the last of the Etruscan m o n a r c h s in 509 B.C. and
Italy: P l a n n i n g in Classical A n t i q u i t y (New York: George

B r a z i l l e r , 1974J, p p . 24-25, 118,
Hammond, City in the A n c i e n t W o r l d , p p . 245-249;

W a r d - P e r k i n s , Cities o f Ancient Greece a n d Italy, p . 25,
25
e s t a b l i s h e d a republic in the same y e a r . * 4 During the n ext
ce n turies the Romans e x p a n d e d throu g h o u t Italy. Following
m any b a t t l e s in T u s c a n y dur i n g the fo u r t h and third c e n turies
B.C. the Romans b r o u g h t the E t r u s c a n cities w i t h i n the
compass of t h e i r s t a t e . 15 Roman e x p a n s i o n into Tusc a n y
e v e n t u a l l y set the stage for Roman u r b a n i z a t i o n of the
region an d for later m e d i e v a l and e a r l y m o d e r n accounts of
the orig i n s of Florence.
The exact date of the founding o f R o m a n Florence is a
muc h d e b a t e d question. Since no d e f i n i t i v e evidence, w r i t t e n
or o therwise, has fixed w i t h c e r t a i n t y the b i r t h date of
Florence, p r e m o d e r n and m o d e r n auth o r s have p r e s e n t e d
v arious v i e w s of the city's origin. Muc h of m e d ieval
d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n i n g this q u e s t i o n r e l a t e d the f o u nding
of R o m a n Florence to the hist o r y of E t r u s c a n Fiesole.
D u r i n g the m e d i e v a l p e r i o d the p a r t i c u l a r b l e n d of
l egend and fact that r e p r e s e n t e d R o m a n h i s t o r y ha d a con-

I
s i derable h o l d on the imagination. F l o r e n t i n e m e d ieval
chroni c l e r s a s s o c i a t e d their city's de s i r e for p o l i t i c a l
i nde p e n d e n c e and control of the r e g i o n s u r r o u n d i n g Florence
w i t h the ancient Roman struggle against the Etruscans for
control of c e n t r a l Italy. These c h r o n i c l e r s cast Florence
in the par t o f the unif i e r Romans a n d Fies o l e in the p a r t -
14 Cary, H i s t o r y of R o m e , p p . 49-50, 60-61.
15 I b i d . , p p . 89, 96.
26
of the r e s i s t a n t and d i s c o r d a n t Etruscans. Though there
is l i ttle or no h i s t o r i c a l b a s i s for it, the theme of
r i v a l r y b e t w e e n Florence and F i e s o l e wove its w a y t h r o u g h
m u c h of Flor e n t i n e m e d i e v a l l i t e r a t u r e and r e f l e c t e d the
feelings of n a t i o n a l i s m d u r i n g p e r i o d s of F l o r e n t i n e
16
expansion.
D u r i n g the thir t e e n t h c e n t u r y an anonymous Florentine
c h r o n i c l e r est i m a t e d that F l o r e n c e was founded at the time
of the Catil i n e c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t the Roman g o v e r n m e n t
(63-62 B.C.) and the c o n s u l s h i p o f Julius Caesar (59 B . C . ) . ^
The c h r o n i c l e r ' s account o f the o r i g i n of F l o r e n c e intro
du c e d b a s i c themes that w e r e e m p h a s i z e d in v a r i o u s w a y s
b y l a t e r m e d i e v a l F l o r e n t i n e writers. A c c o r d i n g to the
an o n y m o u s chronicler, the o r i g i n of Florence o c c u r r e d in
the f o l l o w i n g w a y . 18
W h e n Catiline's p l o t cr u m b l e d , the c o n s p i r a t o r s t o o k
N i c o l a i Rubinstein, "The Beginnings o f P o l i t i c a l

T h o u g h t in F l orence," J ournal o f the Wa r b u r g and C o u r t a u l d
I nstitutes 5(1942): 204-209.
1^ Rubinstein, " B e ginnings": 200.
Ibid.: 198-227; This d e s c r i p t i o n of the o r i g i n of

F l o r e n c e is bas e d on a s u m m a r y o f the anonymous c h r o n i c l e r ' s
ac c o u n t p r e s e n t e d in the abo v e article. For a d i s c u s s i o n of
a n o t h e r m a j o r theme in m e d i e v a l chroniclers see: Rubinstein,
"Some Ideas on Mu n i c i p a l Progr e s s and Decline in the Italy
of the C o m m u n e s , " in Fritz S a x l , 1890-1948, A V o l u m e o f M e m o
rial E s says from his Friends in E n g l a n d , e d . , D. J. G o r d e n
( E dinburgh and London, 1957) : 165-183; Also: J. K. Hyde,
"M e d i e v a l D e s c r iption o f C i t i e s , " B u l l e t i n of the J o h n
R ylands L ibrary M a n c h e s t e r 48(1965-66): 308-340.
27
re f u g e in Fiesole. T he Rom a n army sent a g a i n s t Catiline
an d his followers d e f e a t e d t h e m on the p l a i n s o u t s i d e of
P i s t o i a to the w e s t o f Fi e s o l e in 62 B.C. A f t e r the defeat
a n d d e a t h of Catiline, the R o m a n c o mmanders Flori n u s and
Metellus led the army in a siege of Fiesole. D u r i n g the
s ie g e the Fiesolans m a n a g e d a suprise a t t a c k on the Roman
camp a n d k i l l e d Florinus, his family, and all the Roman
s o l d i e r s b i l l e t e d t h e r e w i t h them. Julius Caesar, consul
o f Rome (59 B.C.), t h e n c o m m a n d e d a s e c o n d a r m y for the
s i e g e o f Fiesole. A f t e r m o r e than eight y e a r s of u n
s u c c e s s f u l siege, the two sides r eached an agreement.
F i e s o l e was e v a c u a t e d and d e s t r o y e d and a n e w city built
to in clude Fiesolans a nd R o mans at the site w h e r e Florinus,
his family, and the R o m a n soldiers died. (Fiesole was not

19
a c t u a l l y d e s t r o y e d at this time.) The R o mans and the
F i e s o l a n s w e r e n ow to be reconciled. Though Caesar wanted
the city n a m e d after him, the Roman Senate n a m e d the city
for Florinus bec a u s e he was the first to b u i l d on the spot
a n d be c a u s e flowers c o v e r e d the area. This a c c o u n t of
Florence's origin e n d e d the first p h a s e of the anonymous
ch r o n i c l e r ' s h i s t o r y o f the city. In the l a t e r p h a s e s of
Rubinstein, " Beginnings,": 203; "The d e s c r i p t i o n

o f the first f o u n d a t i o n of Florence by the Romans is p r o b
ably n e a r e r to h i s t o r i c a l truth. The m a i n p o i n t s t r e s s e d
by the Cr o n i c a is, h o w e v e r , a legendary d e s t ruction: the
f o u n d a t i o n of Florence was n ot in direct c o n s e q u e n c e of the
d e s t r u c t i o n o f Fiesole. This much can be s t a t e d d e f i n i t e l y
a l t h o u g h the q u e s t i o n o f the origins of F l o r e n c e in spite
o f m a n y attempts at c l a r i f i c a t i o n is not y e t e n t i r e l y
solved."
28
Florence's h i s t o r y the anonymous c h r o n i c l e r de s c r i b e d r e
n e w e d r i v a l r y b e t w e e n Florence a nd Fi e s o l e and c o n t i n u e d to
a s s o c i a t e the progress of F l o r e n c e w i t h the decline of
Fiesole.
O t h e r four t e e n t h c entury F l o r e n t i n e writers accepted
the t h i r t e e n t h c entury chro n i c l e r ' s o r i g i n of Florence.
G iovanni Villa n i , a Florentine citizen, executive o f f i c e
holder, banker, and chronicler, p r e s e n t e d b a s ically the same
account o f the o r igin and h i s t o r y o f Florence in his writings.
The p o e t Dante also v i e w e d Caesar as the founder of Florence.
Both the c h r o n i c l e r and the p o e t also a c c e n t u a t e d the theme
that the Fie s o l a n s and oth e r o u t s i d e r s w e r e the source of
d i s c o r d w i t h i n F l o r e n c e . 20
In the late fourte enth and ear l y f i f teenth century,
F l o r e n t i n e h u m a n i s t scholars c h a l l e n g e d a nd reje c t e d the
v i e w of the imperial origins of F l o r e n c e during the time of
Caesar's rule in Rome. B a s e d on clo s e re a d i n g and textual
analysis of a ncient Roman authors', the Florentine humanists
and c h a n c e l l o r s Coluccio Salutati a nd Leonardo Bruni p r e
s e nted the v i e w that Florence's origins date from the time
of the R o m a n Republic r a ther than f r o m the time of the
Roman Empire. S p e c i f i c a l l y their studies p o i n t e d to the
found i n g of Rome by the v e t e r a n s o f Sulla's army a r ound
2a Villa n i , C r o n i c a , I, p p . 44, 47, 52-59, 78, 89,

133-137; Giova n n i Aquilecchia, "Dante a nd the Florentine
C h r o n i c l e r s , " B u l l e t i n of the J o h n R ylands Library M a n c h e s t e r
48(.1965-66) : 30-55.
29
71
79 B.C. * Before long the grounds of the debate m o v e d
once again. F o l l o w i n g the discovery of the Liber Colo n i a r u m
in the late fi f t e e n t h century, Poliziano, a Flor e n t i n e
h u m a n i s t scholar also, h e l d the v i e w that F l o r e n c e s
origins are t r a c e a b l e not to Sulla but to the T r i u m v i r a t e
of Octavius, Lepidus, and M a r k A nthony b e t w e e n 43 to 32
B . C . 22
W h e n N iccolo M a c h i a v e l l i commented on the o r i g i n of
Florence in his h i s t o r y of the city, c o m p l e t e d in 1525,
he did not assign one speci f i c year or date to the f o u n d
ing of Florence but i n s t e a d referred to the conditions
that m ay have p r o m o t e d Fiesolans and Romans to o r g a n i z e
settlements on the p l a i n s along the Arno River r a t h e r than
on the hilltops or mountains. He cited comm e r c i a l reasons
for the m o v e m e n t to the plains of the Arno Riv e r V a l l e y -
the desire for a m o r e accessible, convenient, and spacious
location for markets. This occurred fo l l o w i n g the e s t a b
lishment o f Roman co n t r o l over Italy d u ring the t h i r d and

?^
s e cond centuries B.C.
2* Hans Baron, The Crisis of the Ear l y Italian R e n

aissance: Civic H u m a n i s m and Republican L iberty in an Age
of C l a s s i c i s m and T y r a n n y (Princeton U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1955,
T 9 pp76T-64.-----------
22 Nicolai R u b i n stein, "Machiavelli E Le Or i g i n i Di

F i r enze," Rivista S t o r i c a Italiana 79(1967): 952-959.
2
N iccolo M a c h i a v e l l i , History of Florence and o f
the Affairs of Italy from the Earliest Times to the Death
of Lorenzo the M a g n i f i c e n t , Introduction by Fel i x Gilbert
(New York: H a r p e r 5 Row, 1960), p p . 47-48.
T h u s , altho u g h the fear of w ar induces a
w i l l i n g n e s s to occupy p l a c e s strong and
d i f ficult of access, as s o o n as the cause
of ala r m is removed, m e n gladly r e sort to
more c o nvenient and e a s i l y attainable
localities. Hence, the security to w h i c h
the repu t a t i o n of the R o m a n repub l i c gave
birth, c a u s e d the inhabitants, h a v i n g
b e g u n in the m a n n e r described, to increase
so m u c h as to f o r m a town, this was at
first c a lled the Vil l a A r n i n a . 2 4
However, the peace w as not l o n g - l a s t i n g and civil w ar
d i s r u p t e d the Ro m a n R e p u b l i c d u r i n g the first century B.C.
...first b y Sylla, and a f t e r w a r d by th.e three

Ro m a n citizens, who, h a v i n g avenged the death
of Caesar, d i v i d e d the e m pire among themselves,
colonies w e r e sent to Fiesole, which, either in
p a r t or in w h o l e fixed t h e i r inhabitants in the
plain, n e a r to the then r i s i n g town. By this
increase, the pla c e b e c a m e so f i l l e d w i t h d w e l
lings, that it might w i t h p r o p r i e t y be e n u m e r a t e d
am o n g the cities of I t a l y . 25
At this point, it appears that M a c h i a v e l l i w as a t t e m p t i n g
to c o v e r all the possib le or i g i n s of Florence, and lie
confirms this impr e s s i o n s o m e w h a t in his sum m a r y co m m e n t
of the c i t y s origin.
The r e are various opinions conc e r n i n g the d e

ri v a t i o n of the w o r d Florentia. Some suppose it
to come from Florinus, one of the p r i n c i p l e p e r
sons of the colony; others think it was o r i g i n
ally not Florentia, but Fluentia, and suppose the
w o r d d erived from fluente, or flowing of the Arno...
I think that, h o w e v e r derived, the name was always
Florentia, and that w h a t e v e r the o r i g i n might be,
it occurred und e r the R o m a n empire, and beg a n to be
24 M a c h iavelli, History of F l o r e n c e , p p . 47-48.
I b i d . , p . 48.
31
n o t i c e d by wr i t e r s in the tim e s of the first
e m p e r o r s .26
M a c h i a v e l l i 1s r e view of the va r i o u s p o s s i b l e origins of
F l o r e n c e a n d his s u b s c r i p t i o n to an imperial o r igin of
the city indicates that the q u e s t i o n h a d not b e e n r e s o l v e d
to e v e r y o n e ' s s a t i s f a c t i o n in the m e d i e v a l and early
m o d e r n periods. His comments a n t i c i p a t e d somewhat the
future.
M o d e r n scholars have i n h e r i t e d the debate a nd have
d i v e r s i f i e d the inve s t m e n t o f t h e i r intel l e c t u a l fortunes.
One a u t h o r w r i t e s :
In 187 the Consul C. Flaminus s u p p l e m e n t e d the

V i a Flaminia, w h i c h his father h a d c o n s t r u c t e d
by a t r a n s - A p p e n i n e route f r o m the A r n o v a l l e y
to B o n o n i a ( B o l o g n a ) . It was p r o b a b l y on this
o c c a s i o n that the future city of F l o r e n t i a (from
w h i c h p o i n t the n e w route started) was founded
as a r o a d s i d e post o f Roman s e t tlers, to replace
the o l d E t r u s c a n h i l l - f o r t of F a e s u l a e . 2 7
A n o t h e r v i e w suggests that there w e r e two separate sites
for two F l o r e n t i n e s ettlements a l o n g the A r n o - - o n e for
E t r u s c a n Florence, d e s t r o y e d d u r i n g one of Rome's civil
w ars in 82 B.C., and an o t h e r for R o m a n Florence, founded
a c c o r d i n g to a law p a s s e d d u r i n g the c o n s u l s h i p of Julius
C a e s a r in 59 B.C. The tr a d i t i o n a l v i e w p o i n t on the two-
site q u e s t i o n has m a i n t a i n e d that the site of Etru s c a n
Machiavelli, H i s t o r y of F l o r e n c e , p p . 48-49.
^ Cary, H i s t o r y of R o m e , p . 180.
32
and Roman F l o r e n c e was one and the same. 28
A d d i t i o n a l vi e w s poi n t to the c o n t i n u e d u n r e s o l v e d
state of the q u e s t i o n until more c e r t a i n e v i d e n c e c an shed
light on the issue. T he first argu m e n t maintains that
" historical F l o r e n c e " was orig i n a l l y a "Roman c o l o n y " and
that there are v a r i o u s " v alid r e a s o n s " for s u b s c r i b i n g to
a thesis of the f o u n d i n g of Florence by Sulla a r o u n d 82-
79 B . C . 29 The s e c o n d v i e w p o i n t suggests that the d e b a t e is
not about to e nd w i t h one definite date af f i x e d to the
f o u n d i n g o f Florence. This v i e w considers that the o r i g i n
of F l o r e n c e was d u r i n g the time of Sulla, or the t r i u m v i r a l
p e r i o d m e n t i o n e d above, or the r e i g n of Octavius A u g u s t u s . ^
T h o u g h the d e b a t e on the issue of origins b r ings to
light m a n y i n t e r e s t i n g q u e stions and views of F l o r e n t i n e
h istory, the m a i n q u e s t i o n remains unanswered. W h e n was
F lore n c e f o u n d e d ? G i v e n the lack o f c e r t a i n e v i d e n c e it
may be e n o u g h to s ay for n o w and for purposes h e r e that
F l o r e n c e s h i s t o r y b e g a n as a Roman c o lony alo n g the m o s t
fordable c r o s s i n g of the Arno River somet i m e d u r i n g the
first c e n t u r y B.C.
Like the c i ty's origin, early Flore n t i n e d e v e l o p m e n t
2 F e r d i n a n d S c h evill, Medie v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e

Florence, 2 vols. (New York: H a r p e r 8 Row, P u b l i s h e r s ,
1961) p p . 5-6.
29 R u b i n s t e i n , "Beginnings": 225-227.
30 E. T. S almon, Rom a n C o l o n i z a t i o n Under the R e p u b l i c ,

(Ithaca, N e w York: C ornell U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970), p p . 137-
139, 162.
33
lacks d e f i n i t e documentation. It is perhaps more from the
gene r a l trends and condi t i o n s of R oman u r b a n i z a t i o n in
Italy and w e s t e r n Europ e tha n f r o m specific records of
F l o r e n c e that the h i s t o r i c a l cont e x t of the city's early
d e v e l o p m e n t m a y be outlined. A l t h o u g h there were exceptions
a nd a d j u s t m e n t s made to p a r t i c u l a r circumstances, R oman
u r b a n i z a t i o n r e f l e c t e d m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that a p p l i e d
w i d e l y t h roughout Italy and later t h roughout w e s t e r n
E u r o p e as far as the Rhine an d D a n u b e R i v e r s . In the m ore
e c o n o m i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d e a s t e r n p a r t of the Roman E m p i r e
u r b a n c i v i l i z a t i o n already t h r i v e d be f o r e the arri v a l of
the Romans, so it was in the still n o n u r b a n i z e d w e s t e r n
p a r t o f the empire that R oman u r b a n i z a t i o n was most in
fluential.
The e x p a n s i o n of R oman c i v i l i z a t i o n generally t o o k the
f o r m o f a local area o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d an urban center.
The e v e n t u a l result was an e x t e n d e d n e t w o r k of a d m i n i s
t r a t i v e - u r b a n centers and civic units defended by the Roman
a r m y an d l i n k e d by a river, sea, an d roa d tr a n s p o r t a t i o n
system. T h o u g h there were imp o r t a n t variations and exceptions,
this expansion, s t r e t c h i n g fro m E n g l a n d to Egypt by the
s e c o n d c e n t u r y A.D., ma y be d e s c r i b e d in the following way.
The Roman empire was an a g g l o m e r a t i o n of cities

( c i v i t a t e s ) , s e l f - g o v e r n i n g communities r e
s p o n s i b l e for the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the areas
w h i c h they occupied, their territories. In
eac h civitas there was a tow n w h i c h was its
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e capi t a l and in v a r y i n g degrees
its e c o nomic and s ocial centre, but there was
34
no legal d istinction b e t w e e n the u r b a n and
rural members of the community. Constitution
ally and administratively, then, the cities
w e r e the cells of w h i c h the e m pire was composed.
Geog r a p h i c a l l y the m a p of the empire was a
m o s a i c of city territories. In terms of p e r
sons all Roman c i t i z e n s ; - w h i c h since 212 A.D.
m e a n t p r a c t i c a l l y all indigineous free i n
h a b itants of the e m p i r e - - b e l o n g e d to some
c i v i t a s . 31
M o s t o f these urb a n centers were small in p o p u l a t i o n and
l ocally orien t e d in their p r o d u c t i o n a nd trade activities.
T h o u g h accurate figures are n ot y e t available, one tentative
set o f figures " a s s u m e s M for the " E u r o p e a n prov i n c e s " a
m a x i m u m p o p u l a t i o n of thirty m i l l i o n a nd suggests five
h u n d r e d civitates for the area w i t h a m a x i m u m average size
of six t y thousand population. This model hypothesizes that
it is u n l i k e l y a p o p u l a t i o n of s i x t y t h o u s a n d could support
a large town, and proposes a ten p e r c e n t urban p o p u l a t i o n
on the average for each civitas. This places the average
size o f a town or urban center at a figure "no more than
s ix thous a n d . " ,
R om a n roads were the m a j o r links that connected the
" mosaic o f city terr i t o r i e s " in E u r o p e from Italy to the
3* Jones, Later Roman E m p i r e , p . 712; For discu s s i o n

o f the w e s t e r n empire see: Frank V/. Walbank, "Trade and
Industry under the Later Roman E m p i r e in the W e s t , " in
CEH v o l . 2 (Cambridge: At The U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1952),
p p . 33-85; Norman J. G. Pounds, A n H i s t o r i c a l Geography of
E u r o p e 450 B . C . - A . D . 1330 ( C a m b r i d g e : At The University
Press, 1973), cha p t e r 3, "Europe in the Age of the Anto-
n i n e s , " p p . 95-169; N. J. G. Pounds, A n Economic H i s t o r y of
M e d i e v a l Europe (London: Longman Group Limited, 1974),
c h a p t e r 1, "The Later Roman E m p i r e , " p p . 1-40.
32 Pounds, Economic H i s t o r y , p p . 23-24.
35
border p r o v i n c e s a l o n g the Rhine and D a n u b e Rivers. These
roads w e r e e x t e n s i v e , w e l l constructed, ston e - p a v e d , expen
sive to m a i n t a i n , and d e s i g n e d m o r e for m i l i t a r y than c o m
mercial use. The R o m a n state d i r e c t e d the e n t i r e land
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m w h i c h m o v e d b a s i c a l l y two kinds of
t r a f f i c--express an d regular.
The R oman p u b l i c r o a d system (the cursus publicus) was
also the m a i n p o s t a l and m i l i t a r y r oute s y s t e m of the
empire. C o u riers on h o r s e b a c k c o u l d travel these roads
at express sp e e d s of up to fifty m iles p e r day, and light
carriages d r a w n b y horses or mules c o u l d do about twenty-
five miles pe r day. S ince these roads w e r e s u p p o s e d l y
r e s erved for g o v e r n m e n t activities, the u s e o f the express
routes and s e r v i c e s r e q u i r e d official license. The g r a n t i n g
of these licenses e v e n t u a l l y became fairly w i d e s p r e a d w i t h
the exp a n s i o n an d c h a n g i n g needs of the empire. The mor e
regular s p e e d t r a f f i c o f the larger freight wa g o n s drawn by
oxen and donkeys m o v e d along the r o a dways at a b o u t six or
seven miles a day. The m a x i m u m load c a p a c i t y o f four
w h e e l e d freight w a g o n s was about f i f t e e n h u n d r e d pounds.
In some places up to ten donkeys and four o x e n may have b e e n
u s e d to d r a w the la r g e r wagons. T here w e r e r elay stations
keep i n g animals a bout every six miles (mutationes) and
lodging an d w a r e h o u s e stations about every te n to twelve
miles (mansiones). T h e s e lodging and w a r e h o u s e stations
provided accommodations for travellers and s t o r a g e places for
food, m i l i t a r y s u p p l i e s , and o ther like items. The local
36
provinces and governments p a i d for the u p k e e p of the t r a n s
port s y s t e m w h i c h r an t h r o u g h their areas, and requisitioned
the an i m a l s to support the s y s t e m f r o m the local areas. The
g o v e r n m e n t also u s e d r e q u i r e d labor to m a i n t a i n the roads
and t he v a r i o u s stations alo n g the routes. The i n c r e a s i n g
use o f the roads by m o r e p e o p l e as the e m p i r e e x p a n d e d and
the v i o l a t i o n s of r e s t r i c t i o n s on l o a d limits inten d e d p r i
m a r i l y to p r e v e n t the o v e r b u r d e n i n g o f p a c k a n i m a l s and
v e h i c l e d r a w i n g animals w e r e among the v a r i o u s reasons w h i c h
m a d e t he t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m v e r y e x p e n s i v e to maintain. Also,
there w e r e r e s t rictions on the c o m m e r c i a l use o f R o m a n p u b l i c
highways.
T h o u g h the m o t i v a t i o n s for R o m a n r o a d b u i l d i n g c h a n g e d
s o m e w h a t over time f r o m m i l i t a r y to c o m m e r c i a l c o n s i d e r
ations, some o f the r e s t r a i n t s on c o m m e r c i a l tr a f f i c r e
mained in effect.
In D i o c l e t i a n ' s t i m e - - t o quote o n l y o ne e x a m p l e - -
the o f f i c i a l pri c e o f a c a r t l o a d of h a y was 600
d e n a r i a nd its t r a n s p o r t cost 20 d e n a r i per mile,
w h i c h m a d e the cost of t r a n s p o r t i n g it 30 miles
pr o h i b i t i v e . It is true that the t r a n s p o r t price
w as d e t e r m i n e d b y the small size of the carts,
w h o s e c a p a c i t y was h a r d l y gre a t e r t h a n that of
p a c k animals; and the size in t u r n was d e t e r m i n e d
b y the m ethods o f haulage. N e i t h e r h o r s e s nor
m u l e s w e r e shod at this time, both, like oxen,
w e r e h a r n e s s e d by a sort of yoke, c o m p l i c a t e d
in their case by an e l a s t i c c o l l a r w h i c h c o n
s t r i c t e d the n e c k w i t h every e x c e s s i v e pull.
N o r w as it c u s t o m a r y to harness a file of
animals c o n s e c u t i v e l y to the same cart. These
m e t h o d s m i g h t h a v e b e e n improved. In fact we k n o w
t h a t in U p p e r Italy several o x e n w e r e y o k e d in
file for farm-labor. But it was u s e l e s s to i n
c r e a s e the n u m b e r o f h a u l a g e a nimals so long as
the v e h i c l e r e m a i n e d small, and i m p o s s i b l e to
e n l a r g e the cart so long as the roads r e m a i n e d
37
narrow. A n d so long as m e r c h a n t s did not earn
e n o u g h pr o f i t s to o b t a i n a v o i c e in the m a t t e r
w i t h the r e l e v a n t d e p a r t m e n t of the civil
serv i c e , roads w o u l d not be w i d e n e d . 3 3
W a t e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m a d e up for some but not all of these
deficiencies. Rivers w e r e n ot equ a l l y n a v i g a b l e t h r o u g h o u t
Italy a n d w e s t e r n Europe, e s p e c i a l l y on a y e a r - r o u n d basis,
n o r d id s e a tr a n s p o r t alone m e e t the needs of i n l a n d areas.
The a b o v e a nd other elements h e l p e d to shape the p a t t e r n
o f Rom a n urbaniz a t i o n . In the a bsence of l a r g e - s c a l e r e g i o n a l
or i n d u s t r i a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a n d in the p r e s e n c e of the r e
strai n t s already discussed Roman urban civilization f u n c
t i o n e d m o r e and m o r e w i t h i n the context o f an i n c r e a s i n g l y
c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m p l a c e d over a d e c e n t r a l i z e d
e c o n o m i c system. However, these d e v e lopments occurred grad
u a l l y in the w e s t e r n p a r t of the Rom a n Empire.
R o m a n u r b a n i z a t i o n o c c u r r e d in stages and e x p r e s s e d
a variety of forms. D u r i n g the fourth and t h i r d c e n turies
B.C. the f o u n d i n g of c o l o n i e s f o l l o w e d cl o s e l y Rom a n m i l i
tary e x p a n s i o n t h r o u g h o u t Italy. The Romans p l a n n e d a nd
b u i l t m i l i t a r y colo n i e s and roads to secure a nd to a d m i n
ister R o m a n control over n e w l y c o n q u e r e d areas. These
colonies f u n c t i o n e d as civic centers for the n e w l y g a ined
territories, vehi c l e s for the s p r e a d of Roman in s t i t u t i o n s ,
33 J o nes, Later Rom a n E m p i r e , p p . 830-834, 1045-1049;

W a l b a n k , "Trade a nd Industry, in C E H , p p . 49-50, 59-84; For
q uo t e see: R. S. Lopez, "The E v o l u t i o n o f Land T r a n s p o r t
in the M i d d l e A g e s , " in Past a nd Present 9(1956): 18.
and d i s t r i b u t i o n points for a growing popula t i o n . None
theless, the first o b j e c t i v e of these early c o l onies r e
m a i n e d the m i l i t a r y control of newly c o n q u e r e d areas.
The m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e m o t i v a t e d the s e l e c t i o n of the
most d e f e n s i b l e l o c a t i o n for the colony's site, h i l l t o p
a nd m o u n t a i n p o s i t i o n s b e i n g usually c h o s e n u n d e r these
c ircums t a n c e s . However, as Roman e x p a n s i o n c o n t i n u e d and
control b e c a m e m o r e c e r t a i n in Italy, o ther factors came
into p l a y to in f l u e n c e the site s e l e c t i o n of n e w t o w n s . 34
By the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. the Romans established a
n e a r l y c o m p l e t e rule o ver Italy as far as the Alps. In
the p e r i o d o f s t a b i l i t y w h i c h came w i t h this expansion,
R oman forts d e v e l o p e d into R oman towns and n e w colonies
f o l l o w e d R o m a n roadbuilding.
Clearly, s t r a t e g i c considerations wer e e v e n n o w by

n o m e a n s o v e r l o o k e d w h e n colonies wer e b e i n g p r o
posed, b u t no less clearly the emphasis h a d shifted.
In the last t h i r d of th e second century, the f o u n
dati o n s w e r e m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e n d e d to serve
o t h e r funct i o n s , such as the re l i e f of u r b a n u n
e m p l o y m e n t or the p r o m o t i o n of trade a n d commerce.
R o m a n r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n - - a n d this always wen t hand

in h a n d w i t h c o l o n i z a t i o n - - i n d i c a t e d the same thing.
B e f o r e the G r a c c h a n age the great roads h a d b een
b uilt, the V i a Latina or p o s s i b l y the V i a A ppia
(312) b e i n g the earliest. They wer e all p r i m a r i l y
for m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s and all o f them w e r e an in
te g r a l p a r t of the s t rategic system for w h i c h the
34 E d w a r d T. Salmon, A History o f the R o m a n 'World

f rom 50 B.C. to A.D. 138 (London: M e t h e u n Co., 1970,
1544) and R o m a n C o l o n i z a t i o n under the R e p u b l i c (Ithaca,
N.Y.: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970) p p . 14-16, 56-69,
128-149, 154-157; .Also: Cary, A Hist o r y of Rome, p p . 28-
103, 123-126, 129, 178-181.
39
colonies were the linchpins. But b e t w e e n 133 and
109 no fewer than ei g h t n ew roads w e r e built, all
largely for economic purposes: one o f their main
functions was to p r o v i d e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h the
regions where the b e n e f i c i a r i e s of the Gracchan
agrar i a n legislation w e r e s e t t l e d . 35
Ge o g r aphical factors s h a p e d i n c r e a s i n g l y the site selection
w h e n Rome m o v e d nor t h into the Arno and Po Valleys. Hills
and m o u n t a i n s cover most o f Italy's s urface area, and the
A r n o and Po Valleys p r e s e n t a contrast to the usual terrain.
The plains o f these two v a l l e y s p r e s e n t e d the Roman e n g i
neers and surveyors w i t h the k i n d of t o p o g r a p h y and o p p o r
tunity w h i c h was p a r t i c u l a r l y suita b l e for the applic a t i o n
of a r e g u l a r plan in p l a t t i n g the city and countryside.
In brief, a different g e o g r a p h y and i n c r e a s e d security
fa v o r e d increased s e t t l e m e n t in m o r e a c c e s s i b l e a r e a s . 3^
Roman u r b a n p l a n n i n g a p p e a r e d in its m o s t c o m p r e h e n
sive form in the n e w towns a nd cities they e s t a b l i s h e d . ^
35 Salmon, Rom a n C o l o n i z a t i o n , p p . 122-123. See also

p age 84 and maps on 46 and 107, and p h o t o g r a p h s b etween 48-
49 and 112-133. The maps trace m a i n Roman roads in Italy,
and the aerial photograhps s h o w Rom a n sites and ruins along
or near roads and located on hillt o p s a nd promon t o r i e s ;
A l s o see the very well o u t l i n e d map of p r i n c i p a l Roman roads
in Cary, H istory of Rome, o.90, and d i s c u s s i o n of roads on
p p . 96, 152-153, 178-181.
7 A
Salmon, Roman C o lonization, p p . 90, 96, 153-163,
178-181.
3 ? On the planning of ancient cities a nd Roman urban

p l a n n i n g see: Ferdinand C astagnoli, O r t h o g o n a l Town P l a n
n i n g in A n t i q u i t y , trans. V i c o t y Caliandro ( C a m b r i d g e : The
M I T Press, 1971), p p . 95-121 outline the use of the regular
r ight- a n g l e intersecting s t r e e t p l a n in R o m a n towns and
cities; J. B. W a r d - P e r k i n s , "Early Roman Towns in Italy,"
Town Plann i n g Review 26(1955-56): 127-154 a nd Cities of
A n c i e n t Greece and Italy: Plann i n g in C l a s s i c a T Antiquity
40
Mo s t Rom a n cities, in c l u d i n g Rome itself, d e v e l o p e d g r a d
u a l l y and s p o n t a n e o u s l y w i t h o u t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o o r d i n
a t e d plan, w h i l e other cities, especially the n e w e r cities,
like Aosta, Turin, and Florence were p l a n n e d cities w i t h
u s u a l l y r e c t a n g u l a r or s q uare layouts and streets crossing
at ri g h t angles. The Romans also designed e a c h n e w city for
a p r o j e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n size. Part of their u r b a n v o c a b u l a r y
i n c l u d e d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of markets, temples, theatres,
baths a nd m u n i c i p a l offices a m o n g the servi c e s and i n s t i t u
tions o f n e w towns and cities intended for a fixed n u m b e r of
inhabitants. Aqueducts, d r a i n a g e systems, a nd roads w e r e
(New York: George B r aziller, 1974); Azal Boethius a nd J.

B. W a r d - P e r k i n s , E t r u s c a n and Roman A r c h i t e c t u r e (Baltimore:
P e n g u i n Books, 1970), p a r t i c u l a r l y p p . 56-77, 148-180;
F rancis J. Ha v e r f i e l d , A n c i e n t Town Plann i n g (Oxford:
C l a r e n d o n Press, 1913); R. E. W y cherley, H ow the Greeks Built
C i t i e s , 2d ed. (New York: D o u b l e d a y C o ~ 1969), chapters
1 and 2; Lewis Mumford, The City in H istory (New York:
Ha r c o u r t , Brace a nd World, 1961), chapters 3-7; M a x Weber,
The C i t y , trans. and ed. D on M a r t i n d a l e and G e r t r u d e Neu-
w i r t h (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1958), p a r t i c u l a r l y
chapt e r s 3-5; V. Gordon Childe, "The Urb a n R e v o l u t i o n , "
T o w n P l a n n i n g R e view 21(1950): 3-17; For cultural, social,
e c o n o m i c and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h i s t o r y see: M a s o n Hamm o n d ,
The City in the A n c i e n t W o r l d (Cambridge: H a r v a r d U niver-
sity Press, 1972), e s p e c i a l l y chapters 17, 18, and 19;
M i k h a i l I. Rostovzeff, The S o cial and E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y of
the Ro m a n E m p i r e , 2d ed~ (Oxford: C l a rendon P r e s s ,. 1957) ,
c hapt e r s 5 a nd 6 discuss Roman cities and the city and
c o u n t r y s i d e in Italy and Sicily; A. H. M. Jones, The Later
R o m a n Empire: 2 8 4 - 6 0 2 , 2 vols. (Borman: U n i v e r s i t y of
O k l a h o m a Press, 1964), p a r t i c u l a r l y vol. 1, c h a p t e r 19, "The
C i t i e s , " p p . 712-766, also A. H. M. Jones, The Roman E c o n o m y :
S tudies in Anc i e n t Econo m i c and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e H i s t o r y , ed. P.
A. Bru n t (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974); G. H. S t e v e n s o n ,
R o m a n P r o v i n c i a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Till the Age of the A n t o n i n e s
COxford: Basil B l ackwell, 1939); Salmon. H i s t o r y o f the
R o m a n W o r l d (London: M a t h e u n Co., 1970, 1944).
38
c o m m o n features of Ro m a n c i ties a nd towns. A c c o r d i n g to
the above " w h o l i s t i c " v i e w of the city, Florence b e g a n its
u r b a n life as a p l a n n e d R o m a n c o l o n y - c i t y during the first
century B . C . 39 Flore n c e is a l s o one example of the m a n y
v a l l e y cities w h i c h e x p r e s s e d the c h a n g e d d i r e c t i o n of
R o m a n urbanization.
Once e s t a blished, F l o r e n t i n e s h a v e d ecided ever since
to r e m a i n o n the orig i n a l R o m a n site. Not only does this
s p e a k well for the initial c h o i c e w h i c h w o n the a c c e p t a n c e
TO
J For maps and d i s c u s s i o n of Aosta, Turin, and F l o r e n c e
see: H a v e r f i e l d , A n c i e n t T o w n 'Planning, p p . 86-95; C astagnoli,
O r t h o g o n a l Town P l a n n i n g , p p . 108, 110-112; W a r d - P e r k i n s , 'Early
R o m a n Towns," figures 15 and 25 (.Florence) , figures 19 and 20
(Aosta); Salmon, Roman C o l o n i z a t i o n , p . 139, figure 9 (Florence)
p . 140, figure 10 (Turin), p p . 142-143, figure 11 (Aosta).
T Q
For a d i s c u s s i o n of F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t and
g e n e r a l h i s t o r y from Roman to m e d i e v a l and m o d e r n t i mes, see
the following: Giovanni Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e Citta
2 vols. (Florence: V a l l e c h i Edito r e , 1973); Giovanni Astengo,
et al. , U r b a n i s t i c a 12(1953), p p . 1-28; Robert Davidson, Storia
di F i r e n z e , trans. into It a l i a n G i o v a n n i Barr i s t a Klein, 8 vols
(Florence: Sansoni, 1 9 5 6 - 1968), o r i g i n a l l y titled G e s c h i c h t e
v o n F l o r e n z , 4 vols. (Berlin: n.p., 1896-1908); R o m o l o Cag-
gese, Firenze della D e c a d e n z a di R o m a al Riso r g i m e n t o d ' I t a l i a ,
3 vols"! ( F l o r e n c e : FTS e e b e r , 1 9 1 2 - 1921); Schevill, M e d i e v a l
a nd R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , 2 vols. (New York: H a r p e r Row,
1961), o r i g i n a l l y titled H i s t o r y of Florence (1936) , E d m u n d N.
Bacon, D e sign of Cities (New York: P e n g u i n B o o k s , 1976), par-
t i c u l a r l y p p . 93-130; S i g f r i e d Geidion, Space, Time a n d A r c h i -
tecture: The Growth of a N e w T r a d i t i o n (Cambridge: Harvard
U nive r s i t y Press, 196/), e s p e c i a l l y p p . 30-54, 72-75, n o t e the
reproduction of Leonardo da V i n c i s s k etch of F l o r e n c e r e m o d
eled as an ideal city on p . 53; E. A. Gutkind, In t e r n a t i o n a l
H i s t o r y of City D e v e l o p m e n t , 8 vols. (New York: "Free P r e s s ,
1964-72), v ol 4 Urb a n D e v e l o p m e n t in Sout h e r n Europe: Italy
and G r e e c e ; James H a r v e y Robinson, A n Introduction to the
H i s t o r y of W e s t e r n E u r o p e , 2 vols. (Boston: Ginn ti Co. , 1934) ,
vol. 1, espec i a l l y c h a p t e r 12, p p . 260-277 and c h a p t e r 14, pp.
310-340; Jacob Burkhardt, The C i v i l i z a t i o n of the R e n a i s s a n c e
in I t a l y , 2 vols., trans. S~ . G. C. M i d d l e m o r e and intro. B e n
j a m i n N e lson and Charles T r i n k h a u s (New York: H a r p e r Row,
1958, I860); A u gust C. Krey, A City That Art Built ( M i n n e a
polis: U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a Press, 1936).
42
of later g e n e rations, but it also raises the importance of
r e v iewing this e s s ential aspect of urban p l a n n i n g - - s i t e
selection. There are at least two main compo n e n t s to the
site s e l e c t i o n process: a study of the general s i t uation
and e n v i r o n m e n t o f a r e g i o n w h e r e a city m ay be built and a
study of a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n on w h i c h a city is to be
sited w i t h i n the general r e g i o n or area. The Romans gave
c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n to b o t h aspects of the site s e l ection
process. Florence ex e m p l i f i e s some of the c r i t e r i a employed
by the Romans w h e n t a king this first step in p l a n n i n g their
n e w cities. F r o m the city's f o u n d i n g p a r t i c u l a r advantages
a c c o m p a n i e d F lorence's s i t e . 40
L o c a t e d u p r i v e r in the A r n o V a l l e y about f i f t y - f i v e
miles f r o m the L i g u r i a n Sea, the Romans p l a c e d Florence
a c o n s i d e r a b l e dista n c e f r o m the wor s t of the lower v a l l e y
marshes d o w n s t r e a m . 41 T h o u g h mar s h e s e xisted n e a r b y on the
lower parts of the plains b e t w e e n Florence and Pistoia, they
w e r e not as e x t ensive as the ma r s h e s downstream. Thus,
Florence's location d u r i n g a time of narrower c a p a bilities
in drainage, r e c l amation, and flood and disease control was
all the m o r e significan t, e s p e c i a l l y after the decline of
the Roman Empire in the f i f t h cen t u r y A.D, One h i s t o r i a n
40 W a r d - P e r k i n s , C i t i e s , p p . 22-20, and " E arly Roman

Towns": 140-153; Salmon, Roman Colonization, p p . 41-43, 70-
77, 105-109.
41 Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , v o l . 2, p . 149.
43
notes that an u n h ealthy e n v i r onment b o t h outside a nd inside
the city o f Pisa, a m a j o r m e d i e v a l u r b a n center l o c a t e d in
the lower v a l l e y near where the A r n o flows into the Ligurian
Sea, was an important factor in the city's d e c l i n e during
the t h i r t e e n t h century. 42
Another advantage for Flore n c e was the geog r a p h i c a l l y
and c o m m e r c i a l l y central location of the city in the Arno
V a l l e y and in Italy. D u ring Rom a n times Florence was not
the i n t ernational economic c e nter it was to b e c o m e between
1300 and 1500 A.D.43 Roman F l o r e n c e did prosper, however,
and became an important p r o v i n c i a l commercial center. Water
a nd land t r a n s p o r t a t i o n systems m a d e Florence a c c e s s i b l e to
m a j o r trade routes c o ming from n e a r l y every direction. The
exact site of Florence alongside one of the n a r r o w e s t , most
fordable a nd brid g e a b l e crossings o f the Arno R i v e r and its
s i t uation in central Italy p l a y e d an important role in the
city's development .44 As the A r n o w o u n d its w a y t o w a r d
Florence f r o m the southeast, the riv e r passed by A r e z z o and
t hr o u g h the fertile U p p e r Arno Valley, and then c o n t i n u e d on
its course p a s s i n g by Roman F l o r e n c e in a w e s t w a r d direction
t o ward the sea. The A r n o p r o v i d e d riv e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n for
42 D a v i d Herlihy, Pisa in the E a r l y Renaissance: A

Study of U r b a n Growth (New Haven: Yale U n iversity Press,
1958), p p . 45-46.
^ Repetti, Dizionario, v o l . 2, p p . 150-154; R o b e r t S.

Lopez, The B i r t h of Europe (New York: M. Evans 8 Co., 1962)
p p . 126-132, 258, 271-278.
44 Colin Hardie, "The O r i g i n and Plan of R o m a n Florence

The Journal of Roman Studies 55(1965): 123, 128-130.
44
the p r o d u c t i v e Upper Arno V a l l e y as w e l l as m any other
locations a l o n g its route. F l o rence w a s the focal point
for m u c h o f this regional trade d u r i n g the early p e r i o d of
the R o m a n E m p i r e and later.48 This r i v e r site c o n t i n u e d to
serve the c i t y wel l during the m e d i e v a l and early m o d e r n
periods.
Florence's central l o c a t i o n in Italy b e n e f i t e d also
from the t r a d e and traffic w h i c h came by road. The V i a
C a s s i a near b y , a m a i n Roman road, p r c v i d e d land t r a n s p o r
t a t i o n c o n n e c t i n g Rome w i t h n o r t h Italy and E u r o p e . 4 ^ About
twenty m i l e s n o r t h of Florence the c i t y of Pistoia a c c o m
m o d a t e d t r a v e l l e r s at the foot of the A p e n n i n e s and at the
gateway to the passes and roads across the m o untains to the
plains of L o m b a r d y and the Po V a l l e y . 4 ? B e t w e e n Florence
and P i s t o i a s t r e t c h e d a basin, but m a r s h e s in the lo w - l y i n g
areas h a m p e r e d travel across the m i d d l e o f this r e latively
flat plain. As a result, the F l o r e n c e - P i s t o i a road tended
to f o r m a c u r v e by flanking the f o o t . o f the Apennine m o u n
tains w h i c h en c i r c l e d the b a s i n . 4 ** N e v e r t h e l e s s , Flore n c e ' s
site in c e n t r a l Italy and along a key c r o s s i n g - p o i n t of the
45 H a r d i e , "Origin and Plan": 123, 128-130.
4 ^ Ibid.; Salmon, Roman C o l o n i z a t i o n , p . 84.
4 ^ H e r l i h y , Medieval and R e n a i s s a n c e Pistoia: The

Social H i s t o r y of an Italian Town, 120 0 - 1 4 3 0 (New Haven:
Val e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , l O b ^ ) , p p . 18-26.
48 Ibid., p . 23.
45
Arno made the city a p i v o t a l p o i n t in a m a j o r trade r o u t e
b e t w e e n Rome and lands n o r t h of the Apennines.
W i t h F l o rence g e o g r a p h i c a l l y l o c a t e d b e t w e e n the m o s t
f e r t i l e areas of the valleys and pl a i n s of T u s c a n y as w e l l
as b e t w e e n the routes c o n n e c t i n g Europe, northern Italy, and
Rome, the city soo n b e c a m e a s h i p p i n g p o i n t for the c o u n t r y
side a n d the region. Trade b r o u g h t p r o s p e r i t y and g r o w t h
d u r i n g the first three c e n turies of the Roman Emp i r e b e g i n
n i n g w i t h the r e i g n of Octav i u s A u g u s t u s (29 B . C . -14 A.D.).
By the t h i r d cent u r y A.D. F l o r e n c e s t r e t c h e d b e y o n d its
walls to b e c o m e the seat o f the g o v e n o r of the R o m a n p r o v i n c e
of E t r u r i a and U m b r i a . 4 In this way, site s e l e c t i o n m a d e
a c o n t r i b u t i o n to F l o r e n c e s e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p
ment in R o m a n and later times a n d m a r k e d a mor e g e n e r a l
change in the R oman u r b a n i z a t i o n process.
Besi d e s site, o ther d i s t i n c t features of R o m a n u r b a n
i z a t i o n and u r b a n p l a n n i n g s h a p e d F l o r e n c e s d e v e l o p m e n t
I
in i m p o r t a n t ways. For example, R o m a n p l a nners v i e w e d the
city and c o u n t r y s i d e n e a r b y as o n e b a s i c unit of p l a n n i n g ,
a l t h o u g h the actual s u r v e y i n g an d laying out of e a c h they
c o n s i d e r e d a s e p arate step.^ A f t e r c h o o s i n g a site w i t h
4 Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e C i t t a , p p . 3-4;

A s t e n g o et al., U r b a n i s t i c a 12(1953), p p . 6-7; Repetti,
D i z i o n a r i o , v o l . 2, p . 151.
^ Castagnoli, O r t h o g o n a l T o w n P l a n n i n g , p p . 96-100;
W a r d - P e r k i n s , C i t i e s , p p . 27-29; H a m m o n d , fEe City in the
A n c i e n t W o r l d , pp. 221-223, 225-226., 229-231; Axel Bo e t h i u s ,
The G o l d e n H ouse of Nero: Some A s p e c t s o f Roman A r c h i t e c t u r e
(Ann Arbor: Unive r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n Press, 1960), p p . 48-51.
46
suitable d r a i n a g e , accessibility, a n d a food and w a t e r supply,
Roman u r b a n p l a n n e r s and s u r veyors p r o c e e d e d w i t h the next
two p h ases of found i n g a city a c c o r d i n g to the al r e a d y
e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n c o mmon since the thi r d c entury B.C. of
their h i s t o r y . 5!
On the site c h o s e n soldiers established a military
camp c a l l e d a castrum. Rom a n surveyors and engineers o u t
lined the c a s t r u m p l a n a c c o r d i n g to two m a i n streets c r o s s i n g
at right a n g l e s n e a r the c e n t e r o f the'camp. W h e n the c a s
t r u m p l a n b e c a m e a city plan, the Romans n a m e d the north-
s o u t h s t r e e t the cardo and the ea s t - w e s t street the de-

52
curaanus. W h e r e these two streets intersected, they b o r
der e d a f o r u m or o p e n space. This space s e r v e d as the
m i l i t a r y a s s e m b l y po i n t for the s o l d i e r s of the castrum.
The tents o f the soldiers lin e d up in rows t h roughout the rest
of the castrum. A moat or t r ench w i t h w o o d e n f o r t i f i c a t i o n
e n c l o s e d t he s q u a r e or r e c t a n g l a r a r e a of the camp. 53
In the n e x t ph a s e of d e v e l o p m e n t the Roman planners,
surveyors, a nd engineers c h a n g e d the c a s t r u m p l a n into a
city plan. The city p l a n c o n t i n u e d on a larger scale the
same p r i n c i p l e o f the c a s t r u m p l a n - - t w o m a i n street lines
Fanel l i , Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e C i t t a , p p . 3-4.
52 Salmon, Roman C o l o n i z a t i o n , p p . 20-23; W a r d - P e r k i n s ,

C i t i e s , p p . 27-28.
53 Ibid.
47
i n t e r s e c t i n g at r i g h t angles, one o r i e n t e d north-south, the
cardo, and the o t h e r e a s t - w e s t , the d e c u m a n u s . ^ A c c o r d i n g
to R o m a n tradition, a religious c e r e m o n y e s t a b l i s h e d the
actual l o c ation o f the city w a l l s and boundaries. Gu i d e d
b y a R oman p r i e s t an d p u l l e d by a cow and a bull, a plow
dug a fu r r o w a r o u n d the c i t y s site. At the location
where the gates w e r e to be bu i l t , the R o m a n pr i e s t lifted
the p l o w and left the g r o u n d unearthed. This religious
ritual s i t e d the limits of the city's b o u n d a r i e s and sought
f ro m the gods a p r o t e c t i v e s p a c e around the city. Generally,
the c i t y wal l e n c l o s e d a sq u a r e or r e c t a n g l a r area, and there
was u s u a l l y a gate in each o f the four sides w h e r e the m a i n
streets j o i n e d the w a l l . ^
W i t h the b o u n d a r i e s of the city o u t l i n e d in a square
or r e c t a n g u l a r p a t t e r n an d all the streets aligned at right
angles p a r a l l e l to the c a r d o or d e c u m a n u s , the t raditional
p l a n o f the Roman city was a g r i d or c h e s s b o a r d p a t t e r n
o r i e n t e d due n o r t h - s o u t h a n d e a s t - w e s t . 56 The Romans ap
p l i e d a simi l a r p l a n to the countryside. The surveyors
u s u a l l y p l a t t e d the c o u n t r y s i d e a c c o r d i n g to the m a i n lines
of the cardo and de c u m a n u s p a t t e r n . o f the city. The re s u l t
was a s u b d i v i d e d c o u n t r y s i d e o f u n i f o r m - s i z e d farm tracts
^ Salmon, R o m a n C o l o n i z a t i o n , p p . 20-23; W a r d - P e r k i n s ,
C i t i e s , p p . 27-28.
Salmon, R o m a n C o l o n i z a t i o n , p. 24.
56 ibid.
48
and lots that the R oman founders then d i s t r i b u t e d to each
settler-citizen. This c u s tomary p l a n n i n g a p p roach for the
city and c o u n t r y s i d e the Roman s u r v e y o r s and engineers
a d j u s t e d to p r a c t i c a l circumstances. The basic pattern r e
mained, nevertheless, e s s e n tially the sam e in mos t a r e a s . 87
Since the R oman city was p l a n n e d for a p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n
size, the Romans i n c l u d e d in each n e w c i t y or town the u r b a n
n e c e s s i t i e s and amenities in p r o p o r t i o n to the p r o j e c t e d
p o p u l a t i o n s i z e . 58 If the p o p u l a t i o n o u t g r e w the plan of
the city, a n e w city w o u l d be esta b l i s h e d . The site and
u r b a n p l a n n i n g proc e s s w o u l d b e g i n a g a i n . 58
F l o r e n c e a p p r o x i m a t e d clos e l y the over a l l design. Its
f o r m was r e c t a n g u l a r or, more a c c u r a t e l y , trapezoidal,
r a t h e r t han square, and its st r e e t s y s t e m d i v i d e d on the
inuslae or h o u s i n g - b l o c k pattern. The a r e a e n c l o s e d by the
wall has b e e n e s t i m a t e d around t w e n t y - t h r e e hectares and the
p o p u l a t i o n about six to ten thousand. But these figures

I
are no t definite. Relative to o t h e r cities, such as Vienna
and Turin, about 200 hectares and 53 h e c t a r e s respectively,
Florence ca n n o t be cons i d e r e d large, b u t its role increased
57 Salmon, R o m a n C o l o n i z a t i o n , p p . 27-28.
58 Ibid., p p . 18-19. Popula t i o n s v a r i e d fro m three

h u n d r e d to three t h o u s a n d soldiers and t h e i r families.
58 Ibid., p p . 27-28. S a l m o n d i s c u s s e s the process by

w h i c h a n e w c o l o n y was founded a n d o r g a n i z e d in this
section.
49
locally w h e n it grew in p r o s p e r i t y . 6
In the c e n t e r of the c i t y the Romans d e s i g n e d a p u blic
meeting place for political p u r p o s e s called the f o r u m (today
Piazza d e l l a R e p u b l i c a ) , N e a r b y they built a rel i g i o u s
temple. The t heater was l o c a t e d on the eastern side o f the
city n e a r w h a t is n ow P alazzo V e c c h i o and the baths on the
w e s t e r n side of the city a l o n g what is now c a lled the V i a
delle Terme.61 As the p o p u l a t i o n i n c reased during the first
and s e c o n d centuries, e x p a n s i o n o c c u r r e d outside the m a i n
gates a l o n g the roads lea d i n g to and from the city. In the
same p e r i o d they also built the a m p h i t e a t e r out s i d e the city
walls to the so u t h e a s t in the area o f what is today the
P i azza S a n t a Croce, the site o f one of the m a i n churc h e s of
F l o r e n c e . 62 Besides this g e n e r a l l y r e c t a ngular or grid
u r b a n p l a n c o m m o n to many R o m a n cities large and small,
F lore n c e also d e m o n s t r a t e d two other m a i n aspects o f Rom a n
p l a n n i n g - - a p l a n n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the a d j oining c o u n t r y
side and the m a i n t e n a n c e of u r b a n amenities.
A l t h o u g h the Romans t hought of the city and c o u n t r y
side as a u n i t and followed the same p r i nciple in their
layout, this did not m e a n n e c e s s a r i l y that the p l a n o f each
Pounds, Hist o r i c a l G e o g r a p h y , p . 120; H a v e r field,

An c i e n t T o w n Planning, p p . 86-95; H a r d i e , "Origin a nd Plan,"
JkS, 55C19T5T: 135-139.
61 Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e C i t t a , p p . 2-3
62 I b i d . , p p . 4-5.
50
w o u l d be im p l e m e n t e d at the same time a nd in a c o o r d i n a t e d
way. Flore n c e is a good ex a m p l e of h ow Roman p l a n n e r s con
c e i v e d the city and the c o u n t r y s i d e as one bas i c u n i t but
a c t e d on each as a dis-tinct and s e p a r a t e part of the u r b a n
iz a t i o n process. W h e t h e r or not the city and c o u n t r y s i d e
w e r e p l a t t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in F l o r e n c e ' s case remains de
bated, but it is clear that the two plans were not coordi-
fi
nated. J Thus, the surveyors o r i e n t e d the city p l a n due
n o r t h - s o u t h and e a s t-west w h i l e the c o u n t ryside p l a n followed
the t o p o g r a p h i c a l features of the A r n o p l a i n w h i c h c u r v e d to
the north-west. The two plains m e t at a "slant" or indir e c t
angle. The " slant" a l i gnment o f these two "grid" sy s t e m s af
f e c t e d future r o a d and u r b a n development. If the lines of
the city w e r e exten d e d into the c o u n tryside, their t e n d e n c y
w o u l d be to "bend" to the t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y o r i e n t e d l a yout of
the farms and f i e l d s . ^ 4 As s t a t e d above, the Romans subdi
v i d e d the c o u n t r y s i d e a r ound the city into r e c t a n g u l a r tracts
and d i s t r i b u t e d them to the s e t t l e r - c i t i z e n s .
Fl orence's urban a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and amenities paral-

65
le l e d the p a t t e r n common to m o s t Rom a n cities in the west.
Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e C i t t a , p p . 2-3.
64 Ibid., p . 2.
65 For a d i s c u s s i o n of Ro m a n urban a d m i n i s t r a t i o n see:

Stev e n s o n , Roman Provincial A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , c h a p t e r 6, "The
M u n i c i p a l S y s t e m in the P r o v i n c e s , " p p . 156-180; F r a n k Frost
A b b o t t and A l l e n Chester Johnson, Mu n i c i p a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n in
the R o m a n Empire (New York: R ussell Russell', 1968, 1 9 2 6 J ;
James Reid, T h e ~ M u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f the Ro m a n E m pire (Cambridge,
England: The U n iversity Press, 1913), c h a p t e r s 5, 6, 13, 14.
51
The r e w e r e two c h i e f . m a g i s t r a t e s , the duumviri, e l e c t e d for
five years, a nd a c o u n c i l of o n e - h u n d r e d dec u r i o n s w h o held
o f fice for life. Two aediles w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e for m u n i c i p a l
services, inc l u d i n g s t r e e t m a i n t e n a n c e and, p a r t i c u l a r l y ,
m a r k e t supervision. The q u a e s t o r aediles a c t e d as the m u n i
cipal treasurer. O t h e r civic institutions d e v e l o p e d over
time d e p e n d i n g on c i r c u m s t a n c e s . 66
As the b a s i c p o l i t i c a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e unit o f the
Ro m a n system, Ro m a n c i ties p e r f o r m e d v arious fu n c t i o n s for
the c e n t r a l go v e r n m e n t , for example, t ax c o l l e c t i n g , road
c onstr u c t i o n , m i l i t a r y p r o v i s i o n i n g and re c r u i t i n g , a nd
s u p p o r t o f the p o stal system. It was not u n k n o w n for the
cities to p e r f o r m t h e s e services at their o w n e x p e n s e . 67
W h e n Florence b e c a m e a p r o v i n c i a l capital its s e r v i c e role
increased.
B o t h p u b l i c and p r i v a t e sources o f r e v e n u e s supported
the above as w e l l as o t h e r local services a n d amenities.
P u blic revenues came u s u a l l y from'rents of p u b l i c p r o perty,
tolls, license sales, fines, taxes on larger scale w a t e r
uses, for example, in townhouses and industry, a nd oth e r
fees o f various kinds. Private sources i n c l u d e d gifts
^ Davidson, S t o r i a , vol.l, p p . 39-40; S t e v e n s o n , Roman

P r o v i n c i a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , c hapter 6, MThe M u n i c i p a l S y s t e m
in the P r o v i n c e s , " p p . 170-172; A. H. M. Jones, The R o m a n E c o n
omy , cha p t e r 1, "The Cities o f the Rom a n E m p i r e ," p p . 2-13, and
La t e r Roman Empire, v o l . l , c h a p t e r 19, "The C i t i e s , " p p . 712-
1W .
67 Jones, The R o m a n E c o n o m y , ch a p t e r 1, "The C i t i e s . . . , "
p p . 19-25.
52
w h i c h w e a l t h i e r citizens gave to b e a u t i f y and to improve
the city. Public officials also frequently gave gifts w h e n
e n t e r i n g office. These gifts r a n g e d from street p a v i n g
to e x t e n s i v e w a t e r and drainage proje c t s and from f i n ancing
games a nd b a n q u e t s for p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t to r aising
m o n u m e n t s.^ in addition, aqued u c t s , baths, theaters, m a r
kets, amphitheaters, temples, a nd public doctors w e r e com-
m o n p l a c e a m o n g city expenses. J
T h o u g h Flore n c e entered a p e r i o d o f economic e x p a n
sion d u r i n g the first two c e n turies of the Roman Empire,
this was n o t always a b o o n p e r i o d for Roman cities g e n
erally. By the second ce n t u r y A.D. some cities h ad o v e r
b u i l t and o v e r s p e n t to the e x tent that financial a u d i t o r s ,
curators, or correctores w e r e sent from Rome to investigate
and to h e l p r e g u l a t e their fi n a n c i a l affairs. This be g a n
a g radual a n d s ignificant change in Roman urb a n a d m i n i s
tration- -a v e r y important and e x t e n s i v e topic that, however,
goes b e y o n d the scope of an i n t r o d u c t i o n to one Roman c i t y . 70
68 J o nes, The Roman E c o n o m y , chapter 1, "The C i t i e s . . . , "

p p . 19-25; Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic History, vol.l,
p p . 141-151.
69 Ibid.
70 F o r a disc u s s i o n of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of cities and

trade a nd t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p a t t e r n s in the Roman u r b a n s y s t e m
d u r i n g the e m pire see: Pounds, A n Historical G e o g r a p h y , c h a p
ter 3, " E u r o p e in the Age of the A n t o n ines," p p . 95-169, p a r
t i c u l a r l y p p . 95-103, 116-123 c o n c e r n i n g Roman towns, d i s t r i
b u t i o n o f R o m a n towns, a nd town planning; see the map (fig.
3.6) on p . 120, "urban d e v e l o p m e n t in Europe during the Roman
E m p i r e , " a n d the m ap on p. 159 (fig. 3.15), "The Roman r o a d
system," a n d the d i s c u s s i o n o f trade, commerce, and the r o a d
53
The p r o b l e m s o f the city w e r e signs o f lar g e r economic
and p o l i t i c a l diff i c u l t i e s b e s e t t i n g the R o m a n Empire.
Ec o n o m i c a c t i v i t y s h i f t e d i n c r e a s i n g l y f rom Italy to the
farther p r o v i n c e s o f the empire an d the east. Politically,
quarrels over the imperial s u c c e s s i o n in the t h i r d century
p l u n g e d the R o m a n state into a h a l f century o f turmoil and
civil w a r . A n o t h e r m ajor s ign o f the changes taking
place was the d r a s t i c decline of the p o p u l a t i o n and the
p o l i t i c a l role of the city of Rome. F o l l o w i n g the civil war
p e r i o d o f the t h i r d century the emperor D i o c l e t i a n (284-
305) d i v i d e d the R o m a n state into four m a j o r districts called
prefectures. He also e s t a b l i s h e d a t e t r a r c h y - - a "rule-of-
t h e - f o u r M c o m p o s e d of two emperors and two Caesars. Diocle
tian i n t e n d e d the p r e f e c t u r e s y s t e m to lead to m ore ef f i c i e n t
g o v e r n m e n t and the a ppointment o f the two C a e s a r s , who w e r e
next in line of succ e s s i o n to b e c o m e emperors, to allow for
<
s y s t e m on p p . 159-169; Also refer to Pounds, A n E c o nomic H i s

t o r y , c h a p t e r 1, "The Later R o m a n Empire,' p p . 1-40, e s p e
cially the map on p . 5 (fig. 1.1) and the g raph on p . 25 (fig.
1.2); Lionel Casson, Travel in the A n c i e n t W o r l d (London:
George A l l e n 8 Unwin, 1974), c h a p t e r 10, "R o m a n Roads," pp.
163-175, R. G. G o o d c h i l d and R. J. Forbes, "Roads and Land
Travel, W i t h a S e c t i o n on H a r b o u r s , Docks, a n d Lighth o u s e s , "
in A H i s t o r y of T e c h n o l o g y , 2 vols., ed. Charles Singer et al.
(Oxford: C l a r e n d o n Press, 1956), v o l . 2, p p . 493-536, e s p e
cially the maps of Roman roads in Italy a n d the provinces on
p p . 501 and 502; In regard to R oman urban f i n a n c i a l and e c o
n o m i c p r o b l e m s see: Jones, The Roman E c o n o m y , chapter 1,
"The C i t i e s . . . , " p p . 25-29 and chap t e r 2, " E c o n o m i c Life of
the Towns of the Roman Empire," p p . 35-60; Rostovtzeff, Social
and E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , vol.l, p p . 362-365, 388-392.
71 Jones, L ater Roman E m p i r e , p p . 21-36; Rostovtzeff,

Social and E c o n o m i c History, vol.l, p p . 433-502.
54
an o r g anized t r a n s i t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t and to a v o i d crisis
and civil wars over the s u c c e s s i o n issue. Each of the e m
perors and Caesars r u l e d one of the four p r e f e ctures from a
distr i c t capital. It w as a co m m e n t on the shifts of interest
and p o w e r in the Rom a n state that the city of Rome served
no longer as the c apital of the empire or even of the p r e
fecture of Italy. D u r i n g this p e r i o d Milan r e p l a c e d Rome
as the p o l itical and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e center of I t a l y . 7 ^
W h e n D i o c l e t i a n r e t i r e d in 305, his s y s t e m of g o v e r n
ment failed, and civil w a r e r u p t e d again over the s uccession
issue. By 324 C o n s t a n t i n e (306-337) emerged the v i c t o r in
the n e w rounds of m i l i t a r y m e l e e s and made h i m s e l f the one
ruler of the empire. He e s t a b l i s h e d one residence from
w h i c h to rule the e m p i r e and m o v e d the capital of the empire
from the west to the east, c h o o s i n g a site on the Bosphorus
w h i c h he called C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . ^ Constantine's move of
the capital to the east m a d e the decline of the wes t e r n
empire all the more apparent.
N e w internal q u a r r e l s and b a r b a r i a n m i grations and
invasions h a s t e n e d the c o l l a p s e of the w estern empire
during the later fourth and early fifth centuries. The
y e a r of 476 m a r k e d the o v e r t h r o w of Romulus A g u s t u l u s , the
last Roman emperor in the west, by the German c h i eftain
7 ^ Jones, Later R o m a n Empire, o p . 37-52, 83, 132-133,

366-373.
73 Ibid., p p . 37-70, 83-84, 97-104.
Odoacer. It has b e c o m e the t r a d i t i o n a l date for a c k n o w l
e d g i n g the e nd of the Roman Empire in the w e s t . 7^ The
f ortunes of Florence and other R o m a n cities of the r e g i o n
also d i m m e d w i t h the decline of the w e s t e r n empire. This
decline, howev e r , also issued in a n e w beginning. Whe r e
Rom a n h i s t o r y in the west e n d e d E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y began.
Medieval Florence: 500 to 1400
M e d i e v a l Europ e a n h i s t o r y o r i g i n a t e d at a time of u r b a n
co l l a p s e d u r i n g the fourth and fifth centuries A.D. and
r e a c h e d its h e ight bet w e e n 1100 and 1300 A.D. at a time of
extensive c i t y - b u i l d i n g . 75 In this long time span the c o m
mercial a n d ur b a n revolutions starting in the tenth and
el e v e n t h centuries provide a w a t e r s h e d in European c i v i l
i z a t i o n . 7^ There occurred as a r e s u l t of these r e v o l u t i o n s
7A
F o r a very readable h i s t o r y of the early and late m e
dieval p e r i o d s see: James H a r v e y Robinson, An Intr o d u e t i o n
to the H i s t o r y of We s t e r n Europf n e w e d i t i o n (Boston: Ginn
and Company, 1934), vol.l, p p . 21-25, 41-46; Jones, Later
R o m a n E m p i r e , p p . 238-248.
75 See the following for a d i s c u s s i o n of medieval e c o n

omic and p o l i t i c a l history: Carlo M. Cipolla, e d . , The
F o n t a n a E c o n o m i c History of Europe: The Middle Ages (New
Y o r k : H a r p e r 6 Row Publishers, 1976); The essays on
e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y in the above b o o k r e f e r to the p e r i o d 500-
1500 A.D.; Daniel Waley, The Italian City - R e p u b l i c s (New
York: M c G r a w - H i l l Book Company, 1969); Robinson, W e s t e r n
E u r o p e , vol.l, chapters 1-13.
7^ R o b e r t S. Lopez, The C o m m e r c i a l R e volution of the

M i d d l e Ages, 950-1350 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1971); Carlo M. Cipolla, B e f o r e the Industrial
Revolution: Europ e a n Society and Economy, 1000-1700 (New
York: W. W. N o r t o n 6 Company, Inc., 1976), chapter 4, "The
U r b a n R evolution: The C ommunes," p p . 139-145; Pounds, An E c o
no m i c H i s t o r y , c hapter 6, "The d e v e l o p m e n t of the m e d i e v a l
t o w n : The urban r e v o lution," p p . 223-254.
56
a cha n g e in d i r e c t i o n for E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y away f rom an
almost e x c l u s i v e l y a g r i c u l t u r a l econ o m y and f ixed social
structure of a land-based culture t o w a r d an a l t e r n a t i v e and
relatively more d i v e r s i f i e d econo m y , society, and u r b a n wa y
of life. The h i s t o r y of the m i d - A r n o city r e f l e c t e d in its
p a r t i c u l a r w a y m a n y of the m a j o r trends of m e d i e v a l history.
F r o m an u r b a n p e r s p e c t i v e , Florentine medieval history
divides clearly into two s t a g e s - - t h e loss of old u r b a n roles
and a c t i v i t i e s b e t w e e n the f ifth and e l e v e n t h c e nturies and
l ater the i n v e n t i o n o f n e w u r b a n c a p a b i l i t i e s b e t w e e n the
twelfth and f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . 77 In this first stage
F l o r e n c e ' s h i s t o r y was l a r g e l y the p r o d u c t of q u a r r e l s over
the c o n t r o l of Italy among the v a r i o u s w o u l d - b e successors to
the w e s t e r n R o m a n Empire. In 493 T h e o d o r i c (d.526), an Os-
t r o g o t h i c k i n g in the service o f the B y z a n t i n e Empire (the
e a s t e r n R o m a n E m p i r e ) , d e f e a t e d the Ge r m a n c h i e f t a i n O d o a c e r
in 493 at R a v e n n a in n o r t h e a s t Italy and e s t a b l i s h e d a k i n g d o m
throughout the Italian p e n i n s u l a that lasted about forty years.
In 533 J u s t i n i a n (527-565), the B y z a n t i n e emperor, d e f e a t e d in
t urn the Ostrogoths and w o n c o n t r o l over all o f Italy for a
b r i e f time. N e a r the end of J u s t i n i a n ' s reign the Lombards, a
Germanic tribe, over r a n parts of Italy but e s t a b l i s h e d
t heir two c e n t u r y long rule o n l y in n o r t h e r n Italy. Also,
77 Pounds, Later Roman E m p i r e , p p . 224-230, 245-248, 253-

257; Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 39-46; Schevill, M e d i e v a l
a nd R e n a i s s a n c e Florence, p p . 12-29.
57
the rise of Isl a m and its expansion in the s e v e n t h and
eighth centuries both on land and sea affec t e d d i r e c t l y the
hi s t o r y of Italy, Europe, and the B y z antine empire. M a n y of
these issues a r r i v e d at a turning-point in the e i ghth

78
century.
The Franks, who s e t t l e d along the Rhine River in w e s t e r n
Germany and n o r t h e r n France, became the c e n t e r of the most
power f u l w e s t E u r o p e a n state organized during the early
m e d i e v a l p e r i o d . 79 D u r i n g the seventh ce n t u r y the Carol-
ingian house o f the Franks began their rise to p o w e r w i t h
the a c c e s s i o n of Pe p i n I (d. 639) to the i m p ortant office of
may o r of the palace. His successors, groiving c o n t i n u a l l y
stro n g e r in this office, replaced in 751 the de c l i n i n g
M e r o v i n g i a n ki n g s w i t h the i r own Caroli n g i a n dynasty in
the office of kingship.
Until his death in 741, Charles Martel, a C a r o l i n g i a n
ma y o r of the p a l a c e , a d v a n c e d throughout the F r a n k i s h king-

I
dom a more e f f e c t i v e l y u n i t e d government over its c o n s t i t
uent p a r t s - - t h e counties, generally the former civitas or
7 Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 39-46, 84-96; (See:

"Map of Europe in the Time of Theodoric" on p . 45 and map
of>"The M i g r a t i o n s o f the Germans in the Fifth Century"
b e t w e e n p p . 46-47 and m ap "The M o h a m m e d a n Conquests at
Their Greatest Extent, About the Year 750" on p . 91);
Schevill, M e d i e v a l and Renaissance Florence, vol.l, pp.
1 2 ~ 20 .
79 Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 46-53, 9 7 - 1 1 1 , (also

see map "Europe in the time of Charlemagne A.D. 814" b e
tween p p . 102-103).
58
m u n i c i p a l i t y districts of the earlier Roman Empire, and the
duchies, a t e r r i t o r y i n c luding two or m o r e counties. He
o r g a n i z e d a p o w e r f u l c a v a l r y and m i l i t a r y force by m a k i n g
land grants, c a l l e d ben e f i c e s or fiefs, to those w ho
p l e d g e d m i l i t a r y se r v i c e in return. He also o p p o s e d attempts
b y counts and dukes, w h o were t h e o r e t i c a l l y sub j e c t to
appointment and dis m i s s a l by royal will but p r a c t i c a l l y
o f t e n s e c u r e d their p o s i t i o n s by h e r e d i t a r y tenure, to turn
the d i s tricts w h e r e they h e l d office into sepa r a t e and i n
d e p e n d e n t states by s u b s t i t u t i n g their own royal sover
eignty. In 732 Charles Martel's m i l i t a r y forces d e f e a t e d an
Arab-Islamic army at Poitiers in w e s t e r n France. This battle
r e s u l t e d in a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n to the e x p a n s i o n and c o n
s o l i d a t i o n of the Fran k i s h state and the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of

Of)
more stable land borders in eighth ce n t u r y Europe.
By the m i d - e i g h t h c e n t u r y the ex p a n d i n g Carolingian-
F r a n k i s h state came to play a direct role in Italian m e
d i e v a l history. In 7 51 the C a r o l ingian m a y o r of the palace
Pepin I I I ( d . 768) ac c e d e d to the k i n g s h i p w i t h the a c c l a mation
o f the Frank i s h counts and dukes, w h o c o n s t i t u t e d the
council or assembly of the Frank nation, and the s a n c t i o n of
P o p e Zacharias (741-752). The C a r o l i n g i a n d ynasty h a d n o w
replaced in name the M e r o v i n g i a n dy n a s t y it h a d earlier
r e p l a c e d in fact. In 754 Pope Stephen (752-757), quarrelling
80 Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 46-53, 97-111, (also see

m a o "Europe in the time of Charlemagne A.D. 814" b e t w e e n pp.
102-103).
59
w i t h the B y z a n t i n e emperors and fearing L o m b a r d control o f
Italy, f o rmed an a l l i a n c e with the Frank i s h k i n g Pepin.
In 755 Pepin a nd the Franks defeated the Lombards, who h ad
s ettled for the m o s t part in the Po V a l l e y and n o r t h e r n
Italy, and i m p o s e d a tribute on them. P e p i n also c o n f i s
cated the lands a r o u n d Ravenna in n o r t h e a s t central Italy
held by the Lomba r d s and p r e sented them not to the B y z a n t i n e
emperors w h o r u l e d t h e m but to the pope. By so doing,
Pepin added c o n s i d e r a b l y to the papal territoties. The
"Papal S t a t e s " or the "States of the Ch u r c h " even t u a l l y
exten d e d across the ce n t r a l part of the Italian p e n i n s u l a
ge n erally from R a v e n n a to Rome and c o n t i n u e d to exist in one
form or ano t h e r un t i l the e s t ablishment of the m o d e r n I t a l i a n
state in the d e cade 1860 - 1 8 7 0 . 8 1 The h i g h - p o i n t of the e x
p a n s i o n of the C a r o l i n g i a n state and the role of the Franks
in Italy came d u r i n g the reign of P e p i n s son and successor,
C harlemagne (768-814).
F r o m S a x o n y in n o r t h e r n Germany to the Spanish M a r c h e
to the Po and A r n o Valleys of Italy C h a r l e m a g n e enla r g e d
and c o n s o l i d a t e d the C a r o l i n g i a n s t a t e . H e also c o n t i n u e d
the papal a l l i a n c e e s t a b l i s h e d during the reign of Pepin III.
W h e n the Lombards a t t e m p t e d to extend aga i n their d o m i n i o n
0*1
Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 46-53, 97-111, and m ap

on p . 204, "Ital i a n Towns in the Twelfth Century."
82 Ibid., p p . 101-111, and map b e t w e e n p p . 102-103;

Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R enaissance Florence, p p . 20-22.
60
throughout Italy in 773 and r e f u s e d to w i t h d r a w the i r forces
to t h e i r own territory, C h a r l e m a g n e r e s p o n d e d by b e s i e g i n g
the i r capital at Pavia in the Po Valley. In 774 he gained
the c i t y of Pavia, d e p o s e d the L o m b a r d king a n d b e c a m e h i m
s e l f the k i n g of the L o m b a r d s , and made n o r t h e r n Italy and
T u s c a n y part of the C a r o l i n g i a n kingdom. L o m b a r d rule
(556-774) in n o r t h e r n Italy ended, and C h a r l e m a g n e soon
a d v a n c e d aga i n s t n ew opponents.
B y the turn of the c e n t u r y Ch a r l e m a g n e was the dominant
power in Italy and w e s t e r n E u r o p e . 83 on C h r i s t m a s Day in
800 A . D . , w h e n the C a r o l i n g i a n k i n g was a g a i n in Italy, Pope
Leo III (795-816) c r o w n e d C h a r l e m a g n e " E m p e r o r o f the Romans"
in St. Peter's Church in Rome. This title b e c a m e the basis
of a l o n g l a s t i n g controversy. It soon r a i s e d n e w issues
for e a s t e r n and w e s t e r n r e l ations and later also for the
r el a t i o n s b e t w e e n c h urch and state. It also b e c a m e the basis
of the later d e s i g n a t e d H o l y Roman Empire a n d h e l p e d to
lead to the costly i n v o l v e m e n t of German d y n a s t i e s in the
politics of Italy. B o t h the imperial title a n d the Holy
Rom a n E m p i r e m a i n t a i n e d v a r y i n g degrees of i m p o r t a n c e over
the s u c c e e d i n g centuries until their d i s s o l u t i o n i n . 1806.
In b r i e f , the c o r o n a t i o n of C h a r l e m a g n e m a r k e d a n e w phase
83 Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 101-111, and m ap b e

tween p p . 102-103; Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e ,
p p . 20-22.
61
in E u r o p e a n political, jurisdictional, and institutional
history.
T h o u g h a large empire p r e s e n t e d many problems, Char
lemagne d e m o n s t r a t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a b i l i t y in the s y s t e m
o f gove r n m e n t he e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g his reign. The m a i n
o fficial a nd unit of g o v e r n m e n t in the Carolingian adminis-

Q A
trative s y s t e m was the count and the county. According
to this system, each town was the capital of its s u r r o u n d i n g
t erritory, and the two t o g e t h e r f o rmed a county. There were
o v e r two h u n d r e d counts l o c a t e d t h r o u g h o u t the empire. They
w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e for g o v e r n e m n t on the local level, the county
court and justice system, and the r a i s i n g of troops. Often,
they also w e r e the al r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d large landholders and '
magnates o f the local areas they w e r e a s s i g n e d to a d m i n i s t e r
in the name of the emperor. It r e m a i n e d q u e s t i o n a b l e h o w
ef f e c t i v e royal policy c o u l d be on the local level. Char
lemagne a t t e m p t e d to s u p e r v i s e the rule o f the counts by
s e n d i n g royal agents, c a l l e d missi dominici, on y e a r l y
visitations to the counties. These royal agents a c t e d as
royal judges as well as i n s p e ctors. In this way, royal
j ustice a t t e m p t e d to reach the local level by g r a n t i n g the
right of appeal to a h i g h e r cou r t and royal government tri e d to
limit the e x t ensive p o w e r o f local officials.
Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 111-113; Schevill,

M e d i e v a l a nd Re n a i s s a n c e F l r o e n c e , p p . 31-33; Pounds, H i s
torical Ge o g r a p h y of E u r o p e , c h a p t e r 4, "Europe in the Age of
C h a r l e m a g n e , " p p . 170-226,* (see figure 4.1, po l i t i c a l map of
the C a r o l i n g i a n Empire, p . 172).
62
E v e n w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e reforms, Charlemagne's empire
did n o t last lon g b e y o n d his reign. Louis the Pious (814-
840), Charlemagne's only su r v i v i n g son and successor, had
three sons who fought over their inheritance. Though Louis
t r i e d to kee p the empire u n i f i e d by granting the title of
e m p e r o r to his eldest son alone, civil conflicts still e n
sued. In 843 the Treaty of V e r d u n divided the empire among
Louis' t hree sons and in 870 the Treaty of M e r s e n redu c e d
the t h r e e k i n gdoms to t w o --the East an d West F r a n k i s h k i n g
doms, w h i c h be c a m e the areas of the later G e r m a n and French
states r e s p e c t i v e l y .**5 The brea k u p o f the C a r o l i n g i a n
em p i r e c o i n c i d e d w i t h r e n e w e d invasions of Europe.
B e t w e e n 870 and 955 internal disorders a n d external
threats d o m i n a t e d the E u r o p e a n scene. Viking invaders from
Scandinavia, Saracens fro m the south, and M a g y a r s from the
E u r a s i a n pl a i n s a t t a c k e d Europe by land, sea an d river
d u r i n g this period. D u r i n g the r eign of Otto I of Germany
(936-973), however, the b u i l d i n g of a new empire b egan in
Europe.
A f t e r h a v i n g s e c u r e d his rule in Germany, Otto in 951
d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f k i n g of Italy following his succe s s f u l
i n v a s i o n into n o r t h e r n Italy. In 955 he d e f e a t e d the Magy a r s
at the b a t t l e o f L e c h f e l d and chec k e d during this pe r i o d
85 Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 117-123, (p.119 ma p of

Tr e a t y of V e r d u n (843) and p . 120 map of Treaty o f M e r s e n
(870)); Pounds, H i s t o r i c a l Geography of E u r o p e , p p . 222-226.
63
the invasions along Europe's e a s t e r n frontier. Once again,
in 961 Otto i n v a d e d Italy, this time to s upport Pope John XII
(955-964) against local factions. The allia n c e b e t w e e n king
and pope p r o v e d s u c c e s s f u l . 80
In 962 the pope crowned Otto emperor. This event i n
a u g u r a t e d the start of the H o l y Rom a n Empire, a revival in
some ways of p a r t of the former C a r o l i n g i a n Empire, and i n
d i c a t e d the religious and p o l itical revival a l r e a d y taking
place in E u r o p e . 8 ^ It also c a r r i e d the p o t e n t i a l of future
tensions b e t w e e n popes and emperors w h o d e s i r e d independence
in the i r r e s p e c t i v e spheres of a u t h o r i t y but who depended
on each oth e r in important ways. L i k ewise, it more than
hinted ^ ^e future long and costly i n v o l vement of German
emperors jl leval Italian p o l i t i c s . 8 M o r e immediately,
h owever, these various E u r o p e a n - w i d e changes since the fifth
century provide a general b a c k g r o u n d and f r a m e w o r k for
l o c a t i n g the h i s t o r y of Tu s c a n y and F l o r e n c e d u r i n g the early
m e d i e v a l period.
Like m u c h of the Carolingian Empire, the c i t y - county
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e structure p r e v a i l e d in Tuscany. Each major
city or u r b a n c e n t e r - - F l o r e n c e , Fiesole, Pistoia, Siena,
Lucca, and P i s a - - g o v e r n e d its s u r r o u n d i n g areas or counties.
8 ^ Robinson, We s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 117-123, 182-191.
8 ? Ibid., p p . 182-191, (see m ap b e t w e e n p p . 182-183:

E u rope A b o u t A.D. 1000).
88 I b i d . , p p . 179-213.
64
The eco n o m y remai n e d b a s i c a l l y agricul t u r a l , and the local
or imperial l andowning or feudal lords ruled city and c o u n t r y
side. In the ninth c e n t u r y F iesole lost its county to
Florence. H ow this h a p p e n e d is still unclear. The c o n
s o l i d a t i o n of an a dditional c o unty und e r its control m a d e
F l o r e n c e the largest t e r r i t o r i a l unit w i t h i n Tuscany. When
u r b a n rivalries d e v e l o p e d later in the region, F l o r e n c e s
large c ontado (county or s u r r o u n d i n g territory) was an a d
v a n t a g e the Arno city h e l d over its n e i g h b o r s . 89
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the d e c l i n e a nd b r e a k u p of the C a r o l i n g i a n
E m pire in the nin t h c e n t u r y and the p e r i o d of anarchy b e t w e e n
g e n e r a l l y 870 and 962 d i d n ot w o r k to the advantage of F l o r e n c e
or any of the other cities or counties of Tuscany. The d e
c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and f r a g m e n t a t i o n of a u t hority in Tuscany
d u r i n g this time took the form of an i n c r e a s e d u s u r p a t i o n of
p o w e r by a C arolingian m i l i t a r y g o v e r n o r and a large r e g i o n a l
l a n d h o l d e r called the m a r g r a v e of Tuscany. B e t w e e n the ye a r s
b e g i n n i n g approximatly in 915 and ending in 1115 the m a r g r a v e s
e x e r c i s e d a dominant c ontrol over the l eading counties of
Tuscany, including Florence. Until 1057 the m a r graves chose
as their r e s idence the city of Lucca in w e s t e r n Tuscany.
A f t e r 1057 Florence b e c a m e the capital of the Tuscan mar-
graviate." with the d e a t h o f the countess M a l t i l d a in
89 Schevill, Medieval and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , vol.l,

p p . 31-33.
90 I b i d . , p p . 32-35, 49-62.
65
1115 m a r g r a v i a l rule in T u s c a n y came to a close a nd a n e w
era o f u r b a n e x p a n s i o n beg a n for Flore n c e and other c i ties
of the region.
S o m e o f the T u scan cities al r e a d y took steps that in-^
d i c a t e d t h e i r growing inde p e n d e n c e and role in the region.
In 1016 Pisa, the m a i n s eaport of M e d i e v a l Tu s c a n y located
about f i f t y - f i v e miles west of Florence, d e f e a t e d S a r a c e n
forces on the M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s l a n d of Sardinia. In 1113
Pisa w o n a t e m p o r a r y yet i m p ortant v i c t o r y a gainst the
Sarac e n s in the B a l e a r i c Islands off the coast of Spain.
Florence a nd oth e r T u scan cities s u p p o r t e d Pisa in the 1113
v e n t u r e . 91 The early tw e l f t h ce n t u r y m a r k e d a t u r n i n g - p o i n t
for T u s c a n towns and cities e c o n o m i c a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y . The
urban alliance l o o s e n e d the once r i g i d l y h e l d l o n g - d i s t a n c e
sea t r a d e routes, and trade f l owed somewhat more e a s i l y and
f r e q u e n t l y t h r o u g h the m a i n e n t r y and exit se a p o r t o f m e d i e v a l
Tuscany. G r a d u a l l y this n e w flow of trade b e g a n to c o u r s e
its w a y t h r o u g h the na s c e n t u r b a n s y s t e m of the T u s c a n region.
However, it is n o t e w o r t h y that this e x p a n s i o n in t r a d e and
t r a f f i c o c c u r r e d only at the end of m a n y c e n turies of decline
and c o n t r a c t i o n .
T h e e a r l y medie v a l p e r i o d until the tenth and e l e v e n t h
ce n t u r i e s d i d not favor urb a n development. For s u r v i v i n g
cities in Italy this was an age of bare s u b s istence. The
Sc h e v i l l , M e d i e v a l and Re n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . l ,
p p . 57-62.
66
m a r g i n o f s u r v i v a l was g e n e r a l l y thin. The b u i l d i n g h istory
of F l o r e n c e ' s w a l l s suggests h o w r e s t r i c t e d u r b a n d e v e l o p
m e n t c o u l d be, and for h o w long, during the e a r l y medieval
period. In the first c e n t u r y B.C. the Romans b u i l t Florence's
first w a lls. F o l lowing the d e c l i n e of the e m p i r e in the
w e s t F l o r e n c e c o n t r a c t e d w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of its first
wal l s to about h a l f its o r i g i n a l size (Roman F l o r e n c e c overed
about t w e n t y - t h r e e hectares). It was not un t i l 1172 that
F l o r e n t i n e p rosperity, p a r t of the European u r b a n and c o m
mercial revolutions, i s s u e d in the b u i l d i n g of a s e c o n d more
encompassing wall to a c c o m m o d a t e the r a p i d l y g r o w i n g p o p
ulation. F l o r e n c e h a d r e m a i n e d near or w i t h i n the circuit
of its R o m a n b oundaries t h r o u g h o u t the e a r l y m e d i e v a l period.
W h e n this r e t r e a t finally ended, the F l o r e n t i n e s launched
a b u i l d i n g b o o m that w e n t on for more than a century. It
was the p h y s i c a l side of the b u i l d i n g of n e w u r b a n c a p a b i l
i t i e s . 92
f
This s e c o n d stage o f F l o r e n t i n e h i s t o r y b e t w e e n generally
1115 and 1340, the era o f n e w u r b a n c a p a b i l i t i e s , was a period
of d e v e l o p m e n t that t r a n s f o r m e d Florence f r o m a local center
of m o r e l i m i t e d urb a n c a p a b i l i t i e s into an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c e n t e r o f finance, commerce, and m a n u f a c t u r i n g in medieval
Europe. R e v o l u t i o n a r y c hanges in European a g r i c u l t u r e and
c o m m e r c e p r e c e d e d and a c c o m p a n i e d these changes in Florentine
history. Newer possibilities outpaced old e r limits.
92
T he b u i l d i n g of m e d i e v a l Florence is d i s c u s s e d in the
f o l l o w i n g pages.
67
The tenth and e l e v e n t h centuries t u r n e d a n e w chapter in
E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y not only r e l i g iously and po l i t i c a l l y but also
economically. D u r i n g this p e r i o d the first phases of an " e c o
n om i c r e n a i s s a n c e " a nd a "commercial R e v o l u t i o n " began in
E u r o p e . 93 Along with in c r e a s e d peace a nd p o l itical d e v e l o p
m e n t w i t h i n Europe, a g r i c u l t u r a l and c o m m e r c i a l - i n d u s t r i a l
advances bas e d on the " dis c o v e r y of h o r s e p o w e r " with the
i n v e n t i o n of a s h o u l d e r horse harness a nd the more w i d e s p r e a d
use of h o r s e shoes, the use of a h e a v i e r p l o w and the three
field s y s t e m of farming, the in c r e a s e d a p p l i c a t i o n of w i n d
and w a t e r mills for p r o d u c t i o n purpo s e s in city and c o u n t r y
side, the d e v e l o p m e n t of w a gons with l a r g e r load capacity,
and o t h e r innovations h e l p e d to s t i mulate p o p u l a t i o n growth and
a g r e a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n of goods, services, and i d e a s . P o p
u l a t i o n growth, in turn, s tirred more trade and the c u l t i
v a t i o n o f more land. Also, n e w trade routes b e g a n to outline
n e w m o v e m e n t and s e t t l e m e n t patterns o v e r a w i d e r and more
e c o n o m i c a l l y i n t e r r e l a t e d area. By the tw e l f t h century the
E u r o p e a n d e m o g r a p h i c p a t t e r n b e g a n to curve rap i d l y upward.
93 Hen r i Pirenne, Medie v a l Cities: The i r Origins and the

Revival of Trade (Princeton, N ew Jersey: Pr i n c e t o n Univer-
sity Press, 1925 , 1952), p . 76. Pirenne v i e w e d the tenth
c entury as the start o f an "economic r e n a i s s a n c e " in Europe;
Robert S. Lopez, "The Trade of M e d i e v a l Europe: The South,"
in C E H , v o l . 2, p p . 257-354, part II: "The G o lden Age, The
C o m m e r c i a l R e v o l u t i o n , " p . 289.
94 L y n n White, M e d i e v a l T e c h n o l o g y and Social Change

(Oxford: At The C l a r e n d o n Press, 1962), p p . 57-69 entitled
"The D i s c o v e r y of H o r s e p o w e r " and p p . 69-134 c o n t i n u e the
d i s c u s s i o n of the t e c h n o l o g y of the time.
68
At the same time, Europe w as also well on the w a y to b e c o m i n g
a "region of c i t i e s . "95 jt was d u r i n g these centuries of
the m e d i e v a l g r o u n dswell that Florence em e r g e d from its
e arlier r e s t r i c t e d circuit of activity and interests to b e
come a major p a r t i c i p a n t a nd innovator in the n e w e r a of
E u r o p e a n economic and u r b a n development.
The d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e w social structure was one of
the m a j o r changes t a k i n g pla c e in Florence d u r i n g the late
m e d i e v a l period. Social change r e f lected and a f f e c t e d e c o
n o m i c d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n and political development. It also
r e f l e c t e d the rap i d g r owth of Florentine p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h
p erhaps r eached n e a r l y 100,000 by 1300. In some ways the
social classes of late medieval Florence c a r r i e d over into
the early m o d e r n period.
There w e r e f o u r m a j o r social groups in late m e d i e v a l and
early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e society--the old rich, the n e w rich,
the m i ddle burghers , and the poor. 96 -phe old rich w e r e the
n o bles and m e r chants who rul e d twelfth century Florence at
the time of the c o n s u l a r government, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1138-1207.
They became the t r a d i t i o n a l Florentine r u ling class and were
95
Pounds, E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y , p p . 145-150; H i s t o r i c a l
G e o g r a p h y , p p . 326-343; For the phrase "region of c i t i e s " and
the u r b a n i z a t i o n pro c e s s to which it refers, see: Pirenne,
M e d i e v a l C i t i e s , p . 103 and the following d i s c u s s i o n in P i r e n n e s
study.
96 For a d i s c u s s i o n of Florentine medieval social classes

see: Gene A. Brucke, Florentine Politics and S ociety 1343-1378
(Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton U n iversity Press, 1962),
p p . 27-49; Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i ssance Florence, vol.l,
p p . 119-132, 151-160.
69
ca l l e d the grandi, the magnati or the patricians. The o l d
ric h h e l d c o n s e r v a t i v e views o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d ge n e r a l l y
o p p o s e d a b r o a d e n i n g of the p o l i t i c a l bas e in Florence. The
m o s t i m m e d i a t e o p p o s i t i o n to the old rich and their c o n s e r
vative p o l i c y came f rom the n e w rich.
After 1200 F l o r e n c e d e v e l o p e d into a t h r i v i n g e c o n o m i c
center, d r a w i n g t rade a n d p o p u l a t i o n to its gates. The m i
grants to F l o r e n c e d u r i n g the t h i r t e e n t h and f o u r t e e n t h c e n
turies cam e m o s t l y f rom the s u r r o u n d i n g c o u n t r y s i d e - - t h e
contado. S o m e of these migrants b e c a m e the w e a l t h y m e r c h a n t s ,
capitalists, an d bank e r s of the n e w era of e c o nomic e x pansion.
They c o n s t i t u t e d the n e w rich c l a s s - - t h e p o p o l o grasso (the
fat people) or the gente n u o v a (the newcomers). The n e w rich
h e l d a l i b e r a l v i e w of Flore n t i n e p o l i t i c s and d e s i r e d to
w i d e n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in the offices and councils of the
F l o r e n t i n e government. The w e a l t h y n e w comers b e l o n g e d to the
seven major guilds or a s s o c iations of F l o r e n c e - - t h e Calimala
guild, the m e r c h a n t s and refiners of fore i g n cloth; the Lana
guild, the w o o l cloth manufacturers; the Por S anta M a r i a guild,
the retail shop and silk association; the Cambio, the m o n e y
changer guild; the g uild of judges and notaries; the g u i l d o f
p hys i c i a n s and apoth e c a r i e s ; and the f u r r i e r guild. The
c loth guilds, the first three m e n t i o n e d above and the b a n k i n g
g uild (the C a m b i o ) , w ere the m ost influe n t i a l guilds in
Florence. G u i l d m e m b e r s h i p was a p r e r e q u i s i t e for h o l d i n g
public office in F l o r e n c e w hen a m ore p o p u l a r g o v e r n m e n t was
instituted during the t h i r t e e n t h century. The n e w rich
70
c h a l l e n g e d the o ld rich for p o l i t i c a l p o w e r a nd influence
p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g the century 1283-1378.
The n e x t m a j o r social group in F l o r e n c e was the middle
b u r g h e r class. The artisans, shop k e e p e r s , the small business
people, the g u i l d m a s t e r s and m a n y p r o f e s s i o n a l s c o m p o s e d the
m i d d l e b u r g h e r group. The m i ddle b u r g h e r s and their f o u r
teen guilds u s u a l l y s u p p o r t e d the l iberal p o l i t i c s of the new
rich aga i n s t the c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c s of the o ld rich.
One of the lar g e s t groups in F l o r e n c e was the poor.
Th r o u g h o u t late m e d i e v a l and early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e history,
the p o o r c o n s t i t u t e d u s u a l l y about a thi r d o f the population.
Most o f the p o o r w e r e the nonguild workers of Flore n c e and
the i r families. Florentine law p r o h i b i t e d the o r g a n i z a t i o n
of c a r d e r s , w e a v e r s , b eaters and o t h e r w o r k e r s in the wool
and c l o t h industries. Since guild m e m b e r s h i p was a requirement
for h o l d i n g p u b l i c o f f i c e in Florence, the u n o r g a n i z e d workers
and the poor g e n e r a l l y were u n r e c o g n i z e d a n d u n r e p r e s e n t e d
po l i t i c a l l y , and r e v o l t e d d u ring the crisis years 1343 and
1 3 7 8 . 97
P o l i t i c a l and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e in m e d i e v a l Florence
r e a c h e d its m o s t f o r mative pha s e in the y e a r s 1282-1293. At
this time F l o r e n t i n e s e s t a b l i s h e d the S i g n o r i a or Priorate--
a c o l l e g i a t e e x e c u t i v e b a s e d on g u i l d and d i s t r i c t r e p r e s e n
97 Gene A Bruck e r , "The Ciompi R e v o l u t i o n , " in F lorentine

Studies: Poli t i c s and S ociety in R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , edited
by Ni c o l a i R u b i n s t e i n (Evanston: Northwestern University
Press, 1968), p p . 314-356.
71
t a t i o n w h i c h r e m a i n e d the general framework of government
a l o n g w i t h the councils o f the city u n t i l 1532. Two other
m a j o r forms of g o v e r n e m n t p r e c e d e d this development in the
inter n a l h i s t o r y of the c i t y - - t h e age o f the communes or
consuls (generally 1138-1210) and the age o f the p o d e s t a
(1210 and after). Moreover, between 1152 a n d 1267 the
H o h e n s t a u f e n dynasty o f the H o l y R o m a n Em p i r e also i n f l u e n c e d
the p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y of Florence.
The n e w p o l i t i c a l a u t o n o m y of F l o r e n c e dur i n g the twelfth
c ent u r y b e c a m e v i s i b l e in the c o m munal or c o n s u l a r forms of
government. Records for this form of g o v e r n m e n t in F l o rence
a p p e a r e d in 1138 but m u c h e a r l i e r for Pis a and L u c c a . 98
T h o u g h m u c h is still u n k n o w n about the consulate, it be c a m e
the c o m m o n for m of g o v e r n m e n t in the cities o f T u s c a n y and
Italy d u r i n g the twel f t h century. The consulate, usually
c o m p o s e d o f twelve m e m b e r s , was an e x e c u t i v e commission elect
ed to o f f i c e yearly. The m a n n e r of e l e c t i o n is still u n
certain. The powers o f the con s u l a t e i n c l u d e d the aut h o r i t y
to p r e s i d e as the supr e m e court of the commune, to n e g o t i a t e
treaties, and to c o m m a n d the armed forces. In a d d i t i o n to
this e x e c u t i v e c o mmittee, there was a gene r a l a s s e m b l y of
citizens k n o w n as the p a r l a m e n t u m or arringhum. W h e t h e r or
no t the p a r l a m e n t u m a c t u a l l y e l e c t e d the consuls or e x e r c i s e d
e f f e c t i v e g o v e r n m e n t a l p o w e r is unclear. A smal l e r coun c i l of
98 Rubinstein, "Beginnings": 205-207; Schevill,

M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , vol.l, p p . 65-66; Waley,
Ital i a n C i t y - R e p u b l i c s , p p . 56-65.
72
less than two h u n d r e d m embers c o n c e n t r a t e d m u c h of the g o v e r n
ment's acti v i t y w i t h i n their own assembly.
The consuls and the s maller co u n c i l came m o s t l y f r o m
the m o r e p o w e r f u l and w e a l t h i e r feudal and m e r c h a n t c lasses in
Florence. Since the feudal k n i g h t s a n d landowners conquered
by the c o m m u n e were requi r e d to r e s i d e w i t h i n Flor e n c e p a r t
of e a c h year, the aris t o c r a t i c class came to exert a gre a t e r
i n f l u e n c e on F l orentine politics w i t h the expansion o f the
c o m m u n e d u r i n g the twelfth century. The merchant class in
Fl o r e n c e also grew in impo r t a n c e w i t h the revival of
medieval c o m m e r c e generally. Eventually the i n c r e a s i n g l y
urbanized feudal landed class a nd the w e a l t h i e r m e r c h a n t s
b e g a n to associate in b usiness a n d to intermarry. Many of
the n o b i l i t y in Florence did n ot r e m a i n aloof from busin e s s
i n v e s t m e n t and commercial enterprise. Wi t h o u t the p r e s e n c e
of a large group of artisans, s h o p k e e p e r s , workers, a nd a
professional class, the o l i g a r c h y of knight-me r c h a n t s domi
n a t e d F l o r e n t i n e society and g o v e r n m e n t during the t w e l f t h
century. The k n i g ht-merchants a l s o formed a societas milit u m ,
the c a l v a l r y force of the commune, since they could a f f o r d
the h o r s e and n e c essary e q u ipment for a mou n t e d warrior. The
m a j o r i t y of citizens formed the p e d i t e s - - t h e infantry or foot-

QQ
soldiers. Like political p o wer, the balance of m i l i t a r y
p o wers t i pped h eavily in the f a v o r of the milit a r y aristoc-
99 Schevill, Medieval and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , vol.l,

p p . 68-70.
73
racy o f knight-merchants.
D u r i n g the early t h i r t e e n t h century the p o d e s t a r e p l a c e d
the c o n s u l a r form of government. The Florentine g o v e r n m e n t
p a s s e d f r o m a multi p l e to a single executive. The d e s i r e for
a more e f f i c i e n t executive b r a n c h of government d id not
alone p r o m p t this change. D u r i n g the consular era the
c o m p e t i t i o n for government offices and control of the multiple
c o n s u l s h i p split the r u l i n g group into factions. The ensuing
factional fights ruined the c o n s u l a r c o n s t i t u t i o n a nd b rought
F l o r e n c e c o n t i n u a l l y und e r the threat of civil war. Between
1193 a n d 1210 the Florentines a t t e m p t e d to solve t h e i r civil
conflicts by the in s t i t u t i o n o f the single e x e c u t i v e c a l l e d
a p o d e s t a . 100
As the hig h e s t e x e c u t i v e o f f i c i a l in F l o r e n c e , the
p o d e s t a e x e r c i s e d the p o w e r form e r l y be l o n g i n g to the consuls.
Since one o f the m a i n p u r p o s e s of the i nstitution o f the
single exe c u t i v e was the fair a p p l i c a t i o n of the laws and the
c e s s a t i o n o f factional c o n flicts / the n ew r e f o r m m a n d a t e d
that the p o d e s t a be a f o r e i g n e r and a n o b l e m a n e l e c t e d by and
a c c o u n t a b l e to the F l o r e n t i n e councils, p a r t i c u l a r l y the
small council. The term of the p o d e s t a ran for one year
but lat e r exten d e d to only six months. By the m i d - t h i r t e e n t h
Schevill, M e d i e v a l and Renais s a n c e F l o r e n c e , vol.l,

p p . 91-92; Waley, Italian C i t y - R e p u b l i c s , p p . 67-73.
74
c e n t u r y the Florentines e x p e r i m e n t e d again w i t h t heir c o n
stitution. Besides e c o n o m i c and social c h a n g e and factional
con f l i c t s in F lorentine society, foreign p o l i c y issues also
a f f e c t e d the c i t y s p o l i t i c a l development.
At the very time that Florence and o t h e r Ital i a n cities
w e r e b e c o m i n g m a j o r u r b a n and economic cent e r s b e t w e e n g e n e r
ally 1150 and 1250 the H o l y Roman Emperors w e r e a t tempting
once a gain to institute a central g o v e r n m e n t in Italy. During
this p e r i o d the cities t h r o u g h o u t n o r t h e r n an d cent r a l Italy
s t r u g g l e d i n c r e a s i n g l y to e s tablish firmly t h e i r independence
f r o m feudal overlords, i n c l u d i n g the emp e r o r s , and to keep
the countryside, road, rivers, and trade ro u t e s o p e n for the
free and u n h i n d e r e d p a s s a g e of u r b a n goods and services.
W h e t h e r deriving fro m the p o w e r of the local landowning n o
b i l i t y or the e m p e r o r b e y o n d the Alps, the ci t i e s oppo s e d the
armies, the courts, and the taxes and tariffs of the feudal
system. B e t w e e n 1152 and 1266 the u r b a n - f e u d a l conflict
r e a c h e d a decisive turning-point in I t a l y . 101
In 1152 the H o h e n s t a u f e n dyna s t y came to p o w e r in Germany.
For over a century d u r i n g the years 1152-1267 the u r b a n and
feudal issues s e e s a w e d b e t w e e n the growing p o w e r of the
H o h e n s t a u f e n dyna s t y and the growing i n d e p e n d e n c e and trade
o r i e n t a t i o n of Italian c i t i e s . *02 The m a i n r u l e r s of the
101 Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , vol.l, p p . 201-213.
1 2 Ibid., vol.l, p p . 207-209; Schevill, Medieval and

R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , vol.l, p p . 84-102.
75
H o h e n s t a u f e n dy n a s t y w e r e F r e d e r i c k I (1152-1190), H e n r y VI
(1190-1197), and F r e d e r i c k II (1215-1250).
Frederick I's attempt to e s t a b l i s h central rule in
no r t h e r n Italy f a l t e r e d w h e n the L o m b a r d League of cities led
by M i l a n and in allia n c e w i t h Pope A l e x a n d e r III (1159-1181)
defe a t e d the imperial army at the b a t t l e of Legnano in 1176.
By the Peace of Constance of 1183 the L ombard cities became
i ndependent for all p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s and exercised full
ju r i s d i c t i o n a l rights of self - g o v e r n m e n t . Henry VI soon r e
gained a s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n in Italy b y w a y of his m a r r i a g e
to the p r i n c e s s of Sicily. However, H e n r y VI died s u d d e n l y
of a fever in 1197, and the attempt to reassert c entral rule

1n t
in Italy f a d e d again. His four y e a r old son a nd successor,
Fr e d e r i c k II, was too y o u n g to s u c c e e d to the imperial crown,
and Otto of Saxony, a H o h e n s t a u f e n rival, became the n e x t
emperor.
Otto IV's rei g n (1198-1215) e n d e d after his d e feat in 1214
at the b a t t l e of Bouv i n e s by P h ilip II Augustus (1180-1223)
of France, w h o was at odds w i t h Otto IV and his ally J o h n of
England ( 1 1 9 9 -1216).1^ Fr e d e r i c k II then became e m p e r o r in
1215, and soon c o n c e n t r a t e d his m a i n efforts on b u i l d i n g a
103 Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , vol.l, p p . 205-207; Waley,

Italian C i t y - R e p u b l i c s , p p . 122-128, (see m ap of Lo m b a r d Leagues
on p . 129).
104 ibid., p p . 209-211; Charles P e t i t - D u t a i l l i s , The Feudal

M o n a r c h y in France and England F r o m the Tenth to the T h i r t e e n t h
Century, Trans, by E.D. Hunt (New York: H a m e r Pvow P u b l i s h e r s ,
193b, 1964), p p . 225-226, 331-332.
76
c e n t r a l i z e d state and his p o w e r base in Italy rather than
Germany. Frederick II was the H o h e n s t a u f e n ruler w h o came
closest of all in s u c c e e d i n g to e s t a b l i s h a central govern
ment in Italy, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r his v i c t o r y at the b a ttle of
Co r t e n u o v a in 1237, but the popes, p a r t i c u l a r l y Innocent III
(1198-1216) and Innocent IV (1243-1254), al o n g w i t h French
support and the r e n e w e d r e s i s t a n c e of I talian cities p r e
v e n t e d h i m f r o m a c h i e v i n g his objective. Fo l l o w i n g F r e d e r i c k
II's d e a t h in 1250, a F r ench army led by Charles of A n j o u
d e f e a t e d in s o u t h e r n Italy his successors M a n f r e d at the
b a ttle of B e n e v e n t u m in 1266 and Conra d i n at the b a ttle n e a r
T a g l i a c o z z o in 1267.105 These defeats m a r k e d the end of the
c e n t u r y long attempt b y the H o h e n s t a u f e n d y n a s t y to e s t a b l i s h
central rule in Italy. T h o u g h the H o h e n s t a u f e n reign ended,
the p o l i t i c a l p arties w h i c h s t o o d for and aga i n s t them
c o n t i n u e d to f o r m m a j o r d i v i d i n g lines in Flor e n t i n e and
Italian p o l i t i c s d u r i n g the t h i r t e e n t h and f o u r t e e n t h c e n
turies. The Italian names of the ^ e two m a j o r p o l itical groups
m ay have o r i g i n a t e d in F l o r e n c e in the early or m i d - t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y .106
The c o n t e s t a n t s for the rule of Germany after 1197 were
Otto o f B r u n s w i c k and Philip o f Swabia, H e n r y Vi's brother.
1 05 Schevill, M e d i e v a l a n d R e n a i ssance Florence, vol.l,

p p . 136-141.
106 ibid., p p . 103-111; W a ley, Italian C i t y - R e p u b l i c s ,

p p . 200-218.
77
Otto of B r u n s w i c k was a m e mber of the W e l f d y n a s t y from
Saxony, a longtime rival to the H o h e n s t a u f e n s . and Philip of
Swabia w as a m e m b e r of the Waib l i n g e n or H o h e n s t a u f e n d ynasty
(Waiblingen was the name of the H o h e n s t a u f e n castle in S w a b i a ) .
The Italian terms for these two dynasties b e came Guelfo for
W e l f and G h i b e l l i n o for Waiblingen, and the E nglish trans
lation o f the Ita l i a n of these two terms is Guelf and
Ghibelline r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Until 1209 the Italian cities, i n c l u d i n g Florence, p r o
m o t e d the efforts of the Guelf Otto IV aga i n s t the Ghibelline-
H o h e n s t a u f e n dynasty. Along w i t h Pope Innocent III, h o w
ever,the Italian cities w i t h d r e w their su p p o r t of Otto IV
after 1209 w h e n he attempted to impose imper i a l rule t h r o u g h
out Italy, and s u p p o r t e d instead the p a p a l - F r e n c h candidate
for the G e rman c r o w n the G h i b e l l i n e - H o h e n s t a u f e n Frederick II.
Af t e r F r e d e r i c k II w o n poss e s s i o n of his imperial inheritance
b e t w e e n 1214 and 1220, the Italian cities r e s p o n d e d to his
p o l i c y of c e n t r a l i z e d s t a t e - building in Italy w i t h i n c reased
opposition.
It w as at this point in the fluid p o l i t i c s of Italy that
the terms Guelf and Ghibelline assumed the i r lon g - t e r m s i g
nificance in I talian history. In Florence p e r s o n a l feuds b e
tween the B u o n d e l m o n t e and Uberti clans o f the ruling feudal
knight-merchant group became a s sociated w i t h the larger pol-
107 Schevill, Medie v a l and R e n a i ssance F l o r e n c e , vol.l,

p p . 103-111; Waley, Italian C i t y - R e p u b l i c s , p p . 200-218.
78
litical divisions of the time. The B u o n d e l m o n t e faction
o r g a n i z e d into a Guelf Party and the U b e r t i faction into a
G h i b e l l i n e Party. Local feuds r e m a i n e d the first interest
of these two factions, yet e a c h became i d e n t i f i e d with a
f oreign policy. The Guelfs in Florence s u p p o r t e d the i n d e
p e n d e n c e of the city and papal p o l i c y w h i l e the Ghibellines
p r o m o t e d imperial rule in Italy. The split be t w e e n Guelfs
and Gh i b e l l i n e s occurred p r i m a r i l y in the p o w e r f u l feudal
upper class. Later, there also d e v e l o p e d a b r o a d l y based
popular movement in favor of the Guelf p o l i c y of independence
and the p a p a l - F r e n c h alliance. From F l o r e n c e the Guelf and
G h i b e l l i n e divisions s p r e a d to other I t a l i a n cities. In
F l o r e n c e G u e l f i s m do m i n a t e d m u c h of F l o r e n t i n e politics
b e t w e e n 1266 and 1378.
The role of the Guelf Party in F l o r e n t i n e his t o r y cha n g e d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from a pol i t i c a l to an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r g a n i z a
tion b e t w e e n the late m e d i e v a l and e a r l y m o d e r n periods. The
c h a n g i n g role of the par t y su g g e s t e d also some of the pol i t i c a l
changes d i s t i n g u i s h i n g late m e d i e v a l f r o m ear l y modern
F l o r e n t i n e history. Moreover, since the Gue l f Party t\ras an
i m p ortant part of early m o d e r n Flor e n t i n e u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
it is a p p r o p r i a t e to consi d e r here at least b r i e f l y the
p arty's development.
W i t h the defeat of the G h i b e l l i n e - H o h e n s t a u f e n claims in
188 Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e Florence, vol.l,

p p . 103-111.
79
1266- 1267, the Florentine Guelfs c o n s o l i d a t e d the i r control
over the city by e s t a b l i s h i n g a formal o r g a n i z a t i o n for their
party. The m a i n planks of G u e l f p o l i c y were F l o r e n t i n e l i b
erty, alliance w i t h the popes and A n g e v i n dy n a s t y o f southern
Italy, and suppre s s i o n of the Ghibellines. Party m e m b e r s h i p
was m o s t l y Ma union of birth and wealth'1 made up o f the old
feudal and merch a n t c l a s s e s . 100 The par t y o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n
s i s t e d of an executive o f f i c e of six captains w i t h an. advi s o r y
se cret council of fourteen m e m b e r s , a treasury o f f i c e a d m i n
is t e r e d by a committee of six, and a general a s s e m b l y that
e x e r c i s e d the k ey a u t hority in the p a r t y g o v e r n m e n t b y electing
p a r t y officials and b y v o t i n g on all s ignificant bil l s and
p o l i c y r e c o m mendations or s t a t e m e n t s of the party. One of the
m a i n fu n c t i o n s of the ex e c u t i v e office, p a r t i c u l a r l y the six
captains and the p r o s e c u t o r of the Ghibellines who sat on the
se cret council, was to put into effect the Guelf P arty's
a n t i - G h i b e l l i n e p o l i c y . 110
The Guelf Party became p o l i t i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y
influential in Florence b e c a u s e o f their power to d e c l a r e
som e o n e a rebel and to c o n f i s c a t e the i r property. There was
also a d i v i s i o n of the p r o p e r t y and w e alth a c c u m u l a t e d by the
Gue l f Party. Besides filling the Gue l f Party t r e asury, the
F l o r e n t i n e commune recei v e d p a r t of the d i s p o s s e s s e d p r o p e r t y
100 Schevill, Medieval and Renaissance F l o r e n c e , vol.l,

p . 143; Waley, Italian C i t y - R e p u b l i c s , p p . 203-217.
110 Schevill, Medi e v a l a nd R e n a i ssance Florence, vol.l,

p p . 141-143.
80
o f G u e l f o p p onents and also individual Guelfs w h o w e r e ear l i e r
d i s p o s s e s s e d by the G h i b e l l i n e s received c o m p e n s a t i o n for
their property l o s s e s . m T h o u g h p o l i t i c a l l y and e c o n o m i
cally prominent, the role o f the Guelf Party in F l o r e n c e
b e g a n to change d u r i n g the later fourteenth century.
The Guelf Party's p o l i t i c a l influence d e c l i n e d s u b
s t a n t i a l l y after the s o - c a l l e d "War of the Eight S a i n t s "
1 3 7 5 - 1 3 7 8 b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e and the Papal States. Various
issues p u t the f o rmer allies at odds w i t h each other. One
m a j o r issue d e v e l o p e d w h e n the popes, r e t u r n i n g f r o m the i r
l o n g s o j o u r n in France, k n o w n as the A v i g n o n P a p a c y (1305-
1377), a t t e m p t e d to o r g a n i z e an effective central government
i n the Papal States w h i c h b o r d e r e d the F l o r e n t i n e state. The
w a r p l a c e d into confl i c t t r a d i t i o n a l elements of the Gue l f
i d e o l o g y - - p a t r i o t i s m amd papal alliance.
T h e . G u e l f P a r t y r e s p o n d e d to their d i l e m m a and the
factional fights whi c h c o n t i n u e d to disrupt F l o r e n t i n e politics
b y a t t e m p t i n g to purge those w h o they thought s u p p o r t e d the
w a r effort. The Guelf c a p t a i n s tagged m a n y g o v e r n m e n t office
holders and influential c i t i z e n s with the G h i b e l l i n e label.
In 1378 the gente n u o v a or ne w c o m e r s of Florence, many of w h o m
w e r e the v ictims of the Gue l f purge, as well as o t h e r Flore n t i n e
Schevill, M e d i e v a l and Renaissance F l o r e n c e , vol.l,

p p . 141-143; Waley, I talian C i t y - R e p u b l i c s , p p . 207-208.
112 Brucker, F l o r e n t i n e Politics and Society, p p . 297-335.
81
groups, i n c l u d i n g the art i s a n and craft guilds, b e g a n a revolt
that b r o k e the Guelf P a r t y s p o l i t i c a l h o l d on the c i t y . 113
Thereafter, the Guelf Party's role in Florence was an i n
c r e a s i n g l y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e one in the fie l d o f p r o p e r t y m a n a g e
m e n t a n d p u b l i c ut i l i t y service, a top i c d i s c u s s e d later in
this essay.
In a d d i t i o n to the e m e rgence o f the Gue l f Party b e t w e e n
1266-1378, the Flor e n t i n e c o n s t i t u t i o n d e v e l o p e d in maj o r
n e w d i r e c t i o n s w h i c h r e f l e c t e d the city's rap i d social and
e c o n o m i c growth. D u ring the years 1237 and 1267 F l orentine
politics s e e s a w e d b e t w e e n G h ibelline and Gue l f predomi n a n c e .
F o l l o w i n g the imperial v i c t o r y at the battle of Cortenuova
in 1237, F r e d e r i c k II's emissaries r e i n s t a t e d imperial taxes
and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n on T u scan communities. The n e w imperial
p o l i c y c u r b e d Flor e n t i n e a u t o n o m y drastically. For example,
the p o d e s t a of Florence no longer c o u l d take o f fice wi t h o u t
the a p p r o v a l of the emperor. In 1246 F r e d e r i c k of Antioch,
Frederick II's i l l e gitimate son, b e c a m e p o d e s t a of Florence,
and also h e l d the office of v i c a r - g e n e r a l of Tuscany. In
short, he was the governor of all of Tuscany. He chose
F l o r e n c e as his residence, and, in effect, the A r n o city
b e came the regio n a l capital of the imperial g o v e r n m e n t . 11^
113 Brucker, Florentine Politics and Society, p p . 297-

307, 336-396.
1 1 ^ Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i ssance Florence, vol.l,

p p . 114-132.
82
In 1250 the Guelf a r m y beat the G h i b e l l i n e forces in
the T u s c a n countryside. Hea r i n g of the Guelf v i c t o r y the
c o mmon p e o p l e (the pop o l a n i ) of F l o r e n c e went into revolt
against the imperial government. W i t h the news of his f a
t h e r s de a t h in 1250 fol l o w i n g the G h i b e l l i n e rout in the
T u scan countryside, F r e d e r i c k of A n t i o c h r e t r e a t e d qu i c k l y
f r o m Florence. The F l o r e n t i n e p o p u l a c e p r o c e e d e d to o r
ganize into twenty m i l i t a r y companies, to elect a c a p t a i n of
the p e o p l e (il capitano del popolo) as c o m m a n d e r o f the
cit i z e n militia, and to f o r m the first democ r a t i c government
in the c i t y s h istory (il primo p o p o l o ) . H 5
The p o d e s t a and the captain of the p e o p l e w e r e nowr the
two h i g h e s t executive o f f icials of the government, exercising
similar powers of o f fice in their r e s p e c t i v e areas of
jurisdiction. The p o d e s t a retai n e d the title of commander-
i n - c h i e f o f the entire F l o r e n t i n e army. P r a c tically, h o w
ever, the p o d e s t a c o m m a n d e d the c a v a l r y force o f the commune
wh i l e the c aptain of the p e ople r e m a i n e d the c h i e f officer
of the c i t i z e n m i l i t i a w h i c h was p r e d o m i n a n t l y foot soldiers.
In the p o l i t i c a l sphere the ca p t a i n r e p r e s e n t e d the rights
of the p e o p l e and the p o d e s t a t e n d e d to focus on issues
c o n c e r n i n g the ruling feudal factions of Florence.
B o t h the captain a n d the p o d e s t a h a d two councils each
to a d vise t h e m and to s u p e r v i s e the i r activities. These
Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e Florence, vol.l,

p p . 114-132.
83
councils did not initiate b u t i n s t e a d exe r c i s e d the j u r i s
diction to approve or to d i s a p p r o v e le g i s l a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d by
their r e s p e c t i v e e x e c u t i v e officials. Though F l o r e n c e s
first d e m o c r a t i c gove r n m e n t di d not survive the Ghib e l l i n e
rout of the F l o r e n t i n e Guelfs in 1260 at the battle of
Mont a p e r t i o u t s i d e Siena, the c o u n c i l s of the p o d e s t a and
the c a p t a i n h a d a longer tenure in F l orentine insti t u t i o n a l
history. By the 1320's the two p o d e s t a councils b e c a m e one
c o u n c il--the Council of the Commune, an assembly of about
two h u n d r e d to two h u n d r e d and f ifty members. At the same
time, the two captain's counc i l s also became a single council-
the Council of the People, an a s s e m b l y of three h u n d r e d m e m
bers. Th e Council of the Comm u n e and the Council of the
People c o n s t i t u t e d the l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h of the Flor e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t . 116 A d d i t i o n a l changes, w h i c h will be d i s c u s s e d
further later, o c c u r r e d in the l e g i s lative bra n c h of the
Florentine gove r n m e n t d u r i n g the fifteenth and six t e e n t h
centuries.
A n o t h e r event w h i c h was a s i g n of the times arid the
emerging role of F l o rence e c o n o m i c a l l y t ook p l a c e two y e a r s
after the i n s t i t u t i o n of the p o p u l a r government. In 1252
the Flore n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t m i n t e d the gold florin, a gold
coin w o r t h twenty silver florins ( s o l i d i ) , or two h u n d r e d and
forty silver pennies ( d e n a r i i ). A l o n g wit h the Genoese and
116 Brucker, F lorentine Politics and Society, p p . 61-63.
84
V e n e t i a n gold coins, the F l o r e n t i n e g o l d florin b e c a m e the
m o n e t a r y m e d i u m for i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade and the r e f e r e n c e
for p r i c e m e a s u r e m e n t s and q u otes t h r o u g h o u t w e s t e r n trade
areas d u r i n g the m e d i e v a l and ear l y m o d e r n p eriods of E u r o p e a n
history.H7 These larger and m o r e stable m o n e t a r y units were
an i n n o v a t i v e response to the i n c r e a s e d v o l u m e o f m e d i e v a l
trade.
B e t w e e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1250 and 1300 Florence a nd other
E u r o p e a n cities e n t e r e d into a p e r i o d o f rapid econo m i c and
ur b a n development. D u r i n g these decades Florence r e a c h e d
its p r e m o d e r n p o p u l a t i o n height, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100,000, and
saw the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the b a s i c financial, c o m m e r c i a l and
indu s t r i a l s t r ucture o f its economy. The m e r c h a n t class,
c o n s i s t i n g o f a gr o w i n g n u m b e r o f n e w c o m e r s , a r r i v e d at the
t h r e s h o l d o f economic and p o l i t i c a l control of the city's
government.
In 1282 they c r o s s e d the t h r e s h o l d p e a c e f u l l y a nd i n
s t i t u t e d a n e w gover n m e n t in F l o r e n c e - - t h e Priorate or the
Signoria. The Priorate or S i g n o r i a was the chief e x e c u t i v e
b r a n c h o f the Flore n t i n e government. The priors alone had
the rig h t to initiate l e g i s l a t i o n or to issue ordi n a n c e s on
their own authority. Only me m b e r s of one o f the s e v e n greater
guilds w e r e eligible for the o f f i c e of p r i o r in 1282. Shortly
a f terwards in 1283, the m e r c h a n t s guilds j o ined w i t h five of
the l e s s e r guilds to p r o v i d e the n e w g o v e r n m e n t w i t h a some-
117 Lopez, C ommercial R e v o u l t i o n , p p . 106-107.
85
w h a t b r o a d e r p o l i t i c a l and social base. Consequ e n t l y , me m b e r s
of these s o - c a l l e d m i d d l e guilds (the term m i d d l e guilds d i s
t i n g u i s h e d the guilds w h i c h w e r e a part of the g o v e r n m e n t in
1283 from the lesser guilds w h i c h were not part o f the n e w
government) also b e came eligi b l e for the office o f prior.
The p r i o r s s e r v e d in o f f i c e for a t e r m of two m o nths and
then, a l o n g w i t h the two e x e c u t i v e colleges, chose their
successors. The list of e l i g i b l e candidates for the P r i o r a t e
o r i g i n a t e d w i t h the twelve guilds. W h i l e in office, the priors
lived t o g e t h e r day and nig h t and could not leave t h e i r e x e c u t i v e
residence. A f t e r 1283 there w e r e u s u a l l y six p r i o r s - - o n e
for each o f the six districts of Florence. When Florence
was divided into quarters in 1343, the n u m b e r o f p r iors in
c re a s e d to e i g h t - - t w o from each q u a r t e r of the c i t y . H
B e g i n n i n g in the four t e e n t h century two e x e c u t i v e col
leges g o v e r n e d along w i t h the p r iors in the e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h
of the g o v e r n m e n t - - t h e Twelve G o o d Men and the S i x t e e n S t a n
dard B e a r e r s of the M i l i t i a Companies. Though the priors
h e l d the a u t h o r i t y to initiate p o l i c y and legislation, the
c o n s u l t a t i o n and consent of the two colleges was n e c e s s a r y
b e f o r e any p o l i c y or p r o p o s a l b e c a m e law. The T w e l v e h e l d
o f fice for three months and the S i x t e e n for four months.
T h e y c h e c k e d the power of the p r iors and also p r o v i d e d c o n
t inuity o f o f fice b e y o n d the two mon t h tenure o f the priors.
118 B r u c k e r , F lorentine Politics and S o c i e t y , p p . 64-72,

83-104; S c h evill, Medieval and Re n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , vol.l,
p p . 145-160; B e t w e e n 1343 and 1532 six ot the eight p r iors were
u su a l l y f r o m the m a j o r and two f r o m the m i n o r guilds.
86
Along with the priors, the colleges el e c t e d or a p p o i n t e d
oth e r o f f i c i a l s of the Florentine government. To g e t h e r , the
priors and the two colleges (.i tre maggiori) w e r e the e x e c u
tive b r a n c h of the Flor e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t . As already m e n
tioned, the l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t c o n
s i s t e d fir s t of the councils of the p o d e s t a and c a p t a i n and
l a t e r by the 1320's of the Council of the Commune a nd the
C o u n c i l o f the People. Both the p o d e s t a and the c a p t a i n c o n
t i n u e d to e x e r c i s e their previous au t h o r i t y and ju r i s d i c t i o n ,
b ut w e r e n o w u l t i m a t e l y subject to the a u t h o r i t y of the priors
and colleges.
In 1293 a revolt due to domestic and f o r e i g n p o l i c y d i f
f i c u l t i e s p r o v i d e d the o c c a s i o n for one of the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
ch a n g e s in F l o r e n t i n e cons t i t u t i o n a l history. This c h a n g e
i s s u e d in the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the O r dinances of J u s t i c e - - a
cornerstone in Flor e n t i n e c o n s t i tutional history. According
to the O r d i n a n c e s of Justice, nine lesser guilds j o i n e d the
a l r e a d y t w e l v e guilds w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d the F l o r e n t i n e govern
ment. A ll twent y - o n e guilds w e r e n o w eligible for the o f fice
of prior. This change b r o a d e n e d again the p o l i t i c a l b a s e of
Florence. However, still excluded f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t w e r e
n o n g u i l d a nd other groups and individuals. The O r d i n a n c e s add
ed, also, a n e w m e m b e r to the office of p r i o r s - - t h e Gonfalinier
(the Bann e r - B e a r e r ) of Justice. Only m embers o f the g r e a t e r
se v e n guilds w e r e eligible for this office.
119 Brucker, F lorentine Politics and S o c i e t y , p p . 64-72, 83-

104; Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i ssance Florence, v o l.l, pp.
145-160
87
The G o n f a l o n i e r of Ju s t i c e was one of the priors and the
hig h e s t e x e c u t i v e office o f the state. One of the early
functions of this office was to e n f o r c e the consitutional
laws against those declared " m a g n a t i " or "grandi". The
Ordinances a p p l i e d this d e s i g n a t i o n of m a g n a t e to those
families w ho c l a i m e d a k n i g h t h o o d a nd b e h a v e d arrogantly toward
popolano or commoners. Those d e c l a r e d magna t e s h ad to pledge
allegiance to the government a nd to pro v i d e a money bond
to insure the i r peaceful behavior. Also, there was strict
enforcement o f the laws against any crim i n a l acts the p o p o
lano s u f f e r e d at the hand of a magnate. A l t h o u g h the function
of the e n f o r c e m e n t of the O r d i n a n c e s p a s s e d from the
G anfalonier to an o t h e r e x e cutive official, called the Executor
of the Or d i n a n c e s , the G o n f a l o n i e r r e m a i n e d the highest
executive o f f i c i a l of the s t a t e . 120
W i t h the 1293 Ordinance of Justi c e , the Florentines
co m pleted a d e c a d e o f maj o r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l development. The
general f r a m e w o r k o f the c o n s t i t u t i o n b a s e d on the seven
greater and f o u r t e e n lesser guilds l a s t e d into the early
m o d e r n period. There were, h o w e v e r , c hanges and challenges
to the guild government d u ring the 1300's.
During the 1 3 2 0 's and the 1340's, per i o d s of war and
social and e c o n o m i c difficulty, the Florentines temporarily
suspended some of their c o n s t i t u t i o n a l practices and flirted
120 Brucker, Florentine Politics and S o c i e t y , p p . 28-40,

64-72, 83-104; Schevill, Medie v a l and Renaissance F l o r e n c e ,
vol.l, p p . 145-160.
88
w i t h despotism. Both times the Florentines o u s t e d the rulers
they formerly in v i t e d to r un t h e i r government and r e t u r n e d to
c o nstitutional government. In 1343 and again in 1378 the u n
o r g a n i z e d w orkers of Flore n c e revolted, p a r t i c u l a r l y those
in the wool industries. These wor k e r s sought r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
in the F l orentine g o v e r n m e n t a nd the right to o r g a n i z e into
a guild. The 1343 r e v o l t failed, but the 1378 uprising,
c a lled the Ciompi revolt, s u c c e e d e d in'Establishing a r e v o
lutionary g o vernment in Florence until 1381. However, in
1381 there was a r e s t o r a t i o n of the traditional r u l i n g groups.
A f t e r 1381, Florence b e c a m e an oli g a r c h y and r e m a i n e d so
throughout the fi f t e e n t h century.I'^l
Just as the t r a n s i t i o n from a historical e n v i r o n m e n t
o f urba n i z a t i o n w i t h p o l i t i c a l c e n t r a l i z a t i o n to one of
urbanization without political centralization characterized
a ma j o r diff e r e n c e b e t w e e n ancient and m e d i e v a l Florence, so
the development of a local m a r k e t economy into a l o n g-distance
export economy o u t l i n e d a maj o r d i m e n s i o n of the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
o f Florence from an a ncient urban center into a late medie v a l
metropolis. Giovanni V i l l a n i ' s Chronicle is a m a i n source for
Florence's h i s t o r y d u r i n g this p e r i o d of economic and social
transition. As F l o r e n t i n e citizen, chronicler, banker,
executive o f f iceholder, and s uperintendent of c o n s t r u c t i o n
in 1324-25 of the city's m o s t extensive wall, V i l l a n i was
121 Brucker, "The Ciompi R e v o lution," in F l o r e n t i n e Studies

Politics and So c i e t y in R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , e d i t e d by Nicolai
Rubinstein [ E v a n s t o n : N o r t h w e s t e r n University Press, 1968),
p p . 314-356.
b o t h p a r t i c i p a n t and o b s e r v e r d u r i n g F l o r e n c e ' s fastest
p e r i o d o f growth. His well k n o w n c h r o n i c l e and, in p a r
t icul a r , his s t a t i stical d e s c r i p t i o n of F l o r e n c e at the height
o f its p r o s p e r i t y in 1336-38 has o f t e n b e e n the starting-
point for studies on F l o r e n t i n e e c o n o m i c s a n d population.
His chronicle and s t atistics have importance for u r b a n his t o r y
a l s o . 122
T h o u g h V i l lani's h i s t o r y of F l o r e n c e includes a mi x t u r e
of s u p e r n a t u r a l and n a t u r a l explanations a nd v i e w p o i n t s of
ev e n t s , his c h r onicle a nd c a reer also i n d i c a t e an i n creasing
t r a n s f e r o f rational appr o a c h e s and a n a l y s i s to u r b a n a d m i n
i s t r a t i o n a nd a f f a i r s . l 2 ^ J u s t as F l o r e n t i n e m e r c h a n t s and
bankers n e e d e d accurate i n f o r m a t i o n on m a r k e t c o n d i t i o n s ,
1 22 por a disc u s s i o n of the d e m o g r a p h i c a nd economic

g r o w t h o f the medi e v a l p e r i o d g e n e r a l l y and Flore n c e s p e c i f
i c a l l y see: C E H , II, "The Trade o f M e d i e v a l Europe: The South
by R o b e r t S. Lopez, p p . 257-354; A r m a n d o Sapori, Studi di
S t o r i a Economica: Secoli XIII, XIV, X V , 2 vols. (Florence:
S a n s o n i , 1955); Enrico Fiumi, " F i o r i t u r a e D e c a d e n z a dell'
E c o n o m i c a F i o r e n t i n a , " ASI 116 (1958): 443-510, and 117 (1959)
427-5 0 2 ; Both articles w h i c h f o l l o w d iscuss the r e l i a b i l i t y of
the s t a t i s t i c s used by V i l l a n i and o t h e r m e d i e v a l chroniclers,
a nd b o t h authors generally agree t h a t the s t a t i s t i c s u s e d by
V i l l a n i can be c o n s i d e r e d reliable: E n r i c o Fiumi, "La Demo-
g r a f i c a f i o r e n t i n a n e l l a Pagine di G i o v a n n i V i l l a n i , " ASI
1 0 7 - 1 0 9 (1950-51): 78-158; Sapori, " L ' A t t e n d i b i l i t a di alcune
T e s t i m o n i o n z e Cronistiche d e l l ' E c o n o m i a m e d i e v a l e , " Studi, I,
p p . 25-33.
1 2 3 Rubinstein, "Muni c i p a l Progress a nd D e c l i n e , " p p . 171-

178; J.K. Hyde, "Medieval D e s c r i p t i o n s o f C i t i e s , " B u l l e t i n
of t he J o h n Rylands Library M a n c h e s t e r 48 (1965-66): 308-340;
Pe t e r Burke, R enaissanse Sense of th~e~Past (New York: St.
M a r t i n ' s Press, 1969), p p . 16-20, 21-24.
90
a v a i l a b l e resources, and the var i o u s costs of doi n g b u s i n e s s
to m a k e i n t e l l i g e n t e c o n o m i c d e cisions, so the F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t was i n c r e a s i n g l y in n e e d of an accurate p i c t u r e
of p o p u l a t i o n size, u r b a n e c o n o m i c activity, and c o m m e r c i a l
revenues and experiditures to meet and to p l a n e f f e c t i v e l y for
the food supply and o t h e r s o cial nee d s of the city. For
example, the An n o n a , the A b b o n d a n z a , and the U f f i c i o d e l l a
Grascia were food s u p p l y offices e s t a b l i s h e d by the Florentine
g o v e r n m e n t to c h e c k regu l a r l y , to e s t i m a t e and to p r o v i d e for
the food needs of the city on a y e a r l y basis. The F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t also f o rmed b u i l d i n g commi s s i o n s , probably o r g a n
ized t e m p o r a r i l y for s p e c i f i c tasks, to construct the b r i d g e s ,
roads, and walls of the city. This growing interplay of
rati o n a l m e t h o d s and t e c h n i q u e s of analysis b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t
segments of F l o r e n t i n e c u l t u r e was the r e sult and r e f l e c t i o n
of the e m e r g i n g of a m o r e c o m p l e x u r b a n en v i r o n m e n t and the
b e g i n n i n g of a w i d e r u r b a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s .124
In his d e s c r i p t i o n o f the " g r a n d e z z a e stato e mag-
n i f i c e n z a " of the city o f Flor e n c e V i l l a n i e s t i m a t e d the
124 R u b i n stein, " M u n i c i p l e Progress and Dec l i n e , " 171-

178; J.K. Hyde, " M e dieval D e s c r i p t i o n s of Citie s , " B u l l e t i n
of the J o h n Rylands Li b r a r y M a n c h e s t e r 48 (1965-66)1 3 08-340 ;
Pet e r Burke, R e n a i s s a n c e Sense of the Past (New York: St.
M a r t i n s Press, 1969), p p . 16-20, 21-24; M. C r i s t i n a P e c c h i o l i
Vigni, "Lo statuto in v o l g a r e del l a M a g i s t r a t u r a Fiorentina.
del l a G r a s c i a (a. 1 3 7 9 ) , " ASI 129 (1971-72): 3-70.
91
p o p u l a t i o n in 1338 at 90,000 mouths or "bocche". *25 The
use of this g r a p h i c t e r m to describe p o p u l a t i o n demo n s t r a t e s
wel l F l o r e n t i n e r e c o g n i t i o n of the direct r e l a t i o n s h i p of
p o p u l a t i o n and food supply. His estimate did not, however,
include the c l e r g y of the city, but he does add to the above
figure 1,500 foreigners, travelers, and soldiers. Although
Vill a n i did n o t detail a specific n u m b e r for the countryside,
he did list 80,000 men-at - a r m s outside Florence in c o m p a r i s o n
to the 25,000 in the c i t y . 126 B a s e d on the 80,000 figure as
r e p r e s e n t i n g one h o u s e h o l d m e m b e r and u s i n g a m u l t i p l i e r of
3.5 to r e p r e s e n t the o ther members of the h o u s e h o l d , one
d e m o g r a p h i c s t u d y projects a p o p u l a t i o n of 280,000 for the
Tuscan c o u n t r y s i d e . 127
F l o r e n c e ' s p o p u l a t i o n e x c eeded by far the 5 to 15,000
average of mos t o ther cities in Europe and s u r p a s s e d n o t a b l y
the o t h e r m a i n cities of Tuscany. For example, Pis t o i a ' s
p o p u l a t i o n in the first half of the f o urteenth c e n t u r y
reached a high a r o u n d 11,000. The two other lar g e r cities
of Tuscany, Pisa and Siena, ha d the following m a x i m u m popu-
125 v i l lani, C r o n i c a , VI, p . 184; E n c i c l o p e d i a I t a l i a n a,

v o l . 15, p . 438 (Florence is d i scussed on p p . 435-463); A c c o r d i n g
to the first gene r a l census of the Italian kingdom, con d u c t e d
in 1861 f o l l o w i n g the u n i f i c a t i o n of mos t of Italy in 1860,
Flor e n c e ' s p o p u l a t i o n was 114,363, and the city was still
located w i t h i n the boundaries of its third wall.
126 v i l lani, C r o n i c a , VI, p . 184.
127 Fiumi, "La D e m o g r a f i c a fior e n t i n a , " 87.
92
lation during this period: P i s a 38,000 in 1293 and Siena
at least 50,000 in 1318-20. One p o p u l a t i o n model presents
the following scale for m e d i e v a l cities g e n erally between 1275
and 1325: giant cities, those over 50,000; v e r y large cities,
those over 25,000; large cities, those be t w e e n 10,000 and
25,000; m e d i u m - s i z e d and small cities, those b e t w e e n 2,000 and
10,000. Besides Florence, Milan, Venice, and Paris there were
v e r y few other g i a n t cities and very likely "no more than
fi f t e e n or t w e n t y " v e r y large cities d u ring this period. There
w e r e many large cities in c entral and n o r t h e r n Italy, along the
Rhine River and in n o r t h e r n Germany, and in n o r t h e r n France and
the Netherlands, but most towns and cities of this time had
popula t i o n s in the small range. F l o r e n c e s p o p u l a t i o n grew
ra p i d l y between 1200 and 1300, perhaps doubling, and then
stab i l i z e d at a h i g h level d u r i n g the early decades of the
f o urteenth c e n t u r y . *28
F l o r e n c e s role as an u r b a n c e nter surfaces even more
cl e a r l y when the p o p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n city and c o u n t ryside
is compared. A s s u m i n g V i l lani's figures for Florence and
the p rojection for the T u s c a n countr y s i d e are accurate,
the popul a t i o n o f the city and c o u n t ryside toget h e r equaled
128 David Herl i h y , M e d i e v a l and R e n a i ssance Pistoia: The

Social History of An Italian Town, 1200-1430 (New H a v e n and
L o n d o n : Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1967), p . 76, and Pisa In The
Early Renaissance: A Study of Urban Growth (New Haven: Yale
U niversity Press, 1958), p . 36; W i l l i a m Bowsky, "The Impact of
the Bla c k Death Upon Sienese Government and S o c i e t y , Speculum
39 (1964): 7; F or p o p u l a t i o n model see: Pounds, Economic
H i s t o r y , p p . 254-269, p a r t i c u l a r l y p p . 254-262.
93
370,000. This w o u l d make Florence's 90,000 p o p u l a t i o n about
24% o f the total p o p u l a t i o n . 129 C o m p a r e d to the r a t e o f
u r b a n i z a t i o n in most regions of E u r o p e d u r i n g the f o u r t e e n t h
ce n t u r y this p e r c e n t a g e w o u l d re f l e c t the rapid e c o n o m i c and
urb a n d e v e l o p m e n t taking place in F l o r e n c e and T u s c a n y at
this time.
One d e m o g r a p h i c theory m a i n t a i n s that medieval r egions
tended to d e v e l o p a "natural m e d i e v a l p a t t e r n " in the d i s
t r i b u t i o n o f their c i t i e s . I 3 Once established, the p r o
port i o n s o r b a l a n c e in this p a t t e r n t e n d e d g e n e r a l l y to r e main
stable e v e n w h e n p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d or decreased. The
largest o r m e t r o p o l i t a n city in this p a t t e r n is l i k e l y to
h a v e 1.5% of the total population. The leading t en c i t i e s
in the p a t t e r n r a n k e d according to a ra t i o of size w o u l d h a v e
about 4.7% of the total p o p u l a t i o n in an ordinary m e d i e v a l
region.131 One reason given for this p a t t e r n is " p r o b a b l y
that, in an i n tegrated area, the cities s u pply the s p e c i a l
ized n e e d s of government, religion, and industry, w i t h the
most s p e c i a l i z e d needs being s u p p l i e d by the largest c i t i e s . 132
Thus, the m o r e advanced the economy, the larger the p e r c e n t a g e
129 g ee n o te 122 ,
I** J o s i a h C. Russell, "T h i r t e e n t h Century T u s c a n y as a

R e g i o n , " Texas A 5 I University Studies 1 (1968): 43.
131 Ibid. , 44, 49.
1 32 Russell, "Tuscany," 44; See also Russell, "The M e t r o

p o l i t a n C i t y R e gion of the Middle A g e s , " Journal of Region al
Science 2 (I960): 55-70, and- Medieval Regions and T h e i r Cities
(Great Brit a i n : Indiana University Press, 1972), c h a p t e r 2,
"Central a n d S o u t h e r n Italy: Flore n c e a n d P a l ermo," p p . 39^61.
94
of the total p o p u l a t i o n the m e t r o p o l i t a n c i t y will h a v e and
the h i g h e r the rate of u r b a n i z a t i o n of the ten lea d i n g cities.
A c c o r d i n g to this theory, Tu s c a n y in the ear l y t h irteenth
century r e g i s t e r e d an urb a n index of 10.8% b a s e d on the ten
l edding cities. This index soared to a v e r y h i g h 26,3% at
the end of the c e n t u r y . 1^3 A l t h o u g h the a b o v e s t u d y is based
on a m o r e e x t e n s i v e geographical r e g i o n t h a n V i l l a n i ' s re
marks include, the p r o p o r t i o n s are i n c r e a s i n g l y s i m i l a r and
emphasize the b r o a d e r urb a n c ulture in w h i c h F l o r e n c e p a r
ticipated. E v e n so, there is still r e l a t i v e l y little known
about the p o p u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n of T u s c a n y d u r i n g this
period. No g e n e r a l official surveys or c e n s u s o f the r e gion
date from this p e r i o d w h i c h can serve as a c h e c k on the
literary s ources o f the four t e e n t h c e n t u r y or d e m o g r a p h i c
models of the t w e n t i e t h century. Just h o w a d v a n c e d the rate
of u r b a n i z a t i o n acu a l l y was and h o w e x t e n s i v e the m e d i e v a l
r e gion of T u s c a n y b o t h Villani and others r e f e r to are q u e s
tions y et u n a n s w e r e d entirely s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . Ne v e r t h e l e s s ,
the general tre n d o f a relat i v e l y h i g h rate o f u r b a n i z a t i o n
s u g g e s t e d by V i l l a n i ' s statistics and m o d e r n d e m o g r a p h i c
theory is less a question. As the figures for F l o r e n c e alone
show, there w e r e par t s of Tuscany w h i c h w e r e h i g h l y u r b a n i z e d
at this t i m e . 134
133 RU ssell, " T u s c a n y , " 49.
134 gee Russell, Medieval R e g i o n s , c h a p t e r 1, "The

S t r u c t u r e of M e d i e v a l Regions," p p . 15-38.
95
In summary, this b r i e f look at trends in p o p u l a t i o n
d i s t r i b u t i o n d u ring F l o r e n c e ' s era o f fastest d e m o g r a p h i c
growth outli n e s two m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of F l o r e n c e ' s urban
history: the dista n c e b e t w e e n Florence's p o p u l a t i o n and
ot h e r cities o f T u s c a n y a nd the r e l a t i v e l y h i g h r a t e o f
urb a n residents in T u s c a n y c o m p a r e d to other r egions o f Italy
and Europe d u ring the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I 33 Both c h arac
t eristics reflect c hanges in the scale and d i r e c t i o n o f
F l o r e n t i n e econ o m i c activity.
One n e w d i r e c t i o n that the city had t a k e n was toward
increased "industrialization." Villani r e p o r t e d e n t h u s i a s
t ically the e c o n o m i c s t a t e o f Flore n c e at the h e i g h t of its
m e d i e v a l p r o s p e r i t y in 1338. "The shops of w o o l w e r e two
h u n d r e d or more, and they p r o d u c e d 70-80,000 w o o l e n cloths,
w h i c h w e r e w o r t h about 1,200,000 gold florins. . .and m o r e
than 30,000 persons m a d e t h e i r living so, a nd t h e y prod u c e s
a hundred thous a n d cloths, but these were c o a r s e r and about
h a l f the v a l u e . . . " T he w o r k s h o p s of the C a l i m a l a (the gu i l d
w h i c h w o r k e d and r e f i n e d i m p o r t e d cloths) of F r e n c h and u l t r a
m o n t a n e cloths n u m b e r e d 20. They "produced y e a r l y m o r e than
10,000 pieces of c l o t h at a val u e of 300,000 g o l d florins,
and e x c e p t i n g those w h i c h w e r e sent out, all w e r e s o l d in
F l o r e n c e . 1^6
Russell, M e d i e v a l R e g i o n s , chapter 1, "The S t r u c t u r e

of M e d i e v a l Re g i o n s , " p p . 15-38; See also notes 130 a nd 132.
136 Villani, Cronica, VI, p . 185.
96
B esides describing F l o r e n t i n e industrial d e v e lopment,
Vi l l a n i also m a pped the t r a n s i t i o n of Florence from an early
to a m o r e advanced phase of u r b a n i z a t i o n w h e n he e n u m e r a t e d
the m a n y educational, social, medical, commercial, and legal
s ervices found in the Arno metropolis. Villani i n c l u d e d on
his long list of Flore n t i n e a ctivities and services the f o l
lowing: 3 to 10,000 y o u n g students able to read; 1,000 to 1200
boys s t u d y i n g the abacus a nd a r i t h e m e t i c in six schools; 550
to 600 students learning logic and g r a m m a r in four a d v a n c e d
schools; 110 monasterie s; 57 p a r ishes; 24 convents; 30 h o s
p i t a l s w i t h more than a thou s a n d beds available for the poor
and sick; 250 to 300 chaplains; 70 p hysicians and s u r geons;
100 a p o t h e c a r y shops; 600 n o t aries; 80 judges; 80 banke r s ; 300
w h o did business outside Florence; 146 bakeries; and m a n y
c r a f t s m e n and m e r c h a n t s .1^7 This w i d e range of services
i n d i c a t e d the d i v ersity and the scale of u r b a n i z a t i o n Florence
r e a c h e d d u r i n g the 1330's.
Vi l l a n i ' s economic p o r t r a i t o f Florence invites a limited
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h m o dern u r b a n i z a t i o n and industrialization.
In an u r b a n economy it is u s e f u l to di s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n basic
a nd n o n - b a s i c industries. A bas i c industry is one w h i c h
draws its revenues from outside the city by p r o d u c i n g goods
and services for export or by d r a w i n g people from ou t s i d e the
c i t y to p u r c h a s e goods a nd services in the city. An example
137 villani, Cronica, v o l . 6, c hapter 94, p p . 184-185.
97
w o u l d be the wool and b a n k i n g industries of Florence. A
n o n - b a s i c industry p r o d u c e s for and draws its r e v e n u e from
the local market w i t h i n the city. Examples of n o n - b a s i c
industries include b a keries, food purveyors, construction
i ndus tries, shoemakers, and other local services.
As an industrial city, Florence e x p orted w o o l e n cloths
and o t h e r textiles that earned revenues for the city from
o u t s i d e the city. In addition, Florence was an e x p orter of
s e r v i c e s besides m a n u f a c t u r e d goods, p a r t i c u l a r l y b a n k i n g
services. In the next c e n t u r y as well as in the t hirteenth
c e n t u r y these financial services involved F l o r e n c e in a broad
r a n g e o f international t rade activities and e m p h a s i z e d the
m e t r o p o l i t a n character of the city's economy. As a commercial,
administrative, religious, and p o litical center, Florence
also a t t r a c t e d people to the city who e x c h a n g e d revenue for
service. Thus, gove r n m e n t and ad m i n i s t r a t i v e services b e
came industries in the city's economy as w e l l . 138
B e s i d e s shaping the econ o m y of the city, s i m i l a r basic
industries tend to shape the use of city space by l o c ating
n e a r each other. In 1343 the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t distr i c t e d
the c i t y into four quarters: Santo Spirito, on the left bank
of the Arno, Santo M a r i a Nevella, on the w e s t e r n side o f the
138 Enrico Fiumi, "Sui Rapporti economici tra Citta e

C ont a d o n e l l ' E t a c o m u n a l e , " ASI 114 (1956): 18-68; CEH, III,
"The O r g a n i z a t i o n of T r a d e " by Raymond de Roover, 42-118 and
"The E c o n o m i c Politics o f To w n s " by A. B. Hibbert, 157-229;
V i l lani, Cronica, VI, p p . 177-183 discusses the revenues and
ex p enses and imports and exports of Florence.
98
city, S a n t a Croce, on the e a s t e r n side of the city, a n d San
Giovanni, on the n o r t h e r n side of the c i t y . 1 *59 Each quarter
h a d a 'mixed" and d i v e r s i f i e d use o f city space, y e t there
were p a r t i c u l a r streets w i t h i n the quarters w h e r e c e r t a i n
industries tended to locate.
Two spatial centers d e v e l o p e d in m e d i e v a l Florence, One
focused a r o u n d the p o l i t i c a l c e n t e r of the city, the Palace
of t he Priors, later c a l l e d P a l a z z o Vecchio. The o t h e r focused
a r o u n d the religious c e n t e r o f the city, the C a t h e d r a l of
Sa n t a M a r i a del Fiore or the Duomo. The p o l i t i c a l center
was to the south and the r e l i g i o u s center to the n o r t h of the
old m a r k e t a r e a of the city, the for u m of Rom a n times a nd the
P i a z z a d e l l a R epubblica of m o d e r n t i m e s . 140
B a n k i n g located g e n e r a l l y in the old m a r k e t a r e a at the
c e n t e r of the city. This a r e a today is still the m a i n l o c a t i o n
for b a n k i n g in the city. The w o o l industry t e nded to l o cate
in the v i a della C o n d o t t a a n d the v i a Porta Rossa to the south
of the old market and a l o n g s i d e the Piazza of P a l a z z o Vecch i o ,
and the clo t h dyers' shops c o u l d be found in v i a T i n t o r i a near
the A r n o R i v e r in the q u a r t e r o f S a n t a Croce. Various work
shops l o c a t e d in the Santa Cro c e q u a r t e r on the e a s t e r n side
139 Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , v o l . 2, p p . 164-165.
For a d e s c r iption of Florence see: Gene Bruc k e r ,

R e n a i s s a n c e Florence (New Yor k : J o h n Wiley and Sons, 1969),
ch a p t e r 1, "The Re n a i s s a n c e C i ty," p p . 1-50; Fanelli, F i r e n z e ,
A r c h i t e t t u r a e C i t t a , c h a p t e r 6, "Forma, Struttura, e Organiz-
a zaione funzionale de l l a C i t t a alia Fine del T r e c e n t o , " pp.
111-138; Sznura, L " E s p a n s i o n e U r b a n a , chapter 4, " A s p e t t i
e c o n o m i c ! d e l l a Espa n s i o n e u r b a n a , " p p . 131-143.
99
o f the city. This q u a r t e r along w i t h the San G i o v a n n i and
a sec t i o n o f the S a n t a M a r i a N o v e l l a quar t e r s w e r e the most
'industrialized" areas of the city. As F l orence's ec o n o m y
expanded, suburbs b e c a m e sites for r e s i d e n t i a l and indu s t r i a l
uses. One of the lar g e s t w o r k i n g class residential areas
d e v e l o p e d in the San F r e d i a n o d i s t r i c t o f the San t o Spi r i t o
q u a r t e r across the A r n o . 1 ^*
D u r i n g Florence's eal r y u r b a n i z a t i o n there w as a greater
d i v e r s i t y in the use o f c i t y space t h a n in the p e r i o d after
1400. One d i r e c t i o n the city c o n t i n u e d to move t o w a r d was
the m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d use o f p a r t i c u l a r areas of the city.
This t r e n d b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y e v i d e n t in the p a l a c e and
office building programs of the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n
turies. 142 still, th o u g h c h a n g e d a nd lessened, d i v e r s i t y
r e m a i n e d a part of the s patial t e x t u r e of the city. Some of
the e a r l i e r m e d i e v a l spa t i a l p a t t e r n s of F l o r e n c e o u t l i n e d
m u c h of the city's f u t u r e development.
A n o t h e r m a j o r t r e n d in the use of space i n side a n d o u t
side Flore n c e was the gr a d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t of an a d e q u a t e trans-
141 Brucker, R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , ch a p t e r 1, "The R e

n a i s s a n c e City," p p .1-50; Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a ,
e C i t t a , c hapter 6, "Forma, S truttura, e O r g a n i z z a z i o n e fun-
zionale del l a Citta alia Fine del T r e c e n t o , " p p . 111- 1 3 8 ;
Sznura, L " E s p a n s i o n e U r b a n a , ch a p t e r 4, "Aspetti e c o n o m i c i
d e l l a E s p a n s i o n e u r b a n a , " p p . 131-143.
142 Ri c h a r d A. G o l d thwaite, "The F l o r e n t i n e P a l a c e as

D o m e s t i c A r c h i t e c t u r e , " The A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w 77
(1972): 977-1012, and "The B u i l d i n g o f the S trozzi Palace:
The C o n s t r u c t i o n Industry in R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , " Studies
in M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e Histo r y , X (1973): 97-194.
100
p o r t a t i o n system. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n w e r e at
the c e n t e r o f the u r b a n i z a t i o n process, and the a t t e m p t to
achieve a s e r v i c e a b l e p a t t e r n o f m o v e m e n t and sp a t i a l patterns
began early. F l o r e n t i n e l e g i s l a t i o n o f the t h i r t e e n t h and
fourteenth ce n t u r i e s s o ught to r e g u l a t e spa t i a l r e l a t i o n
ships inside a nd out s i d e the c i t y . 143
The F l o r e n t i n e government assigned responsibility for
p u blic u t i l i t y p r o g r a m s to r e l a t i v e l y p e r m a n e n t and te m p o r a r y
offices and commissions. One o f fice w e n t by v a r i o u s names
whi c h s u g g e s t e d its m u l t i p l e functions. D e s i g n a t i n g perhaps
an ea r l i e r role w h e n Flore n c e was a c i t y of to w e r r e sidences
built by the rural n o b i l i t y w ho m i g r a t e d to the city, the
Tower Of f i c i a l s b e c a m e the g eneral n a m e by w h i c h to identify
the office. A m o n g the other names a t t a c h e d to this o f f i c e w e r e
the S ix Of f i c i a l s of the streets, piazz a s , and bridg e s , and
also the Of f i c i a l s of the gabelles. Each name indicated a
designated f u n c t i o n since the Tower O f f icials collected m u
n icipal tolls as well as s u p e r v i s e d the b u i l d i n g o f bridges
and the m a i n t e n a n c e of s t r e e t s . 144
A p e t i t i o n of 1301 to the Six O f f icials e x e m p l i f i e d one
of the m a i n functions o f this office. The p e t i t i o n e r s asked
that the V i a di San P rocolo n e a r the B o r g a d e l l a P i a g e n t i n e
be e n l a r g e d and s t r a i g h t e n e d a nd that a house a l o n g the line
143 R o molo Caggese, S tatuti d e l l a R e p u b b l i c a F i o r e n t i n a

(Firenze: Galile i a n a , 1910), vol.l, bk.4, I-X.
144 The T o w e r O f f icials are d i s c u s s e d in the f o l lowing

chapters.
101
o f the s t reet be removed since it b locked full m o v e m e n t and
p a s s a g e in the area. The F l o r e n t i n e g overnment a p p r o v e d the
proposal a nd ele c t e d the poet Dante to direct the c o m m i s s i o n
w h i c h was r e s p o n s i b l e for the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of this decision.
T h o u g h g e n erally the officials of this office and oth e r s i m i
l ar commissions are not as k n o w n as Dante, the S i x Officials
or the Tower Officials p l a y e d a k ey role in the c i t y s
development. Other street p r o g r a m s in the city c o n t i n u e d
to f o llow the p a t t e r n of e n l a r g e m e n t and straightening' to
e n h a n c e the " u t ility" and " b e a u t y " of Florence. B e t w e e n the
s e c o n d and third walls of the city (discussed in the f o l lowing
pages) the b u i l d i n g of V i a L a r g a or Broad Street, Vic.
G hibellina, V ia Maggio, V i a Romana, V i a Pisana, as well as
m a n y other streets d e m o n s t r a t e d the theory and p r a c t i c e of
F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n p l a n n i n g p o l i c y d u r i n g the late m e d i e v a l and
e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d s . 145 T h e s e n e w avenues of m o v e m e n t joined
w i t h the m a i n gates of the c i t y and the m a j o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
routes l eading to and from Florence.
L e g i s l a t i o n also a u t h o r i z e d oth e r officials of the
F l o r e n t i n e gove r n m e n t to b u i l d and to maint a i n p r i n c i p a l roads
145 Milanesi, "Docu m e n t o inedito e s c o n o s c i u t o che

r i g u a r d a Dante A l i g h i e r i , " ASI 53a (1869): 5-9; M a n y d o c u
m e n t s of medi e v a l urban p l a n n i n g programs and co m m i s s i o n s
h a v e been c o l l e c t e d in the following: Guido P a mpaloni, Firenze
al Tempo di Dante: Documenti s u l l 'U r b a n i s t i c a f i o r e n t i n a , intro.
N i c c o l o Rodolico ( R o m e : M i n i s t e r n o dell ' I n t e r n o P u b b l i c a z i o n i
deg l i A rchivi di Stato Fonti e Sussidi, 1973); N i c o l a Ottokar,
"Criteri d'Ordine, di R e g o l a r i t a e d ' O r g a n i z z a z i o n e nell*
U r b a n i s t i c a ed in genere n e l l a V i t a fiorentina dei Secoli
X I I I - X I V , " ASI 98 (1940): 101-106.
102
l e a d i n g to and from the city. The road to Signa, the river-
p o r t ten miles w e s t of Florence, the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t
r e q u i r e d paved for w h e e l e d traffic. This road as w e l l as
others running from, the city to the contado b e c a m e the r e
s p o n s i b i l i t y of the Captano del Popolo, the d e f e n d e r o f the
constitutional rights e s t a b l i s h e d by the Ordinances o f Justice
o f 1293. 1 4 6 Other gover n m e n t offices exercised s i m i l a r m u l
tiple and s e e mingly u n l i k e l y functions at times. For example,
the podesta, the official r e s p o n s i b l e for civil o r d e r in
Florence, also h e l d the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to r e view and to m a i n
t a i n the repair and c l e a n i n g o f the canals and d r ains of the
c i t y to avoid flooding and o t h e r such p r o b le m s . 147 Diffused
responsibilities and se par a t e p i eces of l e g i s l a t i o n charac-:
t e r i z e d medieval a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d u r i n g the f o u r t e e n t h century.
A n e w approach to u r b a n p l a n n i n g and urb a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
e s t a b l i s h e d later m a r k e d a t r a n s i t i o n from the m e d i e v a l to

1 4 o
the early m o d e r n p e r i o d in F l o r e n t i n e history.
B esides b e c o m i n g a city o f wor k s h o p s and b a n k s , Flore n c e
also b e c a m e a city of b ridges a nd p u blic b u i ldings d u r i n g
the m e d i e v a l period. B y the fourt e e n t h century F l o r e n c e h ad
'four stone bridges. Dating f r o m Roman Florence, Pon t e V e c c h i o
was, the oldest c r o s s i n g of the A r n o in the city. D u r i n g the
m e d i e v a l days it became a sm a l l - s h o p s commercial c e n t e r as
146 Caggese, S t a t u t i , v o l.l, bk.4, VI-X, p p . 175-181.
147 ibid., v o l . 2, b k , 3, L-LII, p p . 232-238.
14 See chapters 3 and 4.
103
well as a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n link. Florentines built three m o r e
b ridges in the r elatively s h o r t p e r i o d o f time b e t w e e n 1218
and 1252: Ponte Carraia (1218-1220), Ponte R u b aconte (1237),
and Ponte S a n t a Tr i n i t a (1252).149
D u r i n g the 1280's and 1290's b u i l d i n g programs changed
the look and m u c h of the s t r u c t u r e o f the city center. The
n e w cath e d r a l , Santa M a r i a del Fiore or the Duomo, a nd the
n e w g o v e r n m e n t office, the P a l a c e o f the Priors or the P a l a z z o
Vecchio, w e r e the m a i n e x p r e ssions of this c h a n g e . *^0 Their
designer, a nd the main city d e s i g n e r o f the time, was A r n o f l o
di Cambio.
G r o u n d b r e a k i n g c eremonies for the cathedral took p l a c e
in 1296. A l t h o u g h the b u i l d i n g h i s t o r y of the cat h e d r a l was
long w i t h delays, the Duomo b e c a m e a focal point in the city's
d e sign f r o m its start. The c o m p l e t i o n of the c a t hedral w i t h
Filippo B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s dome e m p h a s i z e d this role.iSl jn 1299
the F l o r e n t i n e governmen t b e g a n c o n s t r u c t i o n of its own n e w
residence. By 1302 some o f the offices from the older site,
149 v i l l a n i , C r o n i c a , VII, p p . 116-117; II, p p . 41, 75;

Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e C i t t a , p p . 26, 37-38; David s o h n ,
,Storia, vol.l, p p . 1171-1173; In the Cr o n i c a V illani tells h o w
the p o d e s t a of Florence for 1237, R u b a c o n t e da M a n d e l l o of
Milan, laid the first stone of the b r i d g e named after h i m and
h o w d u r i n g the time of his g o v e r n m e n t the roads in F l o r e n c e
w e r e paved. Before, few streets, e x cept main ones, w e r e paved,
but af t e r 1237 Villani s t ated that Flore n c e was h e a l t h i e r and
more beautiful.
150 Villani, C r o n i c a , III, p p . 20-21.
Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e C i t t a , p p . 171-184;

Ludwig H. H e y d e n r e i c h and W o l f g a n g Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in Italy
1400 to 1 6 0 0 , trans. M a r y H o t t i n g e r ( B a l t i m o r e : P e n g u i n Books,
1974), p p . 3-5.
104
c a l l e d the Bargello, m o v e d into the n e w ex e c u t i v e r e s idenc e
of the P a lace of the P r i o r s . 1^2 W i t h the b u i l d i n g of the
Uffizi (offices for the F l o r e n t i n e bureaucracy) in the s i x
t e e n t h c e n t u r y this area f r o m the Palace of the Priors to the
A r n o R i v e r b e c a m e an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and g o v e r n m e n t complex.
The t o w e r of the p o l i t i c a l c e n t e r and the dome o f the religious
c e nter w e r e two o f the thr e e i d e n t i f y i n g symbols o f F l o r e n c e . *53
The t h i r d was the city walls.
Florence's city w a l l s y m b o l i z e d both the e x p a n s i o n of the
c ity a n d its limits, its s e c u r i t y and its v u l n e r a b i l i t y . The
Romans b u i l t the origi n a l w a l l for their c o l o n y at Florence.
A f t e r c e n t u r i e s o f s tagnation, F lorence's renewed expansion
led to the b u i l d i n g of two n e w walls: one in 1172 and a
second far m o r e ex t e n s i v e w a l l in 1284.
S t a r t e d in 1172, the first n e w wall took four years to
co m plete, and enclo s e d about 195 acres. E x t e n d e d to the s u b
u r b a n g r o w t h on the left b a n k o f the Arno, this wall in
cluded for the first time the city on b o t h sides of the
r i v e r . T h e ext e n s i o n o f the w a l l to the left b a n k and the
g r o w t h o f comme r c e r e q u i r e d m o r e "links" b e t w e e n the two sides
i 152 Villani, C r o n i c a , III, p p . 39-40.
153 Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e C i t t a , p p . 180-185;

H e y d e n r e i c h a nd Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p p . 4-5
0. Marinelli, "La Carta t o p o g r a f i c a e lo S v i l u p p o di

F i r e n z e , " R ivista G e o g r a f i c a I t a l i a n a 28 (1921): 18-38;
H ardie, " O r i g i n and Plan of Rom a n F l o r e n c e , " 123-134,
155 Fanelli, Firenze, A r c h i t e t t u r a e Citta, p p . 23-26.
105
of the city. An i n t e n s e p e r i o d of b r i d g e - b u i l d i n g followed
in the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e t w e e n 1218 and 1252. The four
bridges m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y j o i n e d one side of the c i t y to
another. P o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h and i n c r e a s e d traffic w e r e the
" p u s h for these a nd later developments.
W i t h p o p u l a t i o n g r o w i n g rap i d l y b e t w e e n 1200 a nd 1300,
reaching a h i g h abo u t 100,000, and c o m m e r c e also e x p a n d i n g
extensively, the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t in i t i a t e d the build i n g
of a thi r d wall in 1284. W h e n f i n i s h e d about 1330, the
third w a l l e n c o m p a s s e d more t h a n seven times the a r e a of the
second w a l l . 156 G i o v a n n i Villani, w h o was s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
during the last p h a s e s of the w a l l s constr u c t i o n , recorded
h o w towers s t o o d at 400 feet intervals along the wa l l s for
the f o r t e z z a of the c i t y . 157 phe entire wall m e a s u r e d
about five miles around, e n c l o s e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1550 acres,
was s ix feet w i d e and forty feet high, and s u p p o r t e d 73
towers and 15 gates. This thi r d wall remai n e d s t a n d i n g past
the s e c o n d h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h d e n t u r y until the m o d e r n
phase of F l o r e n t i n e e x p a n s i o n began. Portions of the wall
and m a i n s o u t h e r n gate, Porta Romana, m a y still be s e e n on
the left b a n k o f the A r n o along Vi a l e Petrarca. The area
i ncluded by the w a l l al l o w e d for future growth, gardens, and
open spaces.
156 A s t e n g o et al., U r b a n i s t i c a 12 (1953): 17-28.
157 Villani, Cronica, IV, p p . 222-227.
106
However, the future g r o w t h did not occur. Problems
m i x e d increasingly with prosperity. A series of na t u r a l d i
sasters beg i n n i n g in 1340 r e a c h e d their height in the plague
crisis of 1348. B e t w e e n 1340 and 1343 economic d e p r e s s i o n
and p o l i t i c a l conflict add e d ha r s h burdens to a t r o u b l e d city.
Even b e f o r e 1340, however, Florence faced the r e c u r r i n g d i f
ficulty of food s h o r t a g e s . 1 5 ** Famine and plague o c c u r r e d in
city and c o u n t r y s i d e alike in 1329, 1340 and 1346-48, and
Vi l l a n i de s c r i b e d his city's h a r dships as well as its p r o s
p e r i t y . 159
In 1333 Florence and the Arno V a l l e y s u f f e r e d one of
the w o r s t floods in the r e g i o n s p r e m o d e r n history. Ponte
Ca r r a i a and Ponte Santa T r i n i t a b o t h collapsed, and Ponte
Ru b a c o n t e wobbled. The flood waters w a s h e d over the Ponte
Vecchio, ruining the h o uses and shops, and left s t a n d i n g
only the two m i d d l e piers. In the Arno V a lley the flood's
d e v a s t a t i o n stretched to the Pisan c o u n t r y s i d e . 1 *^
Both p l ague and famine v i s i t e d Florence in 1340. A
"great m o r a l i t y " began in the city and countryside V illani
wrote. "And there died more than a sixth of the citizens. . .
that n ot a family remained in whi c h someone did not die, or
two or three, and the p e s t i l e n c e lasted until the winter.
158
Brucker, F l orentine Politics and S o c i e t y , p p . 3-9.
3.59 villani, C r o n i c a , IV, V, and VI.
160 I b i d . , VI, p p . 5-8.
107
More tha n 15,000 corpses, men, women, and c h i l d r e n w e r e
b u r i e d in the city. . .In the contado the m o r a l i t y was not
so great, y e t still m a n y d i e d . "161 A n d w i t h the plague,
famine. Th e F l o r e n t i n e government tu r n e d to e m e r g e n c y im
ports w h e n the p rice of g rain jumped again. Th o u g h the im
m edi a t e crisis passed, other problems s oon followed w i t h the
failu r e . o f the c i t y s leading b a n k i n g companies, economic
depression, and p o l i t i c a l conflict.1 ^ The c i t y s affairs
quie t e d s o m e w h a t after 1343, but this again p r o v e d only tem
porary b e f o r e the s e v e r e s t setback of all came in 1348.
Villani r e p o r t e d that the rains and storms of April,
May, and J u n e 1346 w ere so intense that the seeds p l a n t e d
wer e a gain ruined. Famine conditions spread once more.
Besides the u sual jump in prices, he n o t e d that c o n d i t i o n s
this time d i f f e r e d fro m those of 1329 and 1340. Grain b e
came v e r y e x p e n s i v e in the past shortages and famines, but
there was still a su p p l y available somewhere. The r u i n in
1346 was so w i d e s p r e a d and so many p e a s a n t families h a d left
the land that supplies p r a c t i c a l l y disappeared. By mid-
April 1347, the c i t y s food list e n r o l l e d 94,000 people, while
Florentines e m p l o y e d b oth public and p r i v a t e r e s ources to meet
the crisis. Flore n c e c o ntracted for g rain from Sicily, Sar
dinia, a n d Tunis, and searc h e d for mor e in other p laces. 163
161 v i l l a n i , C r o n i c a , VI, p p . 211-213.
1^2 Brucljer, F l orentine Politics and S o c i e t y , p p . 3-9.
163 V i l l a n i , C r o n i c a , VII, p p . 177-179, 181.
108
P l ague a p p e a r e d s h o r t l y after the famine took hold.
Be fore the p l ague s u b s i d e d in N o v e m b e r 1347, V i l l a n i w r o t e
that four t h o u s a n d p e o p l e are thought to have died in F l o
rence. C o n s e q u e n t l y , he t h o u g h t this plague less serious
than the ear l i e r p l ague o f 1 3 4 0 . * ^ 4 However, the p l a g u e
r e t u r n e d in 1348, a nd V i l l a n i was a v i c t i m as were so m a n y
F lorentines and Eu r o p e a n s in this d i sastrous year.
H o w m a n y p e o p l e died in Florence during the 1348 plague
crisis is uncertain. Some set the n u m b e r at 80,000 to
100,000. M a t t e o Villani, G i o v a n n i s broth e r , s u g g e s t e d that
three out of five p e o p l e d i e d . 165 One d e m o g r a p h i c stu d y
considers F l o r e n c e s p o p u l a t i o n in the decade after 1348
a r o u n d 50,000, h a v i n g f a l l e n from 80,000 in 1 3 4 0 . 166 The
general decline of p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e d until the f i f t e e n t h
c e n t u r y w h e n signs of p o p u l a t i o n increase and cultural re
vival b e g a n to appear again.
164 Villani, C r o n i c a , VII, p p . 177-179, 181; VI, p p . 211-213.
G iovanni di P a golo Morelli, R i c o r d i , ed. V i t t o r e

B r a n c a (Florence: Felice de Monnier, 1969), p p . 290-291;
Giovanni Boccaccio, The D e c a m e r o n , trans. Frances W inwar, The
M o d e r n Li b r a r y (New York! R a n d o m House, 1955), xxix; Nic-
colo M a c h i a v e l l i , H i s t o r y of F l o r e n c e , intro. Felix Gilbert
(New York: H a r p e r Torch b o o k , 1960), bk.2, ch a p t e r 9; M a tteo
Villani, C r o n i c a , I, p . 2.
l66
Fiumi, La D e m o g r a f i c a fior e n t i n a , " 106.
109
C H A P T E R 2: E A R L Y M O D E R N FLORENCE: 1400 to 1600
D u r i n g the e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d the role of F l o r e n c e
c h a n g e d f r o m the c a p i t a l o f a c i t y - s t a t e to the m e t r o p o l i t a n
c e n t e r of a r e g i o n a l state. The city's t r a d i t i o n a l role as
a c u l t u r a l a nd p r o d u c t i o n c e n t e r c o n t i n u e d a nd its role as
an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t e r o f a regio n a l e c o n o m y and state b e
came i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t d u ring this period. The w i d e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n and r a n g e of a regio n a l economy e x t e n d e d the
urbanization process to a l a rger a r e a of T u s c a n y t h a n in the
m e d i e v a l past. The m o r e c o o r d i n a t e d a p p r o a c h of F l o r e n t i n e
p o l i c y to u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n issues
c o r r e s p o n d e d to the e a r l y m o d e r n scale and ra n g e of u r b a n a c
tivity. W i t h F l o r e n c e as its m e t r o p o l i t a n center, Tuscany
b e g a n the g radual t r a n s i t i o n from the late m e d i e v a l era of
a h i g h l y v a r i e d a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n of individual city-states
to the early m o d e r n e ra of a more c o o r d i n a t e d a r e a w i d e a c
t i v i t y p a t t e r n of a d i v e r s i f i e d s y s t e m of cities in a r e
g i onal setting. This c h a p t e r discusses the above t r a n s formation.
F o l l o w i n g the p l a g u e s and m i l i t a r y conflicts of the
fo u r t e e n t h and ear l y f i f t e e n t h centuries, Florentines began
a process of r e o r g a n i z i n g and r e b u i l d i n g their g o v e r n m e n t and
economy. W h e n two de c a d e s of m i l i t a r y conf l i c t e n d e d w i t h
the M i l a n e s e state a n d d i p l o m a t i c n e g o t i a t i o n s concluded with
the Gen o e s e go v e r n m e n t , the F l o r e n t i n e state a r r i v e d at its
f i f t e e n t h ce n t u r y t e r r i t o r i a l limits with the i n c o r p o r a t i o n
110
of P i s a in 1406 and Livorno in 1 4 21.* E a r l i e r in 1351
P i s t o i a and in 1384 A r e z z o b e c a m e p a r t o f the Florentine

?
state. La t e r in 1556-1557 the i n c l u s i o n of Siena into the
M e d i c i d y n a s t y inheri t a n c e b r o u g h t the F l o r e n t i n e - T u s c a n state
to its great e s t extent d u ring the e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d . 3
D u r i n g this same general p e r i o d f r o m the early fi f t e e n t h to
the m i d - s i x t e e n t h century there w e r e also significant p o l i t
ical c hanges in the Flor e n t i n e c o n s t i t u t i o n and government.
The b a s i c c h ange in ea r l y m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e p o l i t i c s a nd
g o v e r n m e n t was f r o m r e p u b l i c a n o l i g a r c h y to h e r e d i t a r y m o n a r
chy. The c h a n g i n g u n w r i t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n and the c ontest
b e t w e e n d e m o c r a t i c and a r i s t o c r a t i c g r oups of the F l o r e n t i n e
Republic l a sted until 1532 w h e n h e r e d i t a r y rule r e p l a c e d
traditional Florentine republican institutions.^ These
1 Schevill, Medie v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2,

p p . 347-349; Mi c h a e l Mallett, The F l o r e n t i n e Galleys in the
F i f t e e n t h Century: With the Dia r y of Luca di Maso degli A l -
bizzi, C a p t a i n of the Galleys 142 9 - 1 4 3 0 ( O x f o r d : At The
C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1967), p p . 10-11; Gene Brucker, R e n a i s s a n c e
F l o r e n c e (New York: John W i l e y 8 Sons, Inc., 1969), p p . 79-88;
A l i b e r t o B e n i g n o Falsini, "Firenze Dopo II 1348. Le C o n s e q u e n z e
d e l l a p e s t e N e r a , " ASI 129 (1971-72): 425-495.
^ D a v i d Herlihy, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e Pistoia: The

S o cial H i s t o r y of an Italian Town, 1200-1430 (New H a v e n a nd
L o n d o n : Yale Univ e r s i t y Press, 1967), p p . 214-231, p a r t i c u l a r l y
T a b l e 30, F l o r e n t i n e Officials at P i s t o i a on p . 224 and the d i s
c u s s i o n of the phases of F l o r e n t i n e rule on p p . 228-231; Brucker,
R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , p p . 79-80; S c h e v i l l , Medieval and R e n a i s
s an c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2, p p . 346-347.
J.R. Hale, Florence and the Medici: The Pattern of

C ontrol (Plymouth: Thames and H u d s o n , 1977), p p . 131-132;
Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2, p . 516.
^ For an e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n of Flor e n t i n e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
Ill
institutions a nd the factional and p a r t y all i a n c e s whi c h
s h a p e d t h e m d e l i n e a t e the general p o l i t i c a l direc t i o n s and
c o n s e r v a t i v e t r a d i t i o n of fifteenth a n d ea r l y s i x teenth c e n
tury Florence.
The g o v e r n m e n t a l structure of the F l o r e n t i n e state d u r i n g
the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e m a i n e d si m i l a r in m a n y ways to the
tr a d i t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r ucture of the late m e d i e v a l period.
The P r i o r a t e or S i g n o r i a and the two e x e c u t i v e colleges c o n
t i n u e d to c o n s t i t u t e the executive b r a n c h o f g o v e r n m e n t w i t h
the p o w e r to initi a t e l egislation and m a k e policy. T h ough
la c k i n g the p o w e r to initiate l e g i slation, the Council o f the
C ommune and the Council of the People v o t e d approval or d i s
a p p r o v a l of m e a s u r e s su b m i t t e d to t h e m b y the Prio r a t e and
e x e c u t i v e colleges. For a m easure to b e c o m e law it r e q u i r e d
a t w o - t h i r d s v o t e o f the two councils. T h e r e was the c o n t i n
u ed p r a c t i c e also of the c o n s u l t a t i o n m e e t i n g s and d e l i b e r a t i o n
comm i t t e e s (called the pra t i c a or pratiche) to w h i c h the
g o v e r n m e n t i n v i t e d influential Florentine citizens to give
their a d v i c e and views on important issues a nd p o l i c y . 5
B esides the above, there were o t h e r features of repub
lican F l o r e n t i n e gove r n m e n t whi c h c o n t i n u e d to r eflect the
h i s t o r y d u r i n g the f i f teenth and ear l y s i x t e e n t h centuries see:

N i c o l a i R ubinstein, "Florentine C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m and Medici
A s c e n d a n c y in the Fi f t e e n t h C e n tury," in F l o r e n t i n e S t u d i e s .,
p p . 442-462, and F e l i x Gilbert, "The V e n e t i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n in
F l o r e n t i n e P o l i t i c a l Thought," in F l o r e n t i n e Studies, p p . 463-
500. ---------------------
5 Brucker, F l o r e n t i n e Politics and S o c i e t y , p p . 61-62, 64-

71; R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , p p . 134-135; A l s o ref e r to earlier
d i s c u s s i o n o f m e d i e v a l Florentine government.
112
i n f luence o f the past. The l i m i t e d political base o f m e d i e v a l
Florence b e c a m e e v e n more l i m i t e d at times d u r i n g the ear l y
m o d e r n period. There was p r o b a b l y a m a x i m u m of six to ten
thousand citizens in the e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n of F l o r e n c e (which
v a r i e d f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y forty to seventy thousand) between
1381 and 1532. It is likely that less than h a l f that n u m b e r
w e r e r e g u l a r l y or ever e l e c t e d or ap p o i n t e d to the t h r e e or
four t h o u s a n d g o vernment of f i c e s w h i c h b e came a v a i l a b l e each
y e a r t h r o u g h o u t the Flore n t i n e state. A l o n g w i t h the issues
of ju stice, political representation, foreign pol i c y , and
fair tax a s s e s s m e n t s , the d i s t r i b u t i o n of offices or l a c k o f
st o o d a m o n g the m a j o r m o t i v a t i o n s for factional a nd p a r t y

6
disputes i n Florence. These disputes could turn into m a j o r
crises w h i c h the Flore n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t o f t e n r e s p o n d e d to in
an e x t r a o r d i n a r y way.
Florentines c o n t i n u e d to use the p a r l a m e n t o and b a l i a
to meet i n t e r n a l and external crises or to implement a m a j o r
p o l i c y change. S i g n a l l e d by the r inging o f the tower b e l l on
top of the Palace of the Priors, the p a rlamento was an e m e r
gency c a l l i n g of the c i t i z e n r y into general a s s e m b l y in the
p i a z z a b e f o r e the p a lace in o r d e r to obtain approval for the
a d o p t i o n o f a m a j o r change in government p o l i c y or direction.
The c i t i z e n a s s e m b l y gave the i r approval usu a l l y b y c o n s e n t i n g
to the f o r m a t i o n of a b a l i a or r e f o r m c o m m i s s i o n w h i c h d u r i n g
6 Ru b i n s t e i n , " C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m and M e dici A s c e n d a n c y , "

p p . 450-462; Brucker, R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , p p . 133-134; Hale,
F lore n c e a n d the Medici, p p . 15-20.
113
its a l l o t t e d short tenure a c t e d to implement the a p p r o v e d
change or policy. By assur i n g only their o wn supporters en
trance into the P i a z z a d e l l a S i g n o r i a factions and parties
in Florence u s e d the devides of the p a r l a m e n t o and b a l i a to
secure t h e i r o wn p o s itions and to w e a k e n or to oust their op-
ponents. One f eature o f late m e d i e v a l F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n
ment that d i d n o t conti n u e for v e r y long in the fifteenth
c entury was e l e c t i o n by lot.
W h e n the r e v o l u t i o n a r y g o v e r n m e n t o f the Ciompi end e d in
1381, there was the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a m a r k e d l y o l i g a r c h i c a l
g o vernment u n d e r the di r e c t i o n o f the older p a t r i c i a n families
of Florence. This gove r n m e n t a d h e r e d g e n erally to the c o n
servative t r a d i t i o n of F l o r e n t i n e polit i c s and to the p r a c
tice o f e l e c t i o n by lot to the i m p o r t a n t g o v e r n m e n t posts of
the F l o r e n t i n e state, for example, the Priorate. The p r a c
tice of e l e c t i o n by lot b e g a n in 1324 for the Prior a t e to
avoid c o n t r o l of these offices by the w e a l t h i e r and m o r e p o w e r
ful guilds, but factions c o u l d still m a n i p u l a t e the elections
to b r i n g about results fav o r a b l e to themselves. Between
1381 and 1434 the o l i garchy of ol d e r p a t r i c i a n families h e l d
more or less steady. However, d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n the o l i
garchy over d o m e s t i c and e s p e c i a l l y f oreign p o l i c y issues
as well as the em e r g e n c e of the M e d i c i ne w c o m e r s b e g a n to
7 R u b i n s t e i n , " C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m and M e d i c i A s c e n d a n c y , "

p p . 450-462; Brucker, R e n a i ssance F l o r e n c e , p p . 133-134; Hale,
Florence a nd the Medici, p p . 22-24.
114
erode the i n f l u e n c e o f groups and i n d i v iduals of the o ld
oligarchical faction. The Medici, w h o h a d alr e a d y by the
1420's b e c o m e the l e a d i n g bankers of Florence, b e c a m e also
the focal p o i n t for a n e w e r p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e in F l o r e n c e
by the 1430's. The A l b i z z i faction, a m o n g the l eaders o f the
older ruling Florentine families, felt t h r e a t e n e d by the
M e d i c i to the p o i n t that they o r g a n i z e d a p a r l a m e n t o and b a l i a
and f o r c e d t h e m into exile in 1433. However, one y e a r later
M e dici s u p p o r t e r s h a d e n o u g h votes a nd i n f l u e n c e in the
Priorate and Florentine g o v e r n m e n t to r e call the M e d i c i to
Florence.8
F r o m 1434 to 1494 the M e d i c i w e r e the m a j o r i n f l u e n c e on
F l o r e n t i n e d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n policy. The b r a n c h o f the
M e d i c i f a m i l y w h o d i r e c t e d Flore n t i n e p o l i t i c s b e t w e e n 1434
and 1494 i n c l u d e d Cosimo, p a t e r p a t r i a e (1434-1464), his s on
Piero (1464-1469), Piero's s on Lorenzo (1469-1492), and
Lorenzo's s o n Piero (1492-1494). B e c a u s e o f their ab i l i t i e s
as w e l l as t h e i r l o n g e r t e nure over F l o r e n t i n e a ffairs Cosimo
and L o r e n z o w e r e the m o s t in f l u e n t i a l m e m b e r s of the M e d i c i
family w ho s h a p e d F l o r e n t i n e p o licy d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h
century.
O
Dale K e n t , The Rise o f the Medici: Fa c t i o n in F l o r e n c e
1426-1434 (Oxford: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1978), p p . 289-
351; F e r d i n a n d Schevill, The Medici (New York: Harper and
Brothers, 1960), p p . 56-84;, o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in 1949;
Schevill, M e d i e v a l and Re n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , p p . 337-353; Hale,
Florence a n d the M e d i c i , p p . 20-42; Ru b i n s t e i n , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l -
ism a nd M e d i c i A s c e n d a n c e , " p p . 453-462; Brucker, R e n a i s s a n c e
F l o r e n c e , p p . 137-160.
115
The Medici h e l d g o v e r n m e n t offices relatively infrequent
ly. By the s u b s t i t u t i o n o f e l e c t i o n b y h a n d for election by
lot they w e r e able to get e l e c t e d to k ey g o v e r n m e n t offices
time a nd again their p a r t y supporters. A c c o r d i n g to the
p r o c e d u r e o f e l e c t i o n by hand, the o f f i c i a l or officials
(called accoppiatori) w h o p i c k e d names o f the candidates
eligible for office f r o m the p u rses (borse) chose them from
the small pur s e w i t h few names rather t h a n f r o m the large
p u r s e s w i t h many names. Mo r e o v e r , the a c c o p p i a t o r i w e r e Medici
supporters themselves. In this w ay the M e d i c i c o n t r o l l e d the
e l e c t i o n s y s t e m in F l o r e n c e by e n s u r i n g that the names of
M e d i c i p a r t y mem b e r s w e n t into the small p u r s e s and that the
e l e c t i o n officials were M e d i c i adherents. Another govern
mental c h ange o c c u r r e d d u r i n g the time o f C o s i m o w h e n a bal i a
e s t a b l i s h e d in 1458 the C ouncil of One H u n d r e d w h i c h served
to che c k the two l a rger c o u n c i l s - - t h e C o u n c i l o f the People
a nd the Council of the Commune. T h o u g h s m a l l e r and see m i n g l y
e a s i e r to control than the o t h e r c o u ncils, the Council of One
H u n d r e d was not a r u b b e r stamp o f M e d i c i p r o p o s a l s but instead
e x e r c i s e d somewhat an i n d e p e n d e n t j u d g e m e n t on matters w i t h i n
its p r o v i n c e - - f i n a n c e s and r e l a t e d i s s u e s . 9 During the
time o f Cosimo's c h a i r m a n s h i p o f the M e d i c i p a r t y elect i o n
by h a n d a n d the e s t a b l i s h e m e n t of the C o u n c i l of One H u n d r e d
9 Schevill, The M e d i c i , p p . 69-71; M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s

sance F l o r e n c e , p p . 365-368; Hale, F l o r e n c e and the M e d i c i ,
p p . 36-42; Rubinstein, " C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a nd M e dici Ascen-
d a n c y , " p p . 455-456.
116
w e r e the most s i g n i f i c a n t chan g e s in the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n
mental system. There w e r e also ver y s i g n i f i c a n t changes in
Florentine foreign p o l i c y d u r i n g these years.
A f t e r decades o f c o n f l i c t and changing a l liances an d the
p r e s e n c e of the p o s s i b l e risks the fall of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e to
the Turk's in 1453 i n p l i e d for Italy, the Italian states and
some states outside Italy a g r e e d to the Treaty of Lodi of
1454 w h i c h attempted to e s t a b l i s h harmony w i t h i n Italy and
to o r g a n i z e a united front a g a i n s t threats from b e y o n d
I t a l y . 10 xhe result w a s a n e w balance o f p o l i t i c a l alliances
a m o n g the major Ital i a n states w i t h Naples, Milan, and
F l o r e n c e on the one s i d e and V e n i c e and the Papal States on
the other. These two a s s o c i a t i o n s operated w i t h i n the larger
peace framework the T r e a t y o f Lodi was s u p posed to represent,
and C o s i m o gave d e f i n i t e an d c o n t i n u e d support to this a t
tempt to end a g g r e s s i o n a n d to m a i n t a i n a b a l a n c e of p o w e r
a m o n g the various I t a l i a n states. His m o d e r a t e a p p r o a c h to
f o r e i g n po l i c y issues r e c o g n i z e d the benefits of p e a c e for
all o f Italy. His s o n P i e r o and his grandson Lore n z o c o n
t i n u e d his basic a p p r o a c h in the field of fore i g n policy.
M y r o n P. Gilmore, The W o r l d of H u m a n i s m 1453-1517

(New York: Harper Row, P ublishers, 1952), p p . 140-142;
S c hevill, Medieval and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2, p p . 360-
362; Schevill, The M e d i c i , p p . 79-81.
H Gilmore, W o r l d o f H u m a n i s m , p p . 142-156; Schevill,

M e d i e v a l and Re n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2, p p . 360-362, 387-
394; Schevill, The M e d i c i , p p . 79-81.
117
P i e r o b e c a m e the s u c c e s s o r to M e dici w e a l t h and p o s i t i o n
after C o s i m o s death in 1464. W h e n Piero d i e d not long after
in 1469, the M e d i c e a n party in Florence r e a f f i r m e d their
a l l e g i a n c e to P i e r o s son Lorenzo. By 1480 this support
r e a c h e d a h i g h p o i n t w h e n the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a n e w bal i a
s t r e n g t h e n e d M e d i c e a n c ontrol over the g o v e r n m e n t in Florence
The r e f o r m c o m m i s s i o n o f 1480 i n s t i t u t e d the Council of
Seventy. This council b e c a m e the control c e n t e r from w h i c h
Lorenzo a nd the M e d i c e a n p a r t y direc t e d the F l o r e n t i n e govern
ment u n t i l the e x p u l s i o n of the Medici in 1494. The pow e r
of the C o u n c i l o f Seventy e x c e e d e d that o f all other govern
ment c o u n c i l s and s u b j e c t e d to its own a p p r o v a l the a u t h o r
ity o f the Priorate to init i a t e legislation. The Seventy
also c o n t r o l l e d the e l e c t i o n or a p p o i ntment o f the p r i o r s .
The c o u n c i l officials, w ho h e l d their office for life,
e lected f r o m their own m e m b e r s h i p two c o m m i t t e e s w h i c h e x
e r c i s e d m u c h of the p o w e r o f the c o u n c i l - - t h e Eig h t (otto
di Pratica) w h o w e r e re s p o n s i b l e for foreign and m i l i t a r y
affairs and the Twelve ( i Procuratori) w ho w e r e assigned
financial a nd internal affairs. 12 However, n e i t h e r the
council n o r its committees r e p l a c e d any o t h e r councils or
g o v e r n m e n t institutions. M In c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e
Flore n c e n o t h i n g once e s t a b l i s h e d was ever aboli s h e d , even
12 A n t o n i o Anzilotti, La crisi c o s t i t u z i o n a l e della

R e p u b b l i c a f i o r e n t i n a ( F i r e n z e : B. Seeber, 1912), p p . 23-
38; S c h evill, M e d i e v a l and R enaissance F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2,
p p . 396-398; The M e d i c i , p p . 144-146; Hale, F l o r e n c e and the
M e d i c i , p p . 68-69.
118
t h o u g h it n o longer f u n c t i o n e d in any e f f ective s e n s e . " 3-3
Not at least unt i l 1494 and 1532.
In f o r e i g n p o licy Lorenzo was the m e d i a t o r of any d i s
putes w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d to u p s e t the p e a c e e s t a b l i s h e d by the
Treat y o f Lodi o f 1454. This w as an i n c r e a s i n g l y u n e a s y
p e a c e in the last decades of the f i f t e e n t h century. Milan
a nd N a ples q u a r r e l l e d d i s t u r b i n g l y o v e r f a m i l y - d y n a s t i c issues
after the r u l i n g houses o f b o t h states b e c a m e r elated by
marriage. C harles VIII (1483-1498) o f P r ance a r g u e d the right
to r e c l a i m the k i n g d o m of N a ples ear l i e r r u l e d by the French
A n g e v i n d y n a s t y b e t w e e n 1266 a nd 1435 a nd since then b y the
S p a n i s h A r a g o n e s e dynasty. The di v i s i o n s in Italy a nd the
growing power of nation-states like F r a n c e and Spain since
the m i d - f i f t e e n t h ce n t u r y e v e n t u a l l y o v e r t u r n e d the ba l a n c e
of pow e r e s t a b l i s h e d in 1454 a m o n g the Italian c i t y - s t a t e s .14
S hortly after the death o f L o r e n z o in 1492 the T r e a t y of Lodi
era o f u n e a s y pea c e e n d e d and an era o f u n e x p e c t e d conflict
and h a r d s h i p b e g a n for F l o r e n c e a nd Italy.
L o r e n z o s s on Piero d i r e c t e d F l o r e n t i n e f oreign p o l i c y
after 1492. W h e n Milan and N a ples q u a r r e l l e d again over s u c
c e s s i o n issues, Piero v e e r e d f r o m the p a t h of m e d i a t i o n and
sided w i t h King Ferrante o f N a p l e s ag a i n s t Lodovico Sforza
3-3 S c h e v i l l , The M e d i c i , p . 145.
^ Gilmo r e , W o r l d o f H u m a n i s m , p p . 142-156; Schevill,

Me d i e v a l and Re n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e 7 v o l . 2, p p . 390-395;
Robinson, W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 356-362.
119
of M i lan, the t e m porary g o v e r n o r w h o ref u s e d to y i e l d the
g o v e r n m e n t o f the M i l a n e s e s t a t e to his n e p h e w the l e g i t i m a t e
rul e r and g r a n d s o n ^ i n - l a w o f the k i n g of Naples. Lodovico
Sforza, s e e k i n g support a g a i n s t his opponents, e x t e n d e d ag a i n
the i n v i t a t i o n to the F r ench to c l a i m the k i n g d o m of Naples.
H e s i t a n t i n g l y , Charles VIII of F r a n c e accepted, and in 1494
he i n v a d e d I t a l y . F o r the n e x t t h irty years Italy w as a
b a t t l e f i e l d for French and S p a n i s h armies.
The a l l i a n c e of Florence, Naples, and the Papal States
d i s s o l v e d b e f o r e Charles V I I I s army o f sixty t h o u s a n d and
mobile i r o n s h o t cannons. P e i r o s p o l i c y d r e w serious criti
c i s m for b r e a k i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l F l o r e n t i n e - F r e n c h alliance.
In addition, Piero c o m p o u n d e d h is p r o b l e m s b y h a s t y d e c i s i o n s .
and actions. He h u r r i e d to r e a c h a p e a c e a g r e e m e n t w i t h
Cha r l e s VIII w h o s e army was rea d y to m a r c h aga i n s t T u s c a n y
on the w a y to Naples and, consequently, t u r n e d over k e y
fortresses and strategic p o s i t i o n s in the F l o r e n t i n e st a t e
to s e c u r e such an agreement. W h e n news of the n e g o t i a t i o n
a nd Piero h i m s e l f rea c h e d Florence, the city w e n t into r e
volt a gainst the Medici. The F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z e d
a parlamento and baila, the c i t i z e n s drove the M e d i c i into
exile, and a n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n o v e r t u r n e d the M e d i c i c o u n c i l s
and el e c t o r a l system. The r e v o l t of 1494 c l o s e d s i x t y yea r s
Gilmore, W o r l d of H u m a n i s m , p p . 156-165; Robinson,

W e s t e r n E u r o p e , p p . 356-365; Sch e v i l l , M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s
sa n c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2, p p . 394-395, 433-438.
120
o f M e d i c i r ule in Florence. The exile, however, was not
p e r m a n e n t . 16
The f o r e i g n policy issues and political changes affecting
Italy and F l o r e n c e b e t w e e n 1494 an d 1530 are too c o m p l e x to
reco u n t h e r e in detail but the m a i n results of this age o f
m a j o r p o l i t i c a l t r a n s i t i o n m a y be s u m m a r i z e d briefly. Fol
lo w i n g the 1494 French i n v a s i o n of Italy the S p a n i s h w e r e
the o t h e r m a j o r E u r opean p o w e r that ente r e d the c o n f l i c t in
Italy to s t r e n g t h e n the a l l i a n c e o r g a n i z e d to drive the
F r e n c h f r o m Italy and to l i b e r a t e Italy f rom o u t s i d e control.
The war s in Italy became less and less Italian co n f l i c t s and
m o r e an d m o r e a c o n f r o n t a t i o n b e t w e e n the large n a t i o n - s t a t e s
France and Spain with Italy the battlefield. T here w o u l d be
no l i b e r a t i o n of Italy and no r e t u r n to the c i t y - s t a t e p o l i t
ical a l l i a n c e s y s t e m of the e r a o f the Treaty of Lodi. The
many advances and retreats o f the French and S p a n i s h c o n f l i c t
in Italy e n d e d for all p r a c t i c a l purposes w h e n the S p a n i s h
d e f e a t e d the French in n o r t h e r n Italy at the ba t t l e of P a v i a
in 1525. A f t e r 1525 the S p a n i s h r e m a i n e d the d o m i n a n t p o w e r
in Italy for the rest of the s i x t e e n t h century. The e f f e c t s
o f S p a n i s h control over the Italian peninsula were far- r e a c h
ing for Italy and F l o r e n c e . 1 ^
16 S c h evill, M e d ieval and Re n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2,

p p . 436-442; The M e d i c i , p p . 170-176.
17
x Schevill, M e d ieval a n d R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2,
p p . 443-445, 456-464, 466-470, a n d e s p e c i a l l y 471-482 " F l o r e n c e
an A n n e x o f the Papacy (1512 - 1 5 2 7 ) " ; The Medici, p p . 183-212.
121
D u r i n g these years the F lorentines twice e x i l e d the
M e d i c i a nd twice i n t r o d u c e d a d e m o c r a t i c r e p u b l i c - -1494 to
1512 a nd 1527 to 1530. B o t h r e p u b l i c a n constit u t i o n s h ad
s i m i l a r characteristics. T he m o s t significant p o l i t i c a l
changes in the F l orentine c o n s t i t u t i o n during the y e a r s 1494-
1512 w e r e the i n s t i t u t i o n o f a Great Council of about one
t h o u s a n d me m b e r s and a Small C ouncil of E i ghty and then in
1502 the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a lifet i m e tenure for the o f f i c e of
g o n f a l o n i e r o f justice, one o f the nine priors o f the Signoria.
The o t h e r eight offices o f the p r i o r retai n e d their t r a d i
t i onal two m o n t h tenures. T he lifetime tenure o f the office
of g o n f a l o n i e r of justice p r o v i d e d the c o n t i n u i t y c o n s i d e r e d
n e c e s s a r y in the e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h of g overnment p a r t i c u l a r l y
d u r i n g a p e r i o d of crisis.
T h e r e w e r e p roponents a nd opponents to the p o l i t i c a l changes
taking place in Florence. T h e r e w e r e some w ho a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
the r e l i g i o u s revival o c c u r r i n g in the city d u ring this time
as w e l l as w i t h the p o l i t i c a l changes and tended to v i e w their
s up p o r t for the one a r e e n f o r c e m e n t of their s u p p o r t for the
other. The r e w e r e some w h o w e r e opposed e qually to b o t h or
for one b u t against the other. There w e r e many w h o s e views
w e r e less k n o w n or less easy to cate g o r i z e simply. Disagree
ments in Florence also c o n t i n u e d b e t w e e n d e m o c r a t i c and a r i s
t o c r a t i c orien t e d parties a n d b e t w e e n M e d i c e a n a n d anti M e
d i c e a n groups. In for e i g n p o l i c y the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t
h e l d to the t raditional F r e n c h alliance w h i c h p r o v e d a b u r d e n
too h e a v y to carry w h e n the S p a n i s h became more p r e v a l e n t
in Italy.
Each e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a n e w r e p u b l i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n was
very li m i t e d in time and ended w i t h the r e t u r n of the Medici
from exile. T w i c e the Spanish army r e s t o r e d the Medici to
pow e r in F l o r e n c e - - i n 1512 and 1530. The 1530 r e t u r n of the
Medici f o l l o w e d a t en month siege of F l o r e n c e (October 1529
to A u g u s t 1530) a nd a plague in the city d u r i n g this same
p e r i o d w h i c h r e d u c e d the p o p u l a t i o n by p r o b a b l y twenty to
thirty t h o u s a n d p e o p l e . ^ The gradual r e i n t r o d u c t i o n of
Medici government in Florence led to the a d o p t i o n o f a n e w
c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h m a d e the M e d i c i the h e r e d i t a r y rulers of
the F l o r e n t i n e state.
The l e a d i n g members of the M e d i c i h o u s e b e t w e e n the years-
1512 a n d 1534 w e r e Giovanni (1475-1521), the s e c o n d son of
Lorenzo (Lorenzo the Ma g n i f i c e n t 1449-1492) , and Guilio
(1478-1534), the i l l e gi timate son o f L o r e n z o s b rother
Giuliano (1453-1478). Giovanni lat e r b e came Pope Leo X (1513-
1521) and Giulio Pope Clement VII (1523-1534). The Medici
popes g o v e r n e d F l o r e n c e from Rome t hrough f a m i l y relatives,

20
emissaries, a n d s u p p o r t e r s w i t h i n Florence.
18
An z i l o t t i , La crisis c o s t i t u z i o n a l e , p p . 39-70, 79-82;
Rubinstein, " C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m and M e d i c i A s c e n d a n c y , in F l o r e n
tine S t u d i e s , p p . 456-462; Gilbert, "V e n e t i a n C o n s t i t u t i o n m
Florentine P o l i t i c a l T h o ught," in F l o r e n t i n e S t u d i e s , p p . 477-
500; Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R enaissance Florence, v o l . 2, pp.
433-455, p a r t i c u l a r l y 439-442 and 445-455, 461-469, 471-496.
Ibid., S c h evill, The M e d i c i , p p . 183-212; Hale,

Florence a nd the M e d i c i , p p . 76-118.
^ Refer to foo t n o t e s 17 and 19.
123
A c c o r d i n g to the p e a c e terms signed b y F l o r e n c e on 12
A u gust 1530 after ten m o nths o f siege by the S p a n i s h a nd
imperial armies, Charles V (1519-1556), K i n g of S p a i n and
H o l y Roman Emperor, was to d e cide on a n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n for
the city b ut one w h i c h was to p r o t e c t the t r a d i t i o n a l liber
ties of F l o r e n c e . 21 W h i l e the e m p e r o r d e s i r e d to s e c u r e a
loyal ally in Flore n c e Pope C l e m e n t VII d e s i r e d to s e c u r e the
rule o f the M e d i c i in Florence. By 1532 the n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n
h a d taken on its b a s i c o u t w a r d form.
As ear l y as the s i g n i n g of the peace terms in A u g u s t
1530 w h i c h s u r r e n d e r e d the city to the em p e r o r the F l o r e n
tine g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z e d a p a r l a m e n t o a n d b a l i a c o n t r o l l e d
b y M e d i c e a n supporters. F r o m Rome Pope C lement V I I directed
the gradual e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an h e r e d i t a r y M e d i c i govern-

22
ment. In 1532 an even m o r e p r o - M e d i c e a n c o m m i t t e e of
the r e f o r m c o m m i s s i o n f a s h i o n e d the c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h
Florence was to h a v e until m o d e r n times.
The n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n a b o l i s h e d the t r a d i t i o n a l r e p u b
lican offices of p r iors a nd g o n f a l o n i e r of j u s t i c e of the
o ld c o n s t i t u t i o n and e s t a b l i s h e d in their p l a c e a c o u n c i l
of four c a l l e d the Su p r e m e M a g i s tracy. Quarterly elections
r o t a t e d these four p o s i t i o n s amo n g the a r i s t o c r a t i c families
o f Florence. The n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n also p r o v i d e d for two
21 A n zilotti, La crisi c o s t i t u z i o n a l e , p p . 83-120; Schevill,

M e d i e v a l and R e n a i ssance F l o r e n c e , v o l . 2, p p . 494-495; The
Medici, p p . 211-215; Hale, F l o r e n c e and the Med i c i , p p . 118-120.
124
other councils to r epla ce the p r e v i o u s l e g i s l a t i v e councils
o f the F l o r e n t i n e government. These w e r e the S e nate or
C ouncil o f Fo r t y - E i g h t a n d the Council o f Two Hundred. In
general, the Senate, e x e r c i s e d b y far the m o r e imp o r t a n t
p o w e r g r a n t e d to these two i n s t i t u t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the
field o f f o r e i g n p o licy and in the r e v i e w a u t h o r i t y over the
Supreme M a g i s t r a c y . ^ The c o n s t i t u t i o n also r e c o g n i z e d the
executive role o f a h e r e d i t a r y ruler.
T h e o f f i c i a l Medici p o s i t i o n in the F l o r e n t i n e state
derived f r o m the title h e l d by M e d i c i rulers. In 1 5 3 0-1531
E m p e r o r C harles V a p p o i n t e d A l e s s a n d r o (1510-15127-1537),
who was r a i s e d by the M e d i c i b ut w h o s e p a r e n t s remain a p p a r
ently u n k n o w n , the h e a d o f the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t a n d
state, a n d in 1532 Pope Clement V II g r a n t e d the title of
Duke o f F l o r e n c e to Alessandro. The D u k e of F l o r e n c e c h a i r e d
p e r m a n e n t l y the rotat i n g c o m m i t t e e o f the S u p r e m e M a g i s t r a c y
and was to w o r k with the other councils o f the government.
This w a s the general c o n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangement which a bol
ished the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l place of the t r a d i t i o n a l r e p u b l i c a n
institutions o f Florence (especially the P r i o r a t e or Signoria)
a nd i n t r o d u c e d o f f i c i a l l y h e r e d i t a r y g o v e r nment. Another in
d i c a t i o n o f the end of F l o r e n t i n e r e p u b l i c a n traditions was
the c o m p l e t e control the h e r e d i t a r y r u lers h e l d over the
m i l i t a r y and the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a fort r e s s for the first
23
A n z i l o t t i , La crisi c o s t i t u z i o n a l e , p p . 121-128;
Hale, F l o r e n c e a nd the Medici, p p . 120-122.
125
time w i t h i n F l o r e n c e . 24
T h ough Duke A l e s s a n d r o ' s rei g n was sho r t and his own
role in p o l i c y m a k i n g unclear, steps t a k e n d u ring the 1530's
his s uccessors continued. G o vernment p o l i c y p r o m o t e d e c o
n om i c reco v e r y in Florence f o l lowing the siege and plague of
1529-1530 and a w i d e r range of e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y over a w i d e r
area in the towns a nd cities of the c o u n tryside. There was
also an end to the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n m a j o r and minor guilds.
Moreover, there b e g a n d u ring this p e r i o d the b u i l d i n g of an
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n for the entire F l o r e n t i n e sta t e from the entire
Fl ore ntine s t a t e b y the appointment to the b u r e a u c r a c y " n e w
comer " of f i c i a l s f r o m outside Florence w h o w e r e without ties
to the circle o f t r a d i t i o n a l ruling f a m i l i e s a nd groups w i t h - .
in F l o r e n c e a n d w h o owed their a l l e g i a n c e d i r e c t l y to and

25
d e p e n d e d d i r e c t l y on the Medici dukes. A ll of these changes
su g g e s t e d the first steps toward an i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r r e l a t i o n
ship on a s o m e w h a t m o r e equal foo t i n g b e t w e e n Florence and
the s u r r o u n d i n g region. What was a g radual sta r t during the
reign of Duke A l e s s a n d r o became a c l e a r a n d definite p o l i c y

2 fi
d u r i n g the r e i g n o f his successor C o simo I (1537-1574).
24 A n z i l o t t i , La crisi cos t i t u z i o n a l e , p p . 121-126; Hale,

Florence and the M e d i c i , p p . 121-122; J.R. Hale, "The End of
Fl orentine Liberty: The Fortezza Da B a s s o , " in Florentine
S t u d i e s , p p . 501-532.
2C
E l e n a F a s a n o G u a r i n i , Lo Stato M e d i c e o Pi Cosimo I
(Firenze: S a n s o n i Editore, 1973), p p . 39-43, 49-61; Hale,
Florence and the Medici, p . 125.
"IT I 1 ''
/
2 ft
Guarini, Lo Stato M e d i c e o , p p . 49-61; Anzilotti, La
crisi c o s t i t u z i o n a l e , p p . 139-148.
126
The a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f Duke A l e s s a n d r o in 1537 by a M e d i c i
relative left the older b r a n c h of the M e d i c i house w i t h o u t
an heir. A l t h o u g h Duke A l e s s a n d r o was m a r r i e d to the i l l e
gitimate d a u g h t e r of Emp e r o r Charles V, Margaret, this m a r
riage was chi l d l e s s at the time o f the duke's death, and,
co n s e q u e n t l y , the Medici line w h i c h d e s c e n d e d from Cosimo
pa t e r p a t r i a e (1389-1464) ended a nd the M e d i c i title of duke
pa s s e d to the y o u n g e r b r a n c h o f the M e d i c i family d e s c e n d e d
f r o m Cosimo's b r o t h e r Lorenzo (1394-1440). The d e s c e n d a n t
of Lor e n z o w ho rece i v e d the M e d i c i title o f duke in 1537 was
the e i g h t e e n y e a r old Cosimo I ( 1 5 3 7 - 1 5 7 4 ) . ^7 Thus, it was
Cosimo I w h o b e c a m e the founder o f the M e d i c e a n P r incipate
and d y n a s t y w h i c h lasted until 1737. It was also Cosimo I
who c o n s o l i d a t e d a regional state and bui l t a regional ad
m i n i s t r a t i o n in Tu s c a n y and w ho i n t r o d u c e d on a more c o h e r e n t
basis an areaw i d e p o licy w h i c h d e f i n e d the basic d i r e c t i o n of
p o litical, social, economic, and u r b a n regional de v e l o p m e n t
for the rest of the six t e e n t h cen t u r y and into the early
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 28
This w i d e r appr o a c h to p o l i c y r e f l e c t e d Cosimo I's " Tuscan
27 Hale, Florence and the M e d i c i , p p . 124-127; Schevill,

The M e d i c i , p p . 213-224.
28
Guarini, Lo Stato M e d i c e o , p p . 19-24, 39-45, 49-61;
A n z i l o t t i , La crisi c o s t i t u z i o n a l e , p p . 117-120, 130-148;
Arn a l d o d ' A d d a r i o , "Burocrazia, e c o n o m i a e finanze dello Stato
F i o r e n t i n o alia m e t a del C i n q u e c e n t o ," A SI 121 (1963): 362-
456. ---
127
outlook." H a v i n g grown up at T r e b b i o in the M u g e l l o c o u n t r y
side n o r t h o f Florence and in a family w h i c h d i d no t take
part in F l o r e n t i n e affairs, Co s i m o I s e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t
took p l a c e o u t s i d e the i m m e d i a t e cont e x t o f M e d i c e a n and
F l o r e n t i n e politics. His v i e w o f p o l i t i c s and government i n
cl u d e d b u t also went b e y o n d Florence. H e t o o k an active i n
terest in l i f t i n g l o n g s t a n d i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s on the towns and
cities o f the d o m i n i o - - t h e are a outs i d e F l o r e n c e and the con-
tado of F l o r e n c e subject to F l o r e n t i n e j u r i s d i c t i o n , and i m
plemented policies that a d v a n c e d the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
Florence and Tuscany.
He d i d m o r e than any o f his p r e d e c e s s o r s h a d done

'to m a k e Florence into v i s i b l y a 'Medicean' city,
but h e was v ery m u c h a p r i n c e of the s i x t e e n t h
c e n tury, t h i n k i n g in terms of a s t a t e r a t h e r than
a city, and t h i nking of that not o n l y in str a t e g i c
but in e c o n o m i c and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e terms. He
b r o k e the c i t y s m o n o p o l y of m a k i n g sil k and woo l
cloths, e n c o u r a g i n g b oth indus t r i e s e l s e w h e r e in
Tuscany. He e n c o u r a g e d local i n i t i a t i v e in the
e x t r a c t i o n o f minerals. He set up a s u g a r r e
fi n e r y at Pisa. By e n c o u r a g i n g d r a i n a g e and land
r e c l a m a t i o n schemes he opened' the w a y to w e a l t h
to m e n f r o m P i e t r a s a n t a an d P isa to A r e z z o w h o ha d
h i t h e r t o b e e n d i s c o u r a g e d by the e x p l o i t a t i v e and
jealous attitude o f the capital. A n d this Tuscan-
i z a t i o n of the economy n o t only e r o d e d the p l u t o
c r a t i c e x c l u s i v e n e s s of the F l o r e n t i n e p a t r i c i a t e
bu t t h r e w up new, s u c c e s s f u l and n o n - F l o r e n t i n e
families fro m w h o m Cosimo c o u l d d r a w loyal r e
cruits to his bureaucracy. It also, t h r o u g h the
g r a n t i n g o f licenses, the r e t u r n o f subs i d i e s , the
c o n t r o l of prices and of the v o l u m e of exports and
imports, above all t h r o u g h the m a s s i v e p u r c h a s e of
b a r r e n but r e c l a im able lands m a s q u e r a d i n g as
h u n t i n g reserves, gave Co s i m o a p e r s o n a l income
s u p e r i o r to those of the p a t r i c i a n s wh o h a d once
se e n thems e l v e s as his t u t o r s , and a n image of
128
p r i n c e l y e x t r a v a g a n c e that d i s t a n c e d h i m from
t h e m in a nother w a y . 29
Besides e c o n o m i c changes, there w e r e also m a j o r p o l i c y
changes s o c i a l l y a nd a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y .
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , by w e a k e n i n g the a u t o n o m o u s legal
systems that h a d e x i s t e d in m a n y o f F l o r e n c e s
subject cities, and by u s i n g an i n c r e a s i n g
n u m b e r of m e n d r a w n from his o wn b u r e a u c r a c y as
his resid e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , he d i m i n i s h e d the
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e contrasts b e t w e e n one city and
a nother and m a d e m o r e u n i f o r m the r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n e a c h o f t h e m a nd Florence. Di f f e r e n c e s
remained. . . . But if the n e w s t r a t a of legal
and e c o n o m i c e n a c t m e n t s r e t a i n e d traces of the
p a s t in fossil form, a nd if the g o v e r n m e n t of the
n e w s t a t e " o f S i e n a r e t a i n e d m a n y o f its old
p r a c t i c e s u n d e r its n e w mas t e r , a n u m b e r of a d
m i n i s t r a t i v e i n n o vations, like Cosimo's plans
for the, r e l i e f of orphans and p a u p e r s , were
app l i e d to all areas alike. A historical vista
o f p i e c e m e a l c o n q u e s t and i n d i v i d u a l barga i n s
was o v e r l a i d by a u n i f y i n g statism. It was in
eve r y w a y a p p r o p r i a t e that the title he e v e n t u a l l y
c a j o l e d from Pope Pius V in 1569 and p e r s u a d e d
Philip II to ratify, was that of Grand Duke, n ot
o f Florence, b ut of Tuscany. A n d w i t h i n months
o f g a i n i n g it he o r d e r e d a n n u a l surveys to be
c a r r i e d out al o n g the T u s c a n f r o ntiers to m a k e
sure that no e r o s i a n of his d o m a i n s was t a k i n g
p l a c e . 30
B e t w e e n 1537 a nd 1574 Flore n c e b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a center
for g o v e r n m e n t and less the c e n t e r o f government.
A l o n g w i t h the above p o l i c y chang e s , there w e r e s i g
n i f i c a n t cha n g e s in the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the r e g i o n a l govern
ment. The focal p o i n t for g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y m a k i n g g e n e r a l l y
was the Privy Council (the P r a t i c a Segreta) f o r m e d by Cosimo I.
29
Hale, F l o r e n c e and the M e d i c i , p p . 132-133.
30 I b i d . , p . 133.
129
The duke or a ducal a p p ointee cha i r e d the Co u n c i l of F o u r
a c c o r d i n g to the terms of the 1532 c o n s t i t u t i o n . Cosimo I
also a p p o i n t e d se c r e t a r i e s and auditors to r e p r e s e n t his
views in all the m a j o r councils and o ffices of gover n m e n t
and to g u i d e the p a s s a g e of p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t i n g l e g i s l a t i o n
through the S e nate a nd Council o f Two Hund r e d . At times
ducal s e c r e t a r i e s and auditors b y p a s s e d the le g i s l a t i v e a p
pr oval of the above councils, a nd o b t a i n e d the approval on ly
of the Co u n c i l o f Four or Supreme M a g i s t r a c y . As Cosimo I's
rei g n c o n t i n u e d there was less and less d o u b t about his ef-

31
fective con t r o l over the gover n m e n t in F l o rence. In r e g a r d
to u r b a n p o l i c y the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e reforms o f Cosimo I's reign
w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y in f l u e n t i a l and are d i s c u s s e d s p e c i f i c a l l y
later in this essay.
Be s i d e s the p o l i t i c a l , the h i s t o r y o f F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n
p o l i c y and d e v e l o p m e n t h a d a cultural, ec o n o m i c , and d e m o g r a p h i c
side to it as well. In m a n y ways the e c o n o m i c and d e m o g r a p h i c
change o f the f i f t e e n t h and early s i x t e e n t h centuries s h a p e d
the u r b a n p o l i c y d e v e l o p m e n t s of the l a t e r s i x t e e n t h century.
The g e n e r a l context of early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e h i s t o r y o u t l i n e d
m u c h o f the d i r e c t i o n of ur b a n p o l i c y d e v e l o p m e n t and the
c h a n g i n g role of Florence during this era.
In c o n t r a s t some w h a t to the ea r l i e r s t a g e of rapid a nd
more c e n t r a l i z e d e c o n o m i c growth and i n t e n s i v e u r b a n i z a t i o n
31
A n z i l o t t i , La crisi c o s t i t u a i o n a l e , p p . 125-126, 128-
129; Hale, F l o r e n c e and the Medici, p p . 133-136.
130
of the four t e e n t h c e n t u r y a gradual and lim i t e d d e c e n t r a l
ized tre n d o f e c o n o m i c activ i t y and u r b a n i z a t i o n t e n d e d to
c h a r a c t e r i z e this l a t e r stage of F lorentine development.
D u ring the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y Prato, Pistoia, Pisa a nd s m a l l e r
c o m m u n i t i e s of T u s c a n y i n c reased their activ i t y in the w o o l e n
as well as other i n d u s t r i e s and b e c a m e m o r e i n t e r r e l a t e d w i t h
a regional e c o n o m y . ^ At the same time, Florence's role as
a m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n t e r advanced, and a n e w interest in t he
establishment of adequate movement patterns to c o r r e s p o n d
to the c h a n g i n g sc a l e o f regional a c t i v i t y developed.
D u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h c entury Flor e n t i n e u r b a n p l a n n i n g
and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y p a r a l l e l e d the econo m i c a c t i v i t y
o c c u r r i n g on a r e g i o n a l scale. F o l l o w i n g the reforms of
1415 the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s p l a y e d an incr e a s i n g l y a c tive r o l e
on a w i d e r scale in e s t a b l i s h i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g an e f f e c t i v e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m in the F l o r e n t i n e
state.^ Regio n a l m o v e m e n t patterns and a m o r e c o o r d i n a t e d
u r b a n a nd t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y were the expressions of a
m o r e ex t e n s i v e u r b a n i z a t i o n process and the d e v e l o p m e n t
t o w a r d larger units o f po l i t i c a l and econo m i c v i a b i l i t y .
As the area o f u r b a n i z a t i o n w i d e n e d d u r i n g the early m o d e r n
p e r i o d Flore n c e d e v e l o p e d n e w capabilities as a m e t r o p o l i t a n
^ Herlihy, M e d i e v a l and Renaissance P i s t o i a , p p . 155-160.

33
See the d i s c u s s i o n in chapter 5.
Parry, " T r a n s p o r t a n d Trade R o u t e s , " p p . 155-157.
131
c e n t e r a nd entered into its most fl o u r i s h i n g p e r i o d of c u l
tural innovations.
F ir s t slowly during the f i f t e e n t h century and s o m e w h a t
more r a p i d l y during the s i x t e e n t h c entury p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n
to i n c r e a s e again. P o p u l a t i o n g r owth occur r e d at a m u c h
slower rate during the early m o d e r n p e r i o d than it did at the
p eak of the medie v a l period, yet fifteenth century u r b a n i z a t i o n
was as d i v e r s i f i e d and even more ext e n s i v e than late m e d i e v a l
u rban i z a t i o n . This appears to suggest that a p o p u l a t i o n i s t
theory b y i t s e l f does not e x p l a i n the u r b a n i z a t i o n pr o c e s s
and that to define u r b a n i z a t i o n s o l e l y by p o p u l a t i o n fi g u r e s
is to l o o k at only part of the u r b a n z i a t i o n process p i c t u r e . 35
As e a r l y m o d e r n Florentine h i s t o r y indicates, the scale and
v a r i e t y of u r b a n activity and i n f luence is as important as a
city's s i z e w h e n considering the degree of u r b a n i z a t i o n achieved
during a p a r t i c u l a r era or stage of development by a city
or a s y s t e m of cities. One e x p r e s s i o n of the wide s c a l e and
high level of Florentine u r b a n i z a t i o n during the early m o d e r n
period was the revival of a d i v e r s i f i e d Florentine economy.
S i m i l a r in some ways to Giovanni V i l l a n i s s t a t i s t i c a l
survey o f fourteenth Florence, B e n e d e t t o Dei, F l o r e n t i n e
c i t i z e n and chronicler, p r e s e n t e d a bri e f history and s t a t i s
tical p o r t r a i t of fifteenth cen t u r y F l o r e n c e . a brief
35 F a l s i n i , "Firenze Dopo II 1348," p p . 483-495.
3^ E n c i c l o p e d i a I t a l i a n a , v o l . 12, p . 503; Avery, It a l i a n

R e n a i s s a n c e E n c y c l o p e d i a , p."306 ; B e n e d e t t o Dei, C r o n a c a F i o -
rentina, dal 9 Dicembre 1430 al 1 4 8 0 , t r a nscription by Giusep-
p i n a C a r l a Romby, in Descrizioni e "Rappresentazioni della
132
review of some o f his n a r r a t i o n of f i f teenth c e n t u r y Florence
indicates the d i v e r s e and active q u a l i t y o f the e c o n o m y as
w e l l as p r o v i d e s a l imited basis o f c o m p a r i s o n w i t h V i l lani's
picture o f Florence. In the Chronicle Dei d e s cribes an e x
tensive d e v e l o p m e n t and build i n g p r o g r a m out s i d e and inside
the city. He s t a t e d that w i t h i n five miles o f the city there
were over three t h o u s a n d estates w i t h b u i ldings a nd w i t h i n
twenty miles o f the city thirty t h o u s a n d estates supplying
the city w i t h f o o d and t i m b e r . 37 He l i sted w i t h i n the city
108 churches, 23 g u i l d - p a l a c e s - o f f i c e s , 50 p i a z z a s , 308
F lorentine c i t i z e n s w h o serve as g o v e r n o r - a d m i n i s t r a t o r s of
the local c o m m u n i t i e s of the Flore n t i n e state, 270 w o o l shops,
83 silk shops, 33 large banks, 66 a p o t h e c a r y shops, 84
cabi n e t m a k e r shops, 54 stonecutter shops, e t c . 38 Economic
d i v ersity and t he in t e g r a t i o n of city and c o u n t r y s i d e in
creasingly c h a r a c t e r i z e d early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e urbanization.
A brief comment follows the l isting o f each activity.
The d i r ectory o f m a i n locations of the 270 wool shops map
the industrial s t r e e t activity of Florence. There is also
a list for the e x port markets of the w o o l and s i l k shops.
Florentine b u s i n e s s e s shipped the i r cloths to Rome, Naples,
Constantinople, London, Lyon, Antwerp, as well as o t h e r places.
Citta di Fi r e n z e nel XV Secolo (Florence: Libreria Editrice

Fiorentina, 1976), p p . 42-53.
37 Dei, C r o n a c a F i o r e n t i n a , p p . 43-44.
I b i d . , p p . 44-49.
133
F l o r e n t i n e banks exchanged and transferred money and bills
f r o m e ast to w e s t in cities like Bruges, London, V e n i c e and
Naples. Th o u g h f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y F l o r e n c e h a d fewer b anks
and its woo l shops w e r e less p r o d u c t i v e than e a r l y f o u r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y Florence, the r ange a n d d i v e r s i t y of e c o n o m i c activity
was as e x t e n s i v e as any p r e v i o u s p e r i o d . 39
Dei also m e n t i o n e d t h i r t y - t h r e e m a j o r p r i v a t e b u i l d i n g
programs in his chronicle. A recent s t u d y s u p ports the fif
teenth century chronicler's d e s c r i p t i o n of Florence.
Renaissance Florence experienced a building

b o o m p r o b a b l y m o r e s p e c t a c u l a r t han that u n d e r
g o n e by any o t h e r cit y in Europe throu g h o u t
t h e M i d d l e Ages. . . .From the s e c o n d h a l f
o f the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y to the b e g i n n i n g
o f the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y c o n s t r u c t i o n was a
gene r a l p h e n o m e n o n t h r o u g h o u t the city in all
sphe r e s of l i f e - - e c c l e s i a s t i c a l , p u b l i c and
private. . . .All this b u i l d i n g w o u l d be
r e m a r k a b l e in any c i r c u m s t a n c e s , but it is
e s p e c i a l l y so in the case of Florence, i n
as m u c h as the city, far f r o m expanding,
h a d e x p e r i e n c e d in the co u r s e of the f o u r
t e e n t h c e n t u r y suc h a d r o p in its p o p u l a t i o n
th a t by the b e g i n n i n g of the f i f t e e n t h c e n
tu r y it was less t h a n h a l f the size it ha d
b e e n at the time o f Dante. . . .What is
m o s t r e m a r k a b l e is that this v e r i t a b l e
b u i l d i n g b o o m o c c u r r e d d u r i n g a p e r i o d of
s t y l i s t i c i n n o v a t i o n that marks one of the
m o s t glorious m o m e n t s in the h i s t o r y of
a r c h i t e c t u r e . 40
T h e r e m o d e l l i n g of the city i n c l u d e d the b u i l d i n g of twe l v e
or so c h a r i t a b l e institutions or hospitals, and n e a r l y a hun-
39 Dei, C r o n a c a F i o r e n t i n a , p . 49; De Roover, The M e d i c i

B a n k , p p . 1-8, and the d i s c u s s i o n o f the Med i c i b a n k b r a n c h e s
m v a r i o u s parts of W e s t e r n Europe.
^ Gol d t h w a i t e , " F l o r e n t i n e P a l a c e as D o m e s t i c A r c h i
t e c t u r e , " p . 977.
134
d r e d p a l a c e s w e r e built in Flore n c e d u r i n g the f i f teenth
c e n t u r y . 41 Private palaces i d e n t i f i e d the look o f f i f t e e n t h
c e n t u r y F l o r e n c e in a w a y s i m i l a r to the p u b l i c office
b u i l d i n g k n o w n as the Uffizi c o n s t r u c t e d d u r i n g the M e d i c e a n
P r i n c i p a t e c h a r a c t e r i z e d the look o f s i x t e e n t h c entury
F l o r e n c e . 42
As the focus o f e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y gr a d u a l l y s h i f t e d to
n o r t h e r n Europe d u ring the s i x t e e n t h century, Florence c o n
t i n u e d to p l a y an active but m o r e l i m i t e d economic role on
the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . 43 Florence a nd Italy w e r e less
c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d in the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a nd later w h e n
n e w t r a d e routes and p a t t e r n s m o v e d f r o m the more lim i t e d
M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea to the m o r e e x p a n s i v e A t l a n t i c Ocean. The
cities a nd states of Italy w e r e also less capable e c o n o m i
cal l y t h a n in the medi e v a l p e r i o d as p r o d u c t i v e activ i t y
m o v e d f r o m the more l imited s p a t i a l areas of city and r e g i o n a l
st a t e ec o n o m i e s to n a t i o n - s t a t e and e m p i r e e c o n o m i e s . 44 as
general ci r c u m s t a n c e s and c o n d i t i o n s c h a n g e d Florentines
a d a p t e d to w i d e r economic p a t t e r n s of d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h c a r r i e d
41 Goldthwaite, " F l o r entine P a l a c e as D o m e s t i c A r c h i

t e c t u r e , " p . 977.
A O
H e y d e n r e i c h and Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p p . 321-
324 a n d plates 350 and 351; Fanelli, Architettura~~e C i t t a ,
p p . 275-283.
43 Mis k i m i n , The Ec o n o m y of E a r l y R e n a i s s a n c e E u r o p e ,
p p . 1 5 0 - 1 6 3 , e s p e c i a l l y p p . 158-163, " B e y o n d G i b r a l t a r . "
44 ibid.
135
a new balance of capabilities and constraints. Though con
straints w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y important, m a n y F l o r e n t i n e s con
tinued to r e s p o n d p o s i t i v e l y to the new e c o n o m i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s
and to r e m a i n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s in trade and c o m m e r c e at
home and a b r o a d . 45 A d a p t a t i o n took the for m of n e w p o s s i b i l
ities and o p o r t u n i t i e s l o c a l l y and i n t e r n a tionally, and
business enterprise and b a s i c industries o r i e n t e d for export
and i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t c o n t i n u e d to attract F l o r e n t i n e in
vestment d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and s i x teenth c e n t u r i e s . 4 & These
various e c o n o m i c chan g e s i n f l u e n c e d the e arly m o d e r n u r b a n
ization p r o c e s s in the F l o r e n t i n e regional state.
On the local level c o n t i n u e d F lorentine i n v e s t m e n t in
basic export i n d u s t r i e s a f f e c t e d t r ansportation, l a n d use,
and p o p u l a t i o n an d a c t i v i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s . 4 ? Some
of the s p e c i f i c c h a n g e s m a r k i n g this n e w stage o f F l o r e n t i n e
economic d e v e l o p m e n t c e n t e r e d a r o u n d the woo l and s i l k i n
dustry. As t h e s e two i n d u s t r i e s d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g the early
modern p e r i o d a g r e a t e r degree of d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n a n d i n t e r
dependence e x t e n d e d the F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s over
a w i d e r a r e a . 45 E c o n o m i c revi v a l e m p h a s i z e d the role of
. 45 M i s k i m i n , The E c o n o m y o f Early R e n a i s s a n c e E u r o p e ,
p p . 98-99.
In G o l d t h w a i t e , Priv a t e W e a l t h , this p o i n t is e x
plored extensively.
^ See n o t e 32; A l s o r e f e r to Luzzatto, Economic History

of I t a l y , p p . 158-161.
45 Ibid.
136
Pisa and Livorno as seaports and links to the i n ternational
markets, and the inc r e a s e d d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f the w o o l in^
dustry a c c e n t u a t e d the s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of F l o r e n c e as an a d
mi n i s t r a t i v e and financial c e n t e r . ^9 T h o u g h industrial ac
t i vity did n ot by any means d i s a p p e a r from Florence, the m e
dieval city o f workshops h a d also b e c o m e a city of palaces
and offices. Moreover, the e a s t - w e s t c o r r i d o r b e t w e e n Florence
and the seaport became even more criti c a l as an access and
tr a n s p o r t route, and the d i s t r i b u t i o n of indu s t r i a l a nd c o m
m e r c i a l acti v i t y over a w i d e r area o f the F l o r e n t i n e state
emph a s i z e d the key role o f an adequ a t e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and
communication s y s t e m . ^ xhe e x t e n s i o n of the u r b a n i z a t i o n
p rocess enhan c e d F l o r e n c e s role as a m e t r o p o l i t a n center
and c o o r d i n a t i n g center of economic and p o l i t i c a l activity. -I-
A second m a j o r i n dustrial c h ange also a f f e c t e d the
u r b a n i z a t i o n process and the c o o r d i n a t i o n of m o v e m e n t p a t
terns on a w i d e r scale. W h e n the w o o l indu s t r y s t a b i l i z e d
in the f i f teenth century and beg a n to de c l i n e in the s i x t e e n t h
century, the silk industry beg a n to dev e l o p at a r a p i d rate.
M e anwhile, however, a great e x p a n s i o n h a d o c

curred in the F lorentine silk industry. Prior
to 1400 this h ad b e e n of slight importance;
but from the early years of the f i f t e e n t h c e n
tury the d e m a n d for raw silk i n c r e a s e d so
49
Luzzatto, Economic H i s t o r y of I t a l y , p p . 158-161; De
Roover, Medici B a n k , Introduction, p p . 1-8; c h a p t e r 6, p p . 108-
141; chapter 8, p p . 167-193.
50 gee ch a p t e r 5 and 6.
51 Ibid.
137
rapidly, that f o r e i g n su p p l i e s , i m p o r t e d through
V e n i c e and Por t o Pisano, n o l o nger p r o v e d s u f
ficient, and m u l b e r r y - g r o w i n g and s i l k w o r m
b r e e d i n g w e r e l o c a l l y d eveloped, t o g e t h e r w i t h
a rural industry of s i l k - t h r o w i n g . F l orentine
exports of s i l k e n c l o t h rose steadily, e s p e c i a l l y
du r i n g the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 52
The d e v e l o p m e n t of the s i l k i n d u s t r y and the l e g i s l a t i o n of
the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e q u i r i n g t h e p l a n t i n g o f m u l b e r r y
trees al o n g m a i n routes o f the regio n a l state i n t e g r a t e d
further the c o u n t r y s i d e a nd city in an a r e a w i d e s y s t e m of
economic d e v e l o p m e n t . 55 A w i d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n of a c t i v i t y and
p o p u l a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d e d to the a d j u s t m e n t s o c c u r r i n g in the
F l o r e n t i n e economy. More t h a n b e f o r e F l o r e n c e was the c o
o r d i n a t i n g c e nter o f a r e g i o n a l transportation system which
integrated more effectively the city and c o u n t r y s i d e in a
b r o a d e r p a t t e r n o f u r b a n i z a t i o n a n d e c o n o m i c development.
This u r b a n i z a t i o n pro c e s s was v i s i b l e in both the a c t i v i t i e s
and stru c t u r e s of the u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h i n and b e y o n d the
city walls. In 1581 M i c h a e l M o n t a i g n e v i s i t e d Florence and
d e s c r i b e d the u r b a n i z e d r e g i o n a r o u n d the city:
On Sunday, J u l y 2d, I left F l o r e n c e af t e r

d i n n e r . . . W e w e n t a l o n g a road thr o u g h country
m o s t l y level and fertile, and v e r y th i c k l y
b ui l t u p t h r o u g h o u t - - a l m o s t w i t h o u t a b r e a k - -
w i t h houses, small w a l l e d towns, and villages.
v W e p a s s e d through, a m o n g others, one p r e t t y
town n a m e d Empoli. The so u n d o f this name
c2
Luzzatto, E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y of I t a l y , p . 160; Also:
Miskimin, The Economy of Ear l y R e n a i s s a n c e E u r o p e , p . 103.
53 For a d i s c u s s i o n o f m u l b e r r y tree legislation, see

c h a p t e r 9.
138
has s o m e t h i n g ancient about it. A most
p l e a s a n t s i t e . 54
Other late s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y d e s c r i p t i o n s of the Flore n t i n e
m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a sug g e s t the same b u i l t - u p c h a r a c t e r of the
urban e n v i r o n m e n t . ^ D e m o g r a p h i c cha n g e s also s u g g e s t e d a
distributed built-up i n t e r r e l a t e d u r b a n i z e d region, especially
alo n g the A r n o c o r r i d o r b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e a n d Pisa.
D u r i n g the R e n a i s s a n c e and early m o d e r n periods of
cultural, artistic, and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e innovation population
i n c r e a s e d s l o w l y at first a nd then s o m e w h a t m o r e q u i c k l y
b e t w e e n the late f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h centuries. The dates
1427 a n d 1561 r e p r e s e n t two official s urveys o f the p o p u
l a tion w h i c h are a v a l u a b l e source for b o t h early m o d e r n
d e m o g r a p h i c and u r b a n history. In 1427 the Flor e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t i n t r o d u c e d a n e w tax system, the catasto, that
p r o v i d e d a m u c h m o r e s p e c i f i c account of w e a l t h and p o p u l a t i o n
t h a n the e a r l i e r tax s y s t e m c a lled the estimo. In 1561 the
54 M i c h e l de M o n t a i g n e , "Travel J o u r n a l , " in The C o m -
f lete Works o f M o n t a i g n e , trans. D o n a l d Frame (Stanford, C a . :

t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1957), p . 1007.
55
Fynes M o r y s o n , A n I t i nerary (Glasgow, Scotland:
James M a c L e h o s e Sons, 1907), vol.l, p p . 307-334; Robert
D a l l i ngton, A S u r v e y of the Great Dukes Sta t e of T u s c a n y
in 1596 (Ann Arbor, M i .: U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , "Eng l i s h
Books, 1 4 7 5 - 1 6 4 0 , " 1973), p p . 1-41.
5^ Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , v o l . 2, p p . 177-179; A r n a l d o
d ' Addario, "Bur o c r a z i a , E c o n o m i a e F i n a n z e dello Sta t o
f i o r e n t i n o a l i a M e t a del C i n q u e c n e t o ," ASI 121 (1963):
362-384; P i etro Battera, "Botteghe e P i g i o n i n e l l a Firenze
del *500," A SI 94-95 (1936-37): 4-28.
139
gover n m e n t c o n d u c t e d a detailed s u r v e y o f the p o p u l a t i o n , a
c e n s u s . 57 T h e s e two documents p r e s e n t an a d d i t i o n a l basis
besides l i t e r a r y sources like V i l l a n i s c h r o n i c l e for e s
t a b l i s h i n g a g e n e r a l pi c t u r e o f p o p u l a t i o n trends and u r b a n
ization f o l l o w i n g the crisis p e r i o d o f 1348. Even a brief
d e s c r i p t i o n o f the catasto and the 1561 census w i l l suggest
their c o n t r i b u t i o n to urban as w e l l as oth e r fields of history
Before the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the catasto, the e s t i m o tax
s y s t e m was t he m a i n avenue cf d i r e c t t a x a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d
by the F l o r e n t i n e government. The e s timo s y s t e m was a survey
of h o u s e h o l d s w h i c h at t e m p t e d to " e s t i m a t e " or assess h o u s e
hold wealth for t ax p u r p o s e s . 58 S i n c e the emphasis in the
estimo tax s u r v e y was on h o u s e h o l d s and n ot i n d i v i d u a l s , the
individual m e m b e r s of a h o u s e h o l d w e r e o f t e n not l i s t e d in
the tax r e t u r n s , and, c o n sequently, the e s timo records pro
vide a l i m i t e d basis for e s t i m a t i n g the p o p u l a t i o n o f the
Flore n t i n e state.
W i t h t he i n t r o d u c t i o n of the catas t o , the F l o r e n t i n e
^ For the c a t a s t o prov i s i o n s and sta t u t e see: Giovanni

Pagnini, D e l l a D e c i m a , vol.l (Bologna: Forni Editore, 1967);
o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in Lisbon, 1765), p . 214; For the 1561
p o p u l a t i o n s u r v e y see: A. S. F . , M i s c e l l a n e a M e d i c e a , 224;
Addi t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s to the 1427 c a t a s t o survey: 0. Karmin,
La Legge del Cat a s t o f i orentino del 1427 (Florence: B.
Seeber^ 1906) ; E x a m p l e s of the 1427 tax returns are a v a i l
able in The S o c i e t y of Re n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , ed. Gene Brucker
(New Yorlcl h a r p e r a nd Row, 1971), p p . 6-13; part o f the 1427
catasto s u r v e y is also available o n m i c r o f i l m from the
Mi d w e s t R e s e a r c h Center, Chicago.
5 Fiumi, "La D e m o g r a f i c a f i o r e n t i n a , " p p . 86-87.
140
government a c h i e v e d a n e w stage in the r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of
its tax and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s y s t e m s . 59 The detail, extent,
and p r o v i s i o n s of this tax s u rvey indicates its i m p o r t a n c e
as a source for f i f t e e n t h c entury Florentine history.
In 1427 F l o r e n c e u n d e r t o o k a vast survey of

all its s u b j e c t p o p u l a t i o n - - t h e n n u m b e r i n g
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 6 0 , 000--and of all their
p o s s essions. This great survey, finished
in 1430, is c a l l e d the catasto, and it
allows us to discern, with unique precision,
h o w b o t h p r o p e r t y and p o p u l a t i o n
w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d across the Florentine state. 0
Cons i d e r a t i o n s of some of the p r o v i s i o n s o f the n e w t ax s y s
tem will spe c i f y fu r t h e r its relevance for u r b a n h i s t o r y as
well as demography. Each head o f a ho u s e h o l d was to m a k e a
tax r e turn l i s t i n g all assets and liabilities. The 1427 tax
r e f o r m law d e f i n e d cle a r l y what was and what was not taxable.
Property n e e d e d f or life and p r o d u c t i v e activity was not
taxable, wh i l e p r o p e r t y in excess of s u s t a i n i n g life in one's
station was taxable. Thus, a family's home and its f u r n i s h
ings w e r e tax e x empt because a home was n e e d e d to s u s t a i n
life. A farmer's oxen w e r e not taxed b ecause they w e r e n e e d e d
David Herli h y , "Family a nd Property in R e n a i s s a n c e

F lorence," in The M e d i e v a l C i t y , eds. Har r y A M i s kimin, David
Herlihy, and A! L. Udov i t c h (New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y
Press, 1977), p p . 3-24; The catasto records and their i m p o r
tance for r e s e a r c h in the fields of Florentine social, e c o
nomic, and d e m o g r a p h i c history are d i s cussed in the following:
Raymond de Roover, The Rise and Decline of the M e dici B a n k
1597-1494 (New York! W. W. N o r t o n $ Co., 1966), p p . 21-31.
60 H e r l i h y , " Family and P r o p e r t y , " p . 4.
141
for p r o d u c t i v e w o r k . 61 The hom e t a x - e x e m p t i o n a p p l i e d from
rich to poor, and raises the q u e s t i o n of its inf l u e n c e on
F lorence's urban and cultural h i s t o r y , particularly in r e
gar d to fifteenth and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y p a l a c e cons t r u c t i o n
and f u r n i s h i n g s .62
Given the above pr o v i s i o n s , assets and l i a b i lities were
then listed on the ret u r n in the f o l l o w i n g way. Assets in
cl u d e d o wned or rented real es t a t e and p r o p e r t i e s o t h e r than
one's home, stock in the M onte Com u n e or p u b l i c debt, loans
m ade to others, and d o m e s t i c and f o r e i g n b u s i n e s s investments
l iabilities exten d e d to loans owed, c o m m e r c i a l debts, and
rents. Personal exemptions of 200 florins w e r e a l l o w e d for
each m e m b e r of the household, ex c e p t servants. Obligations
and p e r s o n a l exemptions w e r e then d e d u c t e d from the assets,
and the remainder was the surplus or taxable w e a l t h w h i c h
was t a x e d at the rate of o n e - h a l f percent. There was also
a h e a d tax for each m a l e b e t w e e n e i g h t e e n and sixty years
old. The personal e x e m p t i o n for each m e m b e r o f the h o u s e
h o l d as well as o ther factors p r o v i d e d for an a c c u r a t e r e p
r e s e n t a t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n . 63 jn all, nine surveys were
t aken b e t w e e n 1427 and 1494, w h e n the cata s t o was ab o l i s h e d
6^ Herlihy, "Family and P r o p e r t y , " p . 4.
62 ibid.; See also : Goldthwaite, "The F l o r e n t i n e

P a l a c e , " p p . 977-985.
63 De Roover, Rise and D e c l i n e of the Medici Bank, pp.

24-25.
142
a nd the decima, a tax on real estate b ut n ot o n income, was
s u b s tituted. The c a t a s t o survey was to take p l a c e every
three years, but f o l l o w i n g the first three returns this
s ched u l e slowed.
B e t w e e n 1551 a nd 1561 the M e d i c e a n P r i n c i p a t e co n d u c t e d
p o p u l a t i o n surveys of Florence and the e n t i r e Flor e n t i n e state,
e x c e p t i n g S i e n a . 65 In the 1561 census the c i t y is surveyed
street by s t reet a nd the co u n t r y s i d e p l a c e by place. This
census is an im p o r t a n t source for e s t a b l i s h i n g a p e r s p e c t i v e
on s i x t e e n t h ce n t u r y p o p u l a t i o n trends, and w h e n compared to
e a r l i e r a n d la t e r p o p u l a t i o n figures a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of
Florentine and in p a r t T u s c a n p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g the early
m o d e r n p e r i o d c a n be outlined. Two p o p u l a t i o n surveys of
1622 p r o v i d e the latest figures cited here. The exa c t o r igin
of the 1622 surveys remains unclear, but the p o p u l a t i o n f i g
ures l i s t e d in the 1622 surveys are g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e n t with
those cit e d in d e m o g r a p h i c studies of ea r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n
tury F l o r e n c e . 66 In 1529 p l ague and w a r r e d u c e d the Floren-
**4 De Roover, Rise a nd Decline of the M e d i c i Bank, pp.

24-25.
65 N. B. C . , Mazzatinti, II.I, 120; A. S. F . , Miscellanea

Medicea, 224.
66 The two refer e n c e s to the 1622 p o p u l a t i o n studies are

respec t i v e l y : N. B. C., M a z z a t i n t i , II.I, 240 ; and II., 226;
For lat e r studies o f the se v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y see: G. P a r d i ,
" D i stengo della S t o r i a d e m o g r a f i a di F i r e n z e , " ASI 74-75
( 191 6 - 1 7 ) : 4 - 8 4 and 184-245, p a r t i c u l a r l y 200-213; M. Lastri,
"Ricerche s u l l ' a n t i c a e m o d e r n a P o p o l a z i o n e d e l l a Citta di
Firenze p e r Mezzo, del Registri del B a t t i s t e r o di S. Giovanni
T F l o r e n c e : Gaetano C a m b i a g i , 1775), p p . 52, 72, 121.
143
tine p o p u l ation, and in 1631 p l a g u e aga i n s p r e a d t h r o u g h the
city.**7 P o p u l a t i o n losses in b o t h periods are g e n e r a l l y c o n
sid e r e d high, and v a r i o u s figures in d i f f e r e n t studies have
b e e n p r e s e n t e d c o n c e r n i n g the p o p u l a t i o n in F l o r e n c e b e f o r e
and after the p l a g u e y e a r s . 68
Beginning with Villani's p o p u l a t i o n figures for 1338
and c o n s i d e r i n g the s t a t i s t i c s from the sur v e y s of 1427, 1561
and 1622 the f o l l o w i n g p i c t u r e o f early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e
population e m e r g e s . ^
Table 1. Florence: City P o p u l a t i o n 1338-1622
...... 1338" 1427 1561 1622
Population 90,000 37,245 59,216 76,023
Percentage
of total 24% 14% 10.6% 11.7%
Florence: City and C o u n t r y s i d e or State P o p u l a t i o n , 1 3 3 8-1622
1338 1427 1561 1622
370,000 264,210 560,354 648,798
As the above figures indicate Florence r e c o v e r e d g r a d u a l l y
a n d slowly f o l l o w i n g the 1348 p l a g u e c r i s i s . 7^ Also, the
^ 7 Pardi, 'Disegno," 185-191, 200-213; Lastri, Ricerche

p p . 52, 72, 121.
68 Ibid.
See notes 57, 58, 59, 65.
7^ Pardi, "Disegno," 58-77; Lastri, Ricerche, p p . 52, 72

121 .
144
p e r c e n t a g e o f Florence's p o p u l a t i o n in r e l ation to the total
s tate p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e d w h e n the territory of the city-
state e x p a n d e d to a r e g i o n a l s t a t e including a l a r g e r p o p u
l a t i o n than before. At the same time, Florence's m e t r o p o l i t a n
role in T u s c a n y c o n t i n u e d and i n c r e a s e d . 71 In 1427 Flor e n c e ' s
p o p u l a t i o n was 14% o f the total p o p u l a t i o n of the Florentine
s t a t e . 72 xhe next s i x l a r g e s t cities, Pisa, P i s t o i a , Arezzo,
Prato, Volterra, and C a r t o n a h a d together a p o p u l a t i o n of
26,315, e qual to n e a r l y 10% o f the total state p o p u l a t i o n .
F i f t e e n s m a l l e r towns l i s t e d in the survey ha d a p o p u l a t i o n
of 24,809, equal to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9% of the total p o p u l a t i o n .
The p o p u l a t i o n of the s i x cities a v e r a g e d 4,383 a n d that of
the f i f t e e n small towns 1,654.
F l o r e n c e ' s p o p u l a t i o n of 37,245 exceeded c o n s i d e r a b l y
the t otal p o p u l a t i o n o f the n e x t s i x largest cities m e n
t i o n e d above, i n d i c a t i n g the c o n t i n u e d m e t r o p o l i t a n role of
the cit y and the p o p u l a t i o n d i s t a n c e betw e e n F l o r e n c e and
the o t h e r u r b a n centers o f Tuscany. Together F l o r e n c e and
the n e x t six largest cities w e r e a p p r oximately 24% of the
total state po p u l a t i o n , c o m p r i s i n g a hig h rate of u r b a n i z a t i o n
for the reg i o n c o m p a r a b l e to the m e d i e v a l rate d i s c u s s e d
earlier.7^ These characteristics of the 1427 T u s c a n p o p u
lation patterns tend to s u p p o r t the view, also d i s c u s s e d
7* Herlihy, "Family and P r o p e r t y , " p p . 5-8.
72 Ibid. , p . 6.
7 ^ I b i d . ; Russell, " M e t r o p o l i t a n City R e g i o n , " a n d M e

dieval R e g i o n s , cited in notes 130 and 132 in c h a p t e r 1.
145
earlier, that the p o p u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n among c i ties of
a g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n in p r e m o d e r n times r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y
s t able on a p e r c e n t a g e basis w h e t h e r p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d or
d e c r e a s e d in terms o f abso l u t e n u m b e r s . 7 ^
E c o n o m i c a l l y Flore n c e also r e t a i n e d its m e t r o p o l i t a n
status d u r i n g the early m o d e r n period.
"The d i s t r i b u t i o n of this d i s p o s a b l e w e alth

across g e o g r a p h i c a l areas greatly favored
the c i t y o f Florence. The T u s c a n m e t r o polis,
w h i c h i n c l u d e d only 14 percent of the r e g i o n s
p o p u l a t i o n , c l a i m e d some 67 p e r c e n t of its
d i s p o s a b l e w e a l t h . " 75
W i t h i n the c i t y of Flore n c e the d i s t r i b u t i o n of w e a l t h a l s o
f o l l o w e d a c o n c e n t r a t e d pattern.
"The r i c h e s t 1 p e r c e n t of the F l orentine

h o u s e h o l d s , n u m b e r i n g only one hundred,
own e d m o r e than a q u a r t e r of the city's
e nor m o u s wealth. . . " 76
F lore n c e ' s m e t r o p o l i t a n role as an e c o n o m i c and p o p u l a t i o n
c e n t e r c o n t i n u e d and in some ways i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g the e a r l y
m o d e r n p e r i o d . 77
By c o m p a r i n g the 1561 census figures of the l e a d i n g
cities o f T u s c a n y w i t h the p o p u l a t i o n statistics o f 1427 a
g eneral m a p o f the p o p u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n and tre n d o f the
e ar l y m o d e r n p e r i o d appears clearly. Table 2 i n d icates the
^ Herlihy, "Family and P r operty," p . 6.
Ibid. , p. 7.
76 Ibid.
146
p o p u l a t i o n o f F l o r e n c e and the six n e x t m o s t p o p u l o u s cities
according to the 1561 c e n s u s . 78
Table 2. 1561 Census: City a n d P o p u l a t i o n
Florence 59,216
Pisa 10,069
Volterra 7,195
Arezzo 6,657
Prato 5,996
Pistoia 5,845
Cor t o n a 5,260
*Note total p o p u l a t i o n of the state is 560,354.
Again, Florence's leading role in p o p u l a t i o n is evident.
Florence's p o p u l a t i o n again e x c e e d e d the total p o p u l a t i o n
of the oth e r s i x cities - 41,022. The a v e r a g e p o p u l a t i o n
of these six c i t i e s in 1427 was 4,383 a nd in 1561 it was
6,837. T h o u g h the average size increased, their p e r c e n t a g e
in rel at i o n to total p o p u l a t i o n decreased: in 1427 it was
nearly 10% a n d in 1561 it was just a b o v e 7%. Florence's
pe rcentage h a d a l s o decli n e d from 14% to about 10.6%. Though
city p o p u l a t i o n increased, total p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d even
more. The p o p u l a t i o n of all seven cities equals 100,238,
and is near 18% o f the total po p u l a t i o n , still a r elatively
high rate of u r b a n i z a t i o n , t h ough b e l o w the 24% rate cited

79
earlier for m e d i e v a l Florence.
78 A. S. F . , M i s c e l l a n e a M e d i c e a , 224.
79 Ibid.
147
Tables 3 and 4 d e s c r i b e the p a t t e r n o f p o p u l a t i o n d i s
t r i b u t i o n by number of p l a c e s and the p e r c e n t a g e of population
in places o f a p a r t i c u l a r s i z e . 88
Table 3. N u m b e r o f Places for P o p u l a t i o n
Places Population
1809 1-500
126 500-1000
52 1-5000
6 5-10000
2 10000 +
T o t a l n u m b e r of pl a c e s 1995
In the 1561 census t h e r e w a s a total of 1995 p l a c e s listed,
a n d table 3 indicates the relationship between place and
population, for examp l e , 1809 places had a p o p u l a t i o n of
1-500 people and so on. A r e v i e w of the t able shows h o w few
places there were w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of mor e t h a n 1,000
p eop l e , 60 out of a total 1995. The n u m b e r o f p l a c e s with
a p o p u l a t i o n of 500 to 1,000 is also few in n u m b e r c o m p a r e d
to the 1,809 places o f less t han 500 p opulation. Tuscany

r
was sprinkled with small c o m m u n i t i e s of less than 500 people,
a n d a s u prising n u m b e r of t h e s e w e r e c o m m u n i t i e s of less
t h a n 100 people, p e r h a p s as h i g h as 20-30% of t h e t otal n u m
b e r o f places listed in the s u r v e y . 81
88 A. S. F . , M i s c e l l a n e a M e d i c e a , 224.
81 Ibid.
148
Table 4. Place Size, Population, Percentage
Place size Population Percentage
1-500 284,590 51%

500-1000 84,826 15%
1-5000 84,737 15%
5-10,000 36,916 6.6%
10,000 + 69,285 12.3%
Total population 560,354
A c c o r d i n g to the above, 66% of the p o p u l a t i o n l i v e d in
communities o f less than 1 , 0 0 0 p o p u l a t i o n and 5 1 % in c o m m u
n i t i e s o f less than 5 0 0 , while 2 1 % l iv e d in co m m u n i t i e s be
tween 1 and 1 0 , 0 0 0 . If F l o r e n c e w e r e n ot c o u n t e d a m o n g the
c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 10,000 or more, the p e r c e n
tage o f p e o p l e living in the l a r g e s t u r b a n places of t he r e g i o n
w o u l d s h r i n k from 1 2 % to about 2%. Only Florence and P i s a
are l i s t e d on the table w i t h c o m m u n i t i e s of 10,000 p o p u l a t i o n
or m o r e B e f o r e s u m m arizing, a l o o k at one more table w i l l
be helpful.
To p r o v i d e a br o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e on s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y
u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n patterns, the f o l l o w i n g table compa r e s some
o f the l a r g e r cities o f this p e r i o d w i t h F l o r e n c e . 2
82 T h e figures for table 5 are d r a w n from the f o l l o w i n g

sources: A . S. F . , M i s c e l l a n e a M e d i c e a , 2 2 4 ; Karl J u l i u s
Alwin Beloch, Bevolkerungsgeschichte Italiens, 3 v o l s .
(Berlin: De Gruyter, 1 9 3 7 - 1 9 6 1 ) . Venice, v o l . 3, 1 7 ; Rome,
v o l . 2, 1 3 - 1 4 ; Naples, vol.l; P e t e r Clark and Paul Slack,
E n g l i s h T o w n s in T r a n s i t i o n 1 5 0 0 - 1 7 0 0 (London: Oxford
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 7 6 ) , p . 83.
149
T a b l e 5. Florence and Cities of the S i x teenth
Century \
City Population Date
F lore n c e 59,216 1561

V e nice 168,627 1563
Rome 99,627 1592
Naples 225,869 1595
London 200,000 1603
Clearly, F l o r e n c e s p o p u l a t i o n was n o t g r o w i n g as fast as
oth e r c i t i e s o f Italy and Europe. Y e t by the end of the
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y the p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d p r o b a b l y to 70,000
and the c i t y was still an active e c o n o m i c c e n t e r . ^
In s u m m a r y , Florence r e t a i n e d its c h a r a c t e r as the m e t
r o p o l i t a n c i t y o f Tu s c a n y from the f o u r t e e n t h t hrough the
s i x t e e n t h centu r y , and the p a t t e r n e x p r e s s e d was c o m m o n to
other regions o f Europe, namely, a m e t r o p o l o t a n city b o r d e r e d
b y m e d i u m - s i z e d cities and m a n y s m a l l e r towns and c o m m u n i t i e s
s p r e a d across the state. This p a t t e r n r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y
s t able e v e n w h e n p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e d dramat i c a l l y , for examp le,
b e t w e e n 1348 a nd 1427. The p o p u l a t i o n increase b e t w e e n 1427
and 1561 w as felt in all the m a i n c i ties but even more so, it
appears, in the countryside. Y et F l o r e n c e does not a p p e a r
to c o n f o r m to e i ther the m e d i e v a l or m o d e r n model of u r b a n
i z a t i o n entirely. In the early f o u r t e e n t h ce n t u r y F l o r e n
tine s o c i e t y was m u c h more u r b a n i z e d t h a n most other r egions
83 N. B. C., Mazzatinti, II.I, 240.
of Europe, y et d u ring the fi f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h centuries
it r e m a i n e d m u c h less u r b a n i z e d than m o d e r n i n dustrial
societies. A m a j o r i t y o f the p e o p l e c o n t i n u e d to w o r k and
live o n the land, freq u e n t l y in v e r y small communities, and
the d i s t r i b u t i o n of w e a l t h did n ot indicate a b r o a d social
u r b a n i z a t i o n but instead the m e t r o p o l i t a n ch a r a c t e r of
F l orence's role in Tuscany. R a t h e r than medieval or modern,
F lor e n c e has b e e n d e s cribed here as an early m o d e r n city,
expressing distinct characteristics of a r e l a t i v e l y h i ghly
i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and c o m m e r c e - o r i e n t e d e conomy w i t h an i n
c r e a s i n g l y r a t i o n a l i z e d and c o o r d i n a t e d urban a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
on a r e g i o n a l scale.
151
C H A P T E R 3: EAR L Y M O D E R N U R B A N T H E O R Y
Ear l y m o d e r n u r b a n l i t e r a t u r e and d e s i g n explo r e d n e w
intellectual and spatial horizons. For the first time in
E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y the form and the f u n c t i o n of a city b e c a m e
a m a j o r topic o f conscious p l a n n i n g t h e o r y and h i s t o r i c a l
study. This c h a p t e r describes two m a i n avenues of e x p r e s
sion in f o r m i n g the n e w u r b a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s of the time--
an "ideal city" co n c e p t of u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t and an " u r b a n
studies" a p p r o a c h to the city.
U r b a n designs by B r u n e l l e s c h i and Leonardo and a r c h i
t ectural t r e atises by Al b e r t i a nd Filarete e x e mplify the
ideal city v i e w p o i n t of the ear l y m o d e r n period.^- The p l a n
ning of the spa t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s of the w h o l e city a c c o r d i n g
to mod u l e s or u n i t s of m e a s u r e m e n t d e r i v e d from i d e alized
human proportions and g e o metric designs c h a r a c t e r i z e d m u c h of

r
the ideal city a p p r o a c h of the above e a r l y m o d e r n ur b a n
designers and m o d e l - b u i l d e r s . The i r c o n c e p t s and design
programs formed a c o n s i d e r a b l e part of the intellectual
^ Leone B a t t i s t a Alberti, T en Books on A r c h i t e c t u r e ,

trans. James Leoni (London: Alec Tiranti, 1955). Alberti* s
treatise was o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in Latin. Leoni's 1755
t r a n s l a t i o n of the text into E n g l i s h is d e r i v e d from Cosimo
Bartoli's Italian t r a n s l a t i o n of the Latin, done in 1550;
A ntonio di Piero A v e r l i n o (Filarete), T r e a t i s e on A r c h i t e c t u r e ,
trans. and intro. J o h n B. Spencer, 2 vols. (New Haven: Yale
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965).
152
a c h i e v e m e n t of the R e n a i s s a n c e and p r o v i d e d n e w p e r s p e c t i v e s
for o f f i c i a l p o l i c y m a k e r s to consider.
Two si g n i f i c a n t essays of the s i x t e e n t h ce n t u r y o u t
l i n e d a n e w " u r b a n studies" a p p r o a c h to the city. In his
e s s a y The D e s c r i p t i o n of the Low C o u n t r i e s , .published in
1567, Lodov i c o G u i c c i a r d i n i d i s c u s s e d the infl u e n c e s and
t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s on the u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t of the
c i t i e s and regions of the Neth e r l a n d s . Taking a compar
ative h i s t o r y and c r o s s - c u l t u r a l a p p r o a c h , G i o v a n n i Botero
p r e s e n t e d a g eneral t h e o r y o f u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t in his 1588

2
e s s a y The Cause of the G r e atness of C i t i e s . In the v i e w
of the s e two ear l y m o d e r n u r b a n i s t s the c i t y b e c a m e a topic
of c o n s c i o u s consideration distinct f r o m a study of a r c h i
tecture. Their w r i t i n g s d i s c u s s e d not h o w to d e sign a city
but h o w a city h appens and develops. They r e c o g n i z e d the
h u m a n dec i s i o n s that make a city h a p p e n a nd o u t l i n e d the
c o n d i t i o n s that influence u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t in r e l a t i o n to
a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l context. ,The increasing rationaliza
tion o f u r b a n d e s i g n and h i s t o r i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of u r b a n
d e v e l o p m e n t w e r e f o r ma tive eleme n t s in the new urban
c o n s c i o u s n e s s of the early m o d e r n period.
2
Lodovico Guicciardini, D e s c r i t t i o n e di tutti Paese
Bassi (Antwerp: g . Silvio, 1567); G i o v a n n i Botero, Delle
P r i n c i p a l i M a t e r i e che si trattano ne Tre Libri delle Cause
de l l a G r a n s e z z a e M a g n i f i c e n z a della C i t t a ( V e n i c e : I. Gio-
I'itl, 1589).------------------------------------
F ilippo B r u n e l l e s c h i 1 3 7 7 - 1 4 6 6
Af t e r 1400, Brunelleschi i n t r o d u c e d a n e w t h eory of

3
p e r s p e c t i v e a nd a r c h i t e c t u r e to Florence. His t h e o r y of
p e r s p e c t i v e b e c a m e the basis o f R e n a i s s a n c e art generally,
a nd p r o v i d e d a n e w f r a m e w o r k for c o n c e i v i n g a nd o r g a n i z i n g
s patial r e l a t i onships. B o t h the inter i o r and the e x t e r i o r
p la n s for the m a j o r b u i l d i n g s a n d areas Brunelleschi designed
r e f l e c t e d the r a t i o n a l a nd m a t h e m a t i c a l sense of p r o p o r t i o n
w h i c h was to c h a r a c t e r i z e R e n a i s s a n c e a r c h i t e c t u r e for the
rest o f the f i f t e e n t h century.
This n e w a p p r o a c h to spa t i a l d e s i g n h a d important in
flu e n c e on u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d the c h a n g i n g look of R e n a i s
sance Florence, a n d B r u n e l l e s c h i s t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l
c o n t r i b u t i o n s to R e n a i s s a n c e art and a r c h i t e c t u r e e s t a b
l i shed the m a i n d i r e c t i o n s for future development. Besides
a n e w p e r c e p t i o n of spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s and the well k n o w n
3
For the best short s u m m a r y of the lives of B r u n e l
leschi, Albert, Filarete, and Botero, i n c luding pe r h a p s the
m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s of p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y
m a t e r i a l s r e l a t e d to these m e n c o l l e c t e d in one location, see
D i z i o n a r i o B i o g r a f i c o degli Italiani (Rome: Instituto del l a
E n c i c l o p e d i a Italiana, 1960- ), v o l . 14, p p . 534-545 ( B r u
ne l l e s c h i ) ; vol. 1, p p . 7 02-713 (Alberti); vol. 4, p p . 662-666
(Filarete); and vol. 13, p p . 353-362 (Botero). Unfortunately,
p u b l i c a t i o n of the D i z i o n a r i o has r e a c h e d only the letter C"
The a p p e a r a n c e of s u b s e q u e n t v o l u m e s is anticipated; For d i s
c u s s i o n of B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s life in particular, see: Antonio
di Tuccio Manetti, The Life of B r u n e l l e s c h i , intro. H o w a r d
S a a l m a n a n d trans. Cat h e r i n e E rggass (University Park: Penn
s y l v a n i a State U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970); Isabelle Hyman, e d . ,
B r u n e l l e s c h i in P e r s p e c t i v e (Englewood Cliffs, N. J . : P r e n
tice Hall, 1974); Avery, I talian R e n a i s s a n c e Encucl o p e d i a ,
p p . 174-178.
154
b u i l d i n g and d e sign c o m m i s s i o n s in Florence, a less c o n s i d
ered b u t still i n t e r esting side of B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s c a r e e r
in c l u d e s the w o r k he d i d o u t s i d e Flore n c e m o s t l y as an
e n g i n e e r in the field o f p u b l i c u t i l i t y service and f o r t i f i
cations. His m a n y i n n o v a t i o n s a nd ver s a t i l e c a reer i n t r o
duce c l e a r l y the ea r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d in F l orentine h i s t o r y ,
a n e w d i r e c t i o n in art and a r c h i t e c t u r e , and a c h a n g i n g
sca l e of u r b a n p l a n n i n g and p u b l i c u t i l i t y p r o g r a m s . ^
A ge n e r a l outline of B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s early life is
known. He w as b o r n in Fl o r e n c e , a nd his father was a well
e s t a b l i s h e d n o t a r y in the city. B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s ear l y e d u
c a t i o n was inten d e d to lead to a p r o f e s s i o n a l career, and
i n c l u d e d the study of Lat i n a n d liberal arts subjects. Be
fore long, however, his interest in dr a w i n g and p a i n t i n g and
his a r t i s t i c a bility b e c a m e evident, and he was then a p p r e n
t i c e d to a goldsmith. In 1398, B r u n e l l e s c h i e n r o l l e d in the
goldsmith's guild, and b y this time his artistic c a r e e r had
a l r e a d y a d v a n c e d far e n o u g h to be somewhat r e c o g n i z e d in
4
Ludwig H. Heyd e n r e i c h , " F r o m The Late VJorks of
B r u n e l l e s c h i ," in B r u n e l l e s c h i in P e r s p e c t i v e : 112-123;
H e y d e n r e i c h a n d Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p p .3-17;
F r a n k D. Prager and Gus t i n a Scaglia, Brunelleschi: St u d i e s
of His T e c h n o l o g y and Inve n t i o n s ( C a m b r i d g e : The M I T Press,
1970); Peter Murray, The A r c h i t e c t u r e of the Italian R e n a i s -
san c e (New York: Sho c k e n Books, 1974), p p . 25-44; In the
f o l l o w i n g reference emphasis is p l a c e d on B r u n e l l e s c h i the
e n g i n e e r as w e l l as the architect: Eu g e n i o Battisti, F ilippo
B r u n e l l e s c h i (Milan: E l e c t a Editrice, 1976).
Florence.^
In 1401, Brunelleschi p a r t i c i p a t e d in a c o m p e tition
h eld b y the Opear of St. John's B a p t i s t e r y to determine the
c a n d i d a t e w ho w o u l d receive the c o m m i s s i o n to do the b r onze
doors for the Baptistery. Lo r e n z o Ghibe r t i and B r u n e l l e s c h i
w e r e t he two final cand i d a t e s in the competition, but it was
Ghiberti who in the end r e c e i v e d the c o m m i s s i o n to do the
B a p t i s t e r y do o r s . ^ At this p o i n t in his life, Brune l l e s c h i
d e c i d e d to leave Florence and to go to Rome to study the
ruins a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e of the a n c i e n t city. Beginning w i t h
his s t a y in Rome from 1401 to 1407 a p e r i o d of development
b e g a n to e m erge in B r u n e l l e s c h i s c a reer w h i c h w o u l d later
issue in n e w directions for his a nd Renaissance art and
architecture.
While in Rome B r u n e l l e s c h i s t u d i e d the forms and d e
signs o f an c i e n t architecture, and it is most likely that
d u r i n g this p e r i o d his ideas on p e r s p e c t i v e and p r o p o r t i o n

7
b e g a n to take a clearer expression. By w a y of Roman c o l
umns, buildings, and m o n u m e n t s B r u n e l l e s c h i became more
^ M a n e t t i , Life of B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 38-40; H e y d e n r e i c h
and Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p . 5.
1 ^ M a n e t t i , Life of B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 46-50; Leone B a t

ti s t a A l b e r t i , On P a i n t i n g , intro, and trans. John R. S pencer
(New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1956), Books One, Two, a nd
Three, p a r t i c u l a r l y Book One on the visual pyramid and Book Two
c o n c e r n i n g the use of the veil. See also note 8.
7
M a n e t t i , Life of B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 46-50; H e y d e n r e i c h
and Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p p . 4-9.
ac q u a i n t e d w i t h the classical sense of d e s i g n and p r o p o r - * ^
tion. His o wn k n o w l e d g e of m a t h e m a t i c s a n d his a r t i s t i c
ability along w i t h the study o f cl a s s i c a l a r c h i t e c t u r e h e l p e d
to give o c c a s i o n to the f o r m a t i o n of B r u n e l l e s c h i s ideas of
perspective. First in Florence and t h e n e l s e w h e r e his ideas
shaped m u c h of R e n a i s s a n c e p a i n t i n g and a r chitecture.
B r u n e l l e s c h i de v e l o p e d the p e r s p e c t i v e m e t h o d by w h i c h
the o bjects in a v i sual field are r e p r e s e n t e d as they a p p e a r
to h u m a n sight c o o r d i n a t e d in r e l a t i o n to size, distance
and position. T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of this c o o r d i n a t i o n is
based on m a t h e m a t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s go v e r n i n g the p r o p o r t i o n s
of the d i f f e r e n t objects in the visual field, and each unit
or object w i t h i n the spatial area r e p r e s e n t e d is r e l a t e d to
a mathematical s y s t e m of p r o p o r t i o n s w h i c h forms a b a l a n c e d
g
or symmet r i c a l whole. A key u n i t or m o d u l e is e m p l o y e d to
arrange the p r o p o r t i o n a l relati o n s h i p s o f all the p a r t s to
one an o t h e r a nd to the whole. B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s use of a m o dule
to form the sp a t i a l relatio n s h i p s ,of all the parts to a whole
c h a r a c t e r i z e d his a r chitectural and u r b a n p l a n n i n g d esigns
and i n f l u e n c e d d i r e c t l y the R e n a i s s a n c e c o n c e p t of h a r m o n y
8
Alberti, On P a i n t i n g , Book One, p p . 51-59, Book Two,
p p .>67-71; Erwin Panofsky, M e a n i n g in the V i s u a l Arts (Garden
City, N. Y . : D o u b l e d a y Co., 1955), ch. 2, "The H i s t o r y of
the T h e o r y of H u m a n Proportions as a R e f l e c t i o n of the H i s t o r y
of Styles": 55-107; Samuel Y. Edgerton, Jr., The R e n a i s s a n c e
R e d i s c o v e r y of L i n e a r Pe r s p e c t i v e (New York: Basic Books,
1975), p a r t i c u l a r l y chs. 3, 9, and 10, w h i c h discuss A l b e r t i ' s
and B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s a p p r o a c h to pers p e c t i v e .
9
and beauty. A c o n s i d e r a t i o n of some of his designs will
h e l p m a k e m o r e c o n c r e t e this general d e s c r i p t i o n of his
ideas.
In 1419 B r u n e l l e s c h i d e s i g n e d the F o u n d l i n g Hospital
in F l o r e n c e . T h e p l a n of this c h i l d r e n ' s h o m e and h o s
pital s u p p o r t e d b y the Silk Gu i l d d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d a central
square c o u r t y a r d just b e y o n d the e n t r a n c e w a y to the b u i l d i n g
at the side of P i a z z a S a n t i s s i m a A n n u n z i a t a . A r o u n d this
courtyard, Brunelleschi designed a complex of buildings
a c c o r d i n g to a r e g u l a r and r e c t a n g u l a r plan. The cou r t y a r d
se rved as an o r i e n t a t i o n for the h o s p i t a l a n d other buildings.
This p a t t e r n w a s a u s e f u l and f u n c t i o n a l d e s i g n for the
p u r p o s e of the ho s p i t a l . The size o f the s t r u c t u r e s and the
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n o p e n and c l o s e d space reflect a balanced
p r o p o r t i o n of p a r t s to a whole. On t he o u t s i d e of the b u i l d i n g
a r ow of c olumns and arches forming a p o r t i c o e x t e n d across
the front of the b u i l d i n g g i ving a sen s e of o p e n n e s s to the
b u i l d i n g and the still irregular p l a n o f the piazza. The
location of the b u i l d i n g in the p i a z z a a nd the columns and
arches e x t e n d i n g across its front s h a p e d the future de v e l o p m e n t
of the p i a z z a itself. By the end of the s i x t e e n t h century,
the irregular p l a n o f the p i a z z a h a d b e c o m e a square. The
g
See the p r e c e d i n g note.
Manetti, Life of B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 96-97; Murray,

Ar c h i t e c t u r e of the Italian R e n a i s s a n c e , p p . 31-33; Heyden-
reich a n d Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p p .6-7.
158
S e r v i t e order a c r o s s f r o m t he F o u n d l i n g hospital b u i l t a
p o r t i c o sim i l a r to B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s a nd the church o f the Anun-
ziata c o n s t r u c t e d a l o g g i a at o ne e n d of the p i a z z a . T h e
r e g u l a r p l a n and p r o p o r t i o n of this square exempl i f i e s m a n y
of the a r c h i t e c t u r a l ideals of the Renaissance.
In 1420 and 1421 B r u n e l l e s c h i b e g a n work on a n u m b e r of
o t h e r commissions. The r e w as a c o m p e t i t i o n in 1418 to s e lect
som e o n e to c o m p l e t e the b u i l d i n g of the Cathedral Santa Maria
del Fiore b y f i n d i n g a w a y to c o n s t r u c t a dome across the
w i d e o p e n i n g over t he n a v e a n d t r a n s e p t o f the church. The
c o m p e t i t i o n end e d in 1420 w i t h B r u n e l l e s c h i and Ghibe r t i
(his e a r l i e r c o m p e t i t o r in 1401) b e i n g sele c t e d as c o - d i r e c t o r s
of the program, but the s u p e r t e n d e n c e of the pr o j e c t a c t u a l l y

12
became Brunelleschi's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y alone by 1423. To
b u i l d such a large dome 130 feet in d i a m e t e r and n e a r l y 200
feet high, B r u n e l l e s c h i e m p l o y e d n o v e l techniques a nd ideas
to solve the p r o b l e m of the w e i g h t of the dome on the s u p
p o r t s b e n e a t h and of the h e i g h t to( w h i c h he a v y w e i g h t s n e e d e d
to be l ifted and at w h i c h p e o p l e w o u l d work. He i n t r o d u c e d
the p r a c t i c e of b u i l d i n g a dome of an inner and out e r shell
j o i n e d by d o v e t a i l i n g s t o n e w o r k a n d oth e r bi n d i n g factors to
l e s s e n the w e ight of a s o l i d p i e c e o f m a s o n r y on the support

i
^ Manet t i , L i f e of B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 96-97; M u r r a y ,
A r c h i t e c t u r e of the I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e , p p . 31-33; H e y d e n
r e i c h and Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p p . 6-7.
12
Manetti, L i f e of B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 64-76; Mu r r a y ,
A r c h i t e c t u r e of the It a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e , p p . 26-31.
159
systems below. He also d e s i g n e d p a r t i c u l a r pull e y s to
lift h eavy w e i g h t s and s c a f f o l d i n g to o v e rcome the safety
p r o b l e m of w o r k i n g at such a height. W h e n the dome was
c o m p l e t e d in 1436, it wa s a sumbol of a c e n t u r y l o n g c o m
m i t m e n t of F l o r e n t i n e s to b u i l d a n e w c a t hedral and a b e g i n
n i n g of a n e w era in the f i e l d of e n g i n e e r i n g and architec-

13
t u r a l design.
Also in 1420, the G u e l f P a r t y c o m m i s s i o n e d B r u n e l l e s c h i
to c o m p l e t e the renewal of t h e i r o f f i c e and a s s e m b l y h a l l . ^
This was one of the f e w s e c u l a r desi g n s Bru n e l l e s c h i h a d an
o p p o r t u n i t y to implement. The r e g u l a r design and b a l a n c e d
p r o p o r t i o n s of the b u i l d i n g i n d icate B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s p e r s o n a l
style w h i l e at the same time s u g g e s t i n g the s o l e m n i t y a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h the t r a d i t i o n of the b u i l d i n g and the Guelf Party. By
1 420-1421, B r u n e l l e s c h i was a g a i n d r a w i n g designs for a m a i n
c h u r c h of Florence.
P a r i s hioners and c l e r g y o f S a n Lorenzo m ade plans to
e n l a r g e the c h u r c h b e f o r e 1420, but the b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m
had s l o w e d . ^ Sa n Lore n z o was the m a i n church of the San
G i o v a n n i q u a r t e r of the cit y an d the p a r i s h ch u r c h of the
Medici family w h o were its patrons. In 1421, Giovanni di
Medici sought the advice of B r u n e l l e s c h i on the de s i g n plans
for the r e b u i l d i n g of the church, and B r u n e l l e s c h i responded
%X *
Prager and Scaglia, Brunelleschi: Studies, p p . 32,
42-46, 47-64, 135-137.
14
Manetti, Life o f B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 98-100.
15 Ibid., p p . 102-116.
160
w i t h a d e s i g n w h i c h w a s the m ode e v e n t u a l l y f o l l o w e d in the
bu i l d i n g program. Again, m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o p o rtions b a s e d on
a m o d u l e unit g u i d e d the d e s i g n of the church. Howe-er,
it is B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s later a s s o c i a t i o n with a p l a n to
redes i g n the San L o r e n z o and M e d i c i pa l a c e area w h i c h suggests
the in f l u e n c e of R e n a i s s a n c e ideas on urban planning.
Th o u g h no p l a n is extant and no documents have so far
p r o v e d the e x i s t e n c e of s u c h a plan, s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y sources
m e n t i o n that B r u n e l l e s c h i d r e w up a d e s i g n of a n e w p a l a c e
for Cosimo de M e d i c i in 1 4 3 4 . ^ This a l l e g e d de s i g n for a
new Medici palace l o c a t e d the str u c t u r e d i r e c t l y across from
the c h u r c h of San L o r e n z o w i t h a w i d e pia z z a s e p a r a t i n g the
two, and w o u l d h a v e b e e n in effect a p l a n for the r e d e s i g n of
athe local area as w e l l as the palace. Supposedly, Cosimo
r e j e c t e d the p l a n b e c a u s e it was too g rand in form and scale.
If such a p l a n did e v e r exist, it w o u l d suggest that B r u n e l
leschi's sense of r e g u l a r propor t i o n , balance, and m o d u l a r
p l a n n i n g was b e i n g a p p l i e d to external as w ell as internal
spatial o r g a n i z a t i o n . In addition, it w o u l d indicate an a p
p r o a c h to u r b a n p l a n n i n g w h i c h i n c l u d e d a complex of spatial
units in a c o h e r e n t d e s i g n for d e v e l opment and the gradual
t r a n s i t i o n from a m o r e m e d i e v a l to an early m o d e r n look in
the c ity of Florence. The idea of a B r u n e lleschi renewal
p l a n of this area a r o u n d the Medici pal a c e and the Ch u r c h of
Isabelle Hyman, "Notes and S p e c u lations on S. Lorenzo,

Palazzo Medici, and an U r b a n Project by B r u e n l l e s c h i , " J o u r n a l
of the Soci e t y of A r c h i t e c t u r a l Historians 34(1975], p p . 98-120.
161
San L orenzo is not proved, but t h e r e w e r e m o r e d o c u m e n t a b l e
17
e x p r e s s i o n s of a similar idea in the s i x t e e n t h century.
In 1505, Luca Landucci, a F l o r e n t i n e a pothecary,
wrote in his dia r y that he d i s c u s s e d w i t h the a r c h i t e c t
Simone del Pollaiuolo a p l a n for the c l e a r i n g o f the p i a z z a
S an Lorenzo of all houses and shops to m a k e r o o m for a
t e mple w h i c h w o u l d be p l a c e d o p p o s i t e or f a c i n g the church.
Luca d e s c r i b e d in his dia r y that the ar c h i t e c t w a s p l e a s e d
w i t h his ideas a n d i n v e n tions" a n d that he w o u l d t r y to
present it to the city authorities. One s c h o l a r o f Leonardo
da V i n c i has cl a i m e d that L e o n a r d o ' s p l a n to r e d e s i g n the
M e d i c i p a l a c e area in 1515 was d r a w n from the L a n d u c c i diary.
W h a t e v e r the relat i o n s h i p m a y be b e t w e e n these sou r c e s it
appears c l e a r that during the e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y n e w
a nd b r o a d conc e p t s of spatial o r g a n i z a t i o n h ad b e c o m e a part

18
of the u r b a n p l a n n i n g v o c a b u l a r y o f the time. D i d this n ew
a p p r o a c h to spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p d e v e l o p in the s i x t e e n t h
c e n t u r y or earl i e r ? If earlier, c an its source b e t r a c e d to
Brunel l e s c h i , at least in part?
17
Isabelle Hyman, "Notes a nd S p e c u l a t i o n s on S.
Lorenzo, Pal a z z o Medici, and an U r b a n Pr o j e c t b y B r u n e l
leschi," J ournal of the S o c i e t y of A r c h i t e c t u r a l H i s t o r i a n s
34(1975), p p . 105-109.
18
Luca Landucci, A F l o r e n t i n e Dia r y From 1450 to 1516
b y Luca Landucci C o n tinued by an A n o n y m o u s W r i t e r Till 1542
w i t h Notes by Iodoco Del B a d i a , trans. A l i c e De R o s e n Jernis
(London: J. M. Dent Sons, 1927), p p . 217, 236; Carlo Pedrett
Leonardo da Vinci, The Royal Palace at R o m o r a n t i n (Cambridge:
B e l k n a p Press of H arvard U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1972), p p . 58-63,
307-312; See also Hyman, "Notes a n d S p e c u l a t i o n s " : 106.
162
In 1436 mem b e r s of the C h u r c h of Santo Spirito, the
m a i n c h u r c h of the q u a r t e r of the same name, commissioned

19
B r u n e l l e s c h i to d e s i g n a n e w c h u r c h for the area.
B r u n e l l e s c h i s u g g e s t e d a p l a n w h i c h was the rev e r s e of the old
plan. A c c o r d i n g to the d e s i g n o f the n e w plan, the c h u r c h
w o u l d face the Arno w i t h a p i a z z a b e t w e e n the river a nd the
church. This w o u l d a l l o w all t he p a s s e r s b y , F l o r e ntines and
f o reigners alike, to v i e w the " m a g n i f i c a n c e " of the c h u r c h
building. However, the p l a n w a s r e j ected, and B r u n e l l e s c h i
drew u p a n o t h e r set of pl a n s in w h i c h the c h u r c h fac e d away

20
from the riv e r a n d onto a piazza. The c h u r c h was built
a c c o r d i n g to the s e c o n d plan. T he first Santo Spirito p l a n
makes c l e a r that a w i d e and c o h e r e n t a p p r o a c h to spatial
d e s i g n out s i d e as w e l l as inside a s t r u c t u r e w as part of
B r u n e l l e s c h i s a r c h i t e c t u r a l v o c a b u l a r y . Even if B r u n e l
leschi d i d not d esign a p l a n in 1434 for the M e d i c i p a l a c e and
the San Lo r e n z o area, a m o r e c o o r d i n a t e d a p p r o a c h to u r b a n
p l a n n i n g was b e g i n n i n g to be e x p r e s s e d from the time of
Brunel l e s c h i , and a n e w look a nd spatial p a t t e r n was b e g i n
n i n g to c h a r a c t e r i z e early m o d e r n Florence.
Be s i d e s architectural commissions in Florence, Brunel
leschi also a c c e p t e d m a n y c o m m i s s i o n s to w o r k outside
19
Manet t i , Life o f B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 121-126; Heyden
reich a nd Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p p . 11-12.
20
Manetti, Life of B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 124-126.
21
Florence, u s u a l l y in the role of an engineer. Bet w e e n
1423 and 1446 he s u p e r v i s e d n u m e r o u s f o r t i f i c a t i o n projects
from P i s t o i a to Pisa. D u r i n g the 1420's he direc t e d gate,

4
w all and b r i d g e p r o g r a m s at key t r a v e l a nd trade points
al o n g the A r n o b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e a nd Pisa, for example, the
riv e r p o r t of Signa, L a stra a Signa, and Malman t i l e . Some of
t he k e y p o i n t s a l o n g the A r n o w e r e g a r r i s o n towns laid out in
grid or r e c t a n g u l a r plans, such as Empoli or Malmantile, a nd
B r u n e l l e s c h i m a y have o b s e r v e d h e r e the v a r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s
o f spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s a nd patterns. M u c h of the w o r k he
s u p e r v i s e d a n d m a n y of the p r o g r a m s he i m p l e m e n t e d dealt d i
r e c t l y w i t h the social a nd e c o n o m i c i m p o r t a n c e of t r a n s p o r t a
t i o n routes for the F l o r e n t i n e r e g i o n a l state, and this e m
p h a s i z e d the i m p o r t a n c e of c o o r d i n a t e d and acce s s i b l e spatial
r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n u r b a n areas as w e l l as w i t h i n u r b a n
areas.
B r u n e l l e s c h i was b o t h e n g i n e e r and architect. He was
an i n n ovator on the t h e o r e t i c a l as w e l l as the practical
level. The i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n c o n c e p t and a p p l i c a t i o n was
a m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h is i n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h to spatial
r e lationships. His sense o f p r o p o r t i o n a nd pe r s p e c t i v e in
f l u e n c e d the d i r e c t i o n of R e n a i s s a n c e c u l t u r e at various
levels of expression. B o t h in B r u n e l l e s c h i ' s art and in
F lore n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y u t i l i t y and b e a u t y were g u i d e
lines and the t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l w e r e in an o n - g o i n g
^ Manet t i , Life of B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p . 124-126; Battisti,

Fil i p p o B r u n e l l e s c h i , p p .23 0 - 2 A Z i ^09-320. ________
164
dialogue.
Leone Batisti A l b e r t i 1404-1472
Two tr e a t i s e s b y Alberti, On P a i n t i n g and the T e n Books
on A r c h i t e c t u r e , re l a t e the b a s i c tenets and p r i n c i p l e s o

22
Renaissance art and archi t e c t u r e . In the t r e a t i s e On
P a i n t i n g , A l b e r t i o u t l i n e d the p e r s p e c t i v e th e o r y and m e t h o d
of B r u n elleschi and p r a i s e d the i n v e ntiveness of the F l o r e n
tine artist. Whe n discussing architecture, Alberti included
topics ranging f r o m the b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s used by the a r
chit e c t to civil and m i l i t a r y engineering.
D i s c u s s i o n here is l i m i t e d to those elements of A l
b e r t i s ideas w h i c h c o n c e r n the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a r c h i
t e c t u r e and u r b a n p l a n n i n g theory. He i d e n t i f i e d in the
first a s s o c i a t i o n a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p e r s p e c t i v e
p a i n t i n g and a r c h i t e c t u r e , and he drew in the se c o n d a s s o c i a
tion an analogy b e t w e e n a c ity a n d a house: "For if a city,
acc o r d i n g to the o p i n i o n of p h i l o s o p h e r s , be no mor e t han a
22
A l b e r t i s t r e a t i s e On P a i n t i n g was w r i t t e n in 1435
an d the treatise T e n Books on A r c h i t e c t u r e was first p u b
li s h e d in F l o rence in 1485. See the references in notes
1 and 7; The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s discuss A l b e r t i s ideas and
w orks as well as c o n t a i n e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s c o n c e r n i n g
A l b e r t i s w r i t i n g s and studies of his c o n t r i b u t i o n s to
Renais s a n c e culture, a r c h i t e c t u r e , and u r b a n planning: Diz-
ionario B i o g r a f i c o , vol. 1., p p . 702-713; Carroll W i l l i a m
W e s tfall, In This Most Perfect Paradise: Alberti, N i c holas
V and the I n v ention of C o n scious U r b a n P l a n n i n g in R o m e 7
1 4 7 7 - 55~T U n i v e r s i t y Park: P e n n s y l v a n i a State U n i v e r s i t y Press
1974); Joan Gadol, Leon B a t t i s t a Alberti: Universal M a n of
the Renaissance ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago Press, 1969);
A b r i e f e r and e x c e l l e n t r e v i e w of A l b e r t i s views on urban
p l a n n i n g is f o u n d in the following: W. A. Eden, "Studies in
U r b a n Theory: The De Re A e d i f i c a t o r i a of Leon B a t t i s t a Albert
T o w n Planning R e v i e w 19(1943): 10-28.
165
great house, and, on the o t h e r hand a house be a l i t t l e
23
city. . . " B o t h a s s o c i a t i o n s p l ayed a key role in A l b e r t i ' s
thought. As a result, his d i scussion of a r c h i t e c t u r e is p a r
t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e to ear l y m o d e r n u r b a n p l a n n i n g theory.
Three b a s i c aspects of Alberti's t h eory d e m o n s t r a t e the
close r e l a t i o n s h i p of a r c h i t e c t u r e and p l a n n i n g in his
v i s i o n o the *city: a d e f i n i t i o n of a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d the
rol^j of the a r chitect, a s u r v e y of the na t u r a l l andscape,
and a revievj- of the u r b a n - c u l t u r a l or built landscape.
A l b e r t i v i e w e d a r c h i t e c t u r e as one of the m o s t use f u l ,
serviceable, c o n v e n i e n t ^ a n d be a u t i f u l of the arts, a n d de-
fin e d a r c l y ^ - e ^ i e s i m p l y as the art of building. He be-
l i e v e 4 that b u i l d i n g wd\s a fgpm/#o f ^ X p r e s s i o ^ i s u i n g from
the n atural d e sire a nd de l i g h t of h u m a n beings to commu n i c a t e .
This delight to c o m m u n i c a t e th r o u g h build i n g b e c a m e an art
w h e n it was i n f o r m e d by a u s e f u l and b e a utiful design. Al
berti believed it was the role of the architect to p r o v i d e
such a design. He d e f i n e d the architect as the i n v e n t o r of
useful, convenient, a nd b e a u t i f u l designs for bu i l d i n g , and
d r e w a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the architect who i n v e n t e d a nd

25
the craft w o r k e r w ho i m p l e m e n t e d building plans.
23
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 1, ch. 9, p p . 23-24, and
ch. 13, p p . 19-20.
24
Ibid., Preface, ix-xi; Gadol, Alberti: U n i v e r s a l Man,
p p . 108^142.
25
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , Preface, ix-xi, and B o o k 9,
chs. 9-11, p p .205-208.
166
T h o u g h a d i s t i n c t i o n was d r a w n b e t w e e n architect and
craft w orker, Al b e r t i e x p e c t e d the ar c h i t e c t to be fully
aware of the bas i c m a t e r i a l s and t e c h n i q u e s of sound b u i l d i n g
a nd to b e n e f i t f r o m the e x p e r i e n c e of k n o w l e d g e a b l e craft
workers. He made the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the two on the
bas i s o f the w i d e a p p r o a c h w i t h w h i c h the a r c hitect was to v i e w
any form of b u i l d i n g and the g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n of the ar c h i t e c t
in t he l iberal arts, p a i n t i n g , and mathematics in contr a s t to
the s u p p o s e d l y m o r e l i m i t e d a p p r o a c h and e d u c a t i o n of the

7 ft
craft worker. The a r c h i t e c t w as not to c o n s i d e r a b u i l d i n g
or a city in i s o l a t i o n from the r e g i o n a l a nd e n v i r o n m e n t a l
conditions i n f l u e n c i n g the site a nd b u i l d i n g conditions, nor
w as the a r c hitect to con f u s e the p r o p o r t i o n s and o r n a m e n t a t i o n
s u i t a b l e to each b u i l d i n g in the c i t y or countryside. To a c
c o m p l i s h the s e purposes, the a r c h i t e c t n e e d e d to be p r e p a r e d
to see the b a l a n c e and h a r m o n y o f the parts in r e l a t i o n to
the b e a u t y o f the whole. This p r e p a r a t i o n d e r i v e d from the

27
e d u c a t i o n A l b e r t i thought the a r h c i t e c t s h o u l d receive.
As a general e d u c a t i o n A l b e r t i p r o p o s e d the c o m p a r a t i v e
study of c o n t e m p o r a r y and a n c i e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e to de t e r m i n e
the a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s of v a r i o u s types of b u i l d i n g
forms. The a r c hitect s h o u l d c o n t i n u a l l y a s k the q u e s t i o n
2fi
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , Preface, ix-xi, and B o o k 9,
chs. 9-11, p p . 205-208.
27 Gadol, Alberti: U n i v e r s a l M a n , p p . 121-123, 133-135.
167
h o w s o m e t h i n g m a y be improved, and u se the m o s t e x c e l l e n t
28
examples as a m e a s u r e m e n t of progress. He b e l i e v e d the
above a p p r o a c h h e l p e d the a r c h i t e c t develop a more c a p a b l e
j u d gement about w h a t was f i t t i n g and suita b l e in e a r l i e r
bu i l d i n g s as w e l l as a so u n d e r j u d g e m e n t about im m e d i a t e
a c c o mplishments. A c c o r d i n g to Alber t i , the a r c h i t e c t should
be a p e r s o n o f b r o a d e d u c a t i o n a nd e x p e r i e n c e as well as
speci f i c t r a ining.
In r e g a r d to p a r t i c u l a r e d u c a t i o n and t r a ining, Alberti
c o n s i d e r e d it n e c e s s a r y that the architect study painting
a nd m a t h e m a t i c s , since this b a c k g r o u n d w o u l d p r o v i d e the

29
architect w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the m e t h o d o f p e r s p e c t i v e .
A l b e r t i e m p l o y e d p e r s p e c t i v e as a rational and m a t h e m a t i c a l
means b y w h i c h to d e t e r m i n e the a p p r o p r i a t e p r o p o r t i o n s and
bal a n c e b e t w e e n t he p a r t s and the whole. He felt the
p e r s p e c t i v e m e t h o d c o n t r i b u t e d to the a r c h i t e c t ' s d e v e l o p m e n t
of a more f i t t i n g ju d g e m e n t of apt and b e a u t i f u l p r o p o r t i o n s
w h e n b u i l d i n g a ny structure. T h u s t, A l b e r t i b e l i e v e d t h a t the
d e v e l opment o f an a p p r o p r i a t e sense of j u d g e m e n t was the e s
sential ele m e n t in the e d u c a t i o n of an a r c h i t e c t and that
the architect r e a c h e d this stage of d e v e l o p m e n t through a
general e d u c a t i o n of o b s e r v a t i o n , reading, a nd ex p e r i e n c e ,
j o i n e d w i t h a s p e c i f i c p r e p a r a t i o n in p a i n t i n g and m a t h e m a t i c s .
28
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 9, ch. 10, p p . 205-207.
29 Ibid.
30
Gadol, Alberti: U n i v e r s a l M a n , p p . 133-135.
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
168
Like o t h e r R e n a i s s a n c e artists a n d architects, Alberti
was as m u c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h the n a t u r a l l a n dscape as w i t h the
c i tyscape. He d e s i r e d to b r i n g i n f o r m e d j u d g e m e n t s to q u e s
tions an d issues r e l a t i n g to the c o u n t r y s i d e as wel l as the
city. In his s u m m a r y of the art of b u i l d i n g he d e f i n e d a
c l e a r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of the n a t u r a l and u r b a n landscapes
that the a r c h i t e c t n e e d e d to c o n s i d e r in his p l a n to t r a n s
late ideas an d j u d g e m e n t s into u s e f u l and b e a u t i f u l build-
. . .it is evident that the w h o l e art of b u i l d i n g

c o n s i s t in six things: the region, ( t h e general
l o c a t i o n of a city or a h o u s e ) , the seat or p l a t
f o r m (the s p e cific l o c a t i o n for a b u i l d i n g or a
c i t y w i t h i n a r e g i o n ) , s u b d i v i s i o n (of a h ouse
or a city), the w a l ling, the cov e r i n g , and the
a p e r t u r e s ; if these p r i n c i p l e s are well defined,
tha t w h i c h follows w i l l be m o r e e a s i l y understood.
Though Alberti d i s c u s s e d e a c h of t hese topics in detail, his
comments on the r e g i o n and s u b d i v i s i o n s p r o v i d e the focus
for d i s c u s s i o n here.
Air is the first topic c o n s i d e r e d b y A l b e r t i w h e n a s
s e s s i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e r e g i o n for b u i l d i n g a s e t t l e m e n t or a
city. He w r o t e that the a n c ients gave v e r y care f u l thou g h t
and e x a m i n a t i o n to the air q u a l i t y of a r e g i o n b e f o r e they
d e c i d e d to set t l e there. Alberti felt this n o t e w o r t h y of t h e m
. . .in \yhich the y sh o w e d a great deal of

p r u d e n c e ; for the y k n e w that if the earth
or w a t e r h a d any defect in them, art and i n
d u s t r y m i g h t correct it; but t hey affirmed,
that n e i t h e r c o n t r i v a n c e nor m u l t i t u d e of hands
31
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , B o o k 1, chs. 1 and w, p p . 1-3
32
Ibid., B ook 1, ch. 2, p . 2.
169
was able s u f f i c i e n t l y to c o r r e c t and am e n d

the air. A n d it m u s t be allowed, that, as w h a t
w e b r e a t h e is so c o n d u c t i v e to the n o u r i s h m e n t
and support of life, the p u r e r it is, the more
it m u s t p r e s e r v e and m a i n t a i n our health. Besides,
h o w great an i n f luence the air has in the g e n e r
ation, production, align m e n t , and p r e s e r v a t i o n
of things, is u n k n o w n to n o b o d y . 33
The e n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns s u g g e s t e d by A l b e r t i in the c o m
ment above w e r e n ot i s o l a t e d to one individual, but were
also b e c o m i n g an important p a r t o f the concerns of the
F lorentine g o vernment d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and sixteenth
c e n t u r i e s . 3^ The origin, na t u r e , and extent o f these c o n
cerns raises m a n y q u e s t i o n s and opens a n e w field of study
in early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e a nd E u r o p e a n history.
D i s c u s s i o n o f the air q u a l i t y of a r e g i o n c o n t i n u e d
w i t h the f o l l o w i n g comment:
A n d it is cer t a i n that a ir is the m o s t h e a l t h y

w h i c h is the m o s t p u r g e d and p u r ified, and
w h i c h m a y most easily be p i e r c e d b y the sight,
the clear e s t and lightest, and the least s u b
ject to variations. A n d on the c o n t r a r y we
a f f i r m the air to be p e s t i f e r o u s , w h e r e there
is a continous c o l l e c t i o n of thick clouds and
stink i n g vapors, and w h i c h always h a n g like a
great w e i g h t upon the eyes, and obstructs the
sight. The o c c a s i o n of this d i f f e r e n c e p r o
ceeds f r o m several causes, but ch i e f l y I take
it, f r o m the sun and w i n d s . 3 5
Aft e r a d i s c u s s i o n of air quality, Al b e r t i a t t e m p t e d to
m e a s u r e the en v i r o n m e n t a l e ffects of s u n l i g h t a nd w a t e r on
a region.
33 Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 1, ch. 3, p . 3,

9 ft
See the d i s c u s s i o n in c h a p t e r 9.
33 Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 1, ch. 3, p . 3.
170
B al a n c i n g the effects of too m u c h a nd too little s u n
light and wind, Alb e r t i opted for a m i d d l e c o urse where
"there be n e i t h e r more sun n o r more shade t h a n is n e c e s
sary" a nd whe r e the air is plea s a n t a nd clean. When discussing
water, a middle course viewpoint w o u l d n ot do: "But indeed
who can deny the great use a nd s ervice w h i c h it is of to
m a n k i n d insomuch that it is always th o u g h t to be deficient,
where there is not a very large a b u n d a n c e of it for all m a n
ner of oc c a s i o n s . " Alberti r e c o g n i z e d the essential role
w a t e r has for life generally and u r b a n life specifically.
This is apparent in the following s t a t e m e n t w h e n he speaks
of the needs of any settlement from a s i ngle b u i l d i n g to a
town to a large city.
We are n o w to take care that n o t h i n g be w a n t i n g

w h i c h m ay be n e c e s s a r y for our use. W h a t things
are n e c e s s a r y I shall not was t e time in recounting,
because t h e y are manifest, as food, raiment, s h e l
ter, and above all things, water. Thales and
M i l e s i a n a f f i r m e d that wa t e r was the first p r i n
ciple of all things, and even of c o m m u n i t i e s a-
m o n g men. Aristo b u l u s says that he s aw above a
t h o u s a n d towns left quite desert b e c a u s e the
r iv e r Indus h ad t u rned his course a n o t h e r way.
I own it to be of m y own opinion, that w a t e r is to
nimals the source of natural heat a n d the n o u r
ishes of life, not to m e n t i o n its c o n s e q u e n c e to
plants, a nd to e v erything else w h i c h is intended
for the use of mankind; to all w h i c h I imagine it
to be so a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y that w i t n o u t water
n o t h i n g w h i c h grows or is n o u r i s h e d in the earth
i w o u l d be capable even of e x i s t i n g . 36
M a n y o t h e r examples can be cited from A l b e r t i s long d i s
cussion on the essential value w a t e r has for all forms of
life to indicate aga i n a b r o a d a w a reness of e n vironmental
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 10, ch. 2, p . 212.
171
r e l a t i o n s h i p s and the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the built
37
and natural landscapes. To do so, however, w o u l d e x c e e d
the s p a c e available for the i n t r o ductory p u r p o s e o f this
discussion. Thus, one last comment on the r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n w a t e r supply a n d c i t y life will serve to detail
t he r e c o g n i t i o n of the c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the
u r b a n and natu r a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . Alberti w r o t e t hat n o t
all w a t e r was sui t e d for any and all p u r p o s e s a n d that the
water s u p p l y n e e d e d to be a p p l i e d to the p u r p o s e s for w h i c h
it was m o s t suited in the u r b a n environment. He p r e s e n t e d
this gene r a l vie w p o i n t in the following way:
But as the cit y r e q u i r e s a ver y great p l e n t y of

w a t e r , not o n l y for drinking, but also for w a s h
ing, for su p p l y i n g th e gardens, for t a n n e r s and
fullers; for the d r a i n s and e x t i n g u i s h i n g s u d d e n
fires: the best is to be chosen for d r i n k i n g ,
a n d the others are to be allotted to the o t h e r
uses, acc o r d i n g as t h e y are found to be r e s p e c
t i v e l y proper for t h e m . 38
A l b e r t i was as d e s c r i p t i v e in his d i s c u s s i o n of the
u r b a n - c u l t u r a l l a n d s c a p e as he was in the d i s c u s s i o n of the
natural landscape. Only some o f his m a i n ideas c a n be in
c l u d e d w i t h i n the c o m p a s s of the d i s c u s s i o n here. One idea
p r o p o s e d p l a n n i n g for a city in a way simi l a r to p l a n n i n g for
a b u i l d i n g .39 Just as an a r c h i t e c t used a m o d e l for a b u i l d i n g
to m e a s u r e a n d to c o n s i d e r scale, needs, conveniences, and
b e a u t y of design, so the a r c h i t e c t - u r b a n p l a n n e r s h o u l d use
37
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 10, chs. 3-7, p p . 213,225.
70
Ibid., B ook 10, ch. 4, p . 217.
39 Ibid., B ook 1, chs. 1 and 2, p p . 21^24,
172
a l i k e a p p r o a c h for the c i t y to assess u r b a n ne e d s , f u nctions
39
and f o r m s .
One e a r l y and c r i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of s uch a p l a n was
to d e c i d e u p o n the r e g i o n m o s t suitable for a city. Al
berti's cho i c e c o m b i n e d his e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s w i t h social
a n d c o m m e r c i a l needs of u r b a n life.
I lay it down t h e r e f o r e granted, that our c i t y

o u g h t to be c o n t r i v e d as to suffer non e of the
i n c o n v e n i e n c e s s p o k e n o f in the first book, no r
to w a n t any o f the n e c e s s a r i e s of life. Its
t e r r i t o r y shall be h e a l t h y , wide, pleasant,
various, fruitful, secu r e , an d a b o unding w i t h
p l e n t y of fruits, a n d g reat quant i t i e s of water.
It m u s t not w a n t r i v e r s , lakes, and an o p e n p a s
sage to the sea for the c o n v e n i e n t b r i n g i n g in
of s u c h things as are w a n t e d , and c a r r y i n g out
s u c h as m a y be spare d . . . . M o r eover, your c i t y
ought to stand in the m i d d l e of its t e r r i t o r y
in a p l a c e from w h e n c e it c a n have a v i e w all
r o u n d its c o u n t r y . . . 40
In this s t atement A l b e r t i a d d r e s s e d the various environmental
criteria he considered significant in d e c l a r i n g a l o c a t i o n
for a city. The city o f c o n v e n i e n c e s that A l b e r t i d e s i r e d
w a s n e c e s s a r i l y a city b a s e d on c o m m e r c e which, in turn,
r e q u i r e d a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system.
A l b e r t i d i s c u s s e d the rivers, canals, and r o a d s of a
r e g i o n w h i c h c a r r i e d the t r a f f i c b o t h for civil a n d mili-

41
t a r y purposes. The roads he d i v i d e d into two c a t e g o r i e s --
"highways and private w a y s . " H i g h w a y s w ere m i l i t a r y roads
40
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , B o o k 4, ch. 2, p . 6 8 .
41
R o m a n roads w ere d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y for m i l i t a r y p u r
p o s e s , but Alberti's ch o i c e of the site for a c i t y i n c l u d e d
t r a d e as a m a j o r a c t i v i t y of the city that w o u l d r e q u i r e roads
a d e q u a t e to the purpose. C o m p a r e Lodovico G u i c c i a r d i n i ' s and
G i o v a n n i B o t e r o s views o n th e site of a city and t r a n s p o r t a
t i o n n e e d s in the d i s c u s s i o n that follows later in this chap t e r
173
l e a d i n g into the p r o v i n c e s a n d w e r e m a d e b r o a d e r t h a n the
o t h e r roads. Private way s w e r e the roads w h i c h left the
p u b l i c roads and h i g h w a y s a n d led to towns or cities.
Roads in the co u n t r y s i d e s h o u l d be " s p acious and open" and
s t r e e t s of a "noble" c i t y s h o u l d be "straight and broad."
A l b e r t i a d m i r e d the a n c i e n t Romans w h o "paved t h e i r h i g h
ways for above an h u n d r e d m i l e s a r o u n d their capital w i t h
extreme hard s t o n e s . T h e c i t y was also to be e q u i p p e d
with bridges at the cent r a l and b u s i e s t locations o f t r a f
fic an d use, and s h o u l d a lso h a v e a h a r b o r and port for

4 m
t r a d e an d defense purposes.
In d e s c r i b i n g the p l a n or layout of the city itself
Alberti d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n religious, political, recre
a t i onal, and r e s i d ential centers. The hi g h e r the rank of
the p u b l i c or private p e r s o n a g e .the larger, m o r e e l a borate
an d o r n a m e n t a l the b u i l d i n g or b u i l d i n g comp l e x was to be d e
signed. "Every man's h o u s e s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y be s u i t e d to the
c o n d i t i o n of life w h i c h he is in, w h e t h e r he is a king, or

44
tyra n t , or a private p e r s o n . " A l b e r t i p r o v i d e d for d i f
fe r e n t re s i d e n t i a l areas of the city a c c o r d i n g to c o n d i t i o n
of life and functional activity.
C e r t a i n areas f u n c t i o n e d as the p o l i t i c a l center of the
city, and o ther areas w e r e s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d for public
42
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , B o o k 4, ch. 5, p . 74, and
ch. 2, p p . 66-70; Book 8 , ch. 1, p . 162.
43
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , B o o k 4, ch. 6 , p . 76.
44
Ibid., Book 5, ch. 5, p . 89; Eden, "Studies in Urban
Theory": 23.
174
schools, h o s p i t a l s , and r e c r e a t i o n centers. The s e areas were
not to be m i x e d w i t h the "noise a nd ill smells" of the trades.
"It will add m u c h to the b e auty of the city if the shops for
p a r t i c u l a r trades sta n d in p a r t i c u l a r streets and districts

45
in the m o s t c o n v e n i e n t parts of the town." Some trades
and shops, for example, the g o ldsmiths and painters, were
allowed to r e main in the public p l a c e s of the city, but
others, s u c h as, the tanners, were to be r e m o v e d and set off
from the b u s y and c entral areas of the city b e c a u s e of their
" o ffensive smell" or some other r e a s o n c o n s i d e r e d an an-

46
noyance or h a r m to the p u b l i c good. Al b e r t i a c k n o w l e d g e d
that some p e o p l e p r e f e r r e d a gre a t e r "mix of activity"
throughout the c i t y in ord e r to h a v e n e c e s s i t i e s and c o n
veniences m a d e m o r e a v a ilable over a wider area. However,
he did n ot discuss this p o i n t f urther in a clear w a y .47
A l b e r t i s u m m a r i z e d the plan or layout of the city
w i t h the f o l l o w i n g statement:
But the p r i n c i p l e ornament of the city will

arise from the d i s p o s i t i o n of the streets,
square and p u b l i c edifices, and their being
all laid out and co n t r i v e d b e a u t i f u l l y and
conveniently, acc o r d i n g to t h e i r general
uses; for w i t h o u t order there can be n o t h i n g
h a n d s o m e . 48
The order of A l b e r t i ' s c i t y was a c c ording to rank and activity.
45
Alberti, On A r c h i t e c t u r e , B o o k 7, ch. 1, p . 134.
46 Ibid.
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
175
This p l a n led to the d e s i g n o f s p e c i alized areas of the
c ity b a s e d sometimes on a p o l i c y of public b enefit or
social status or e n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns. As a result, it is
not always clear to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h guideline was b e i n g f o l
lowed. For example, w e r e p a r t i c u l a r trades zoned for p a r
t i c u l a r areas b e c a u s e of p u b l i c benefit or b e c a u s e of
e n v ironmental reasons? W as the " d i s p o s i t i o n of streets,
squares and p u b l i c edifices: b a s e d on u t i l i t y a nd p u b l i c
c o n v e n i e n c e or on social status and m o n u m e n t a l i t y ? However,
A l b erti's w i d e - r a n g i n g d i s c u s s i o n of a r c h itecture d o e s not
always provide a clear r e s p o n s e to these and other qu e s t i o n s
as well.
In a d d i t i o n to the c o m m e n t s on the use of a m o d e l and
p l a n w h e n d i s c u s s i n g a r c h i t e c t u r e , A lberti m a d e o t h e r c o n
t r ibutions to a n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g of spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s
in the treatises On P a i n t i n g (3.4 :55) an<i the D e s c r i p t i o urbis

49
Romae (cu.1450). In the t r e a t i s e On Painting, Alberti a d
v o c a t e d the use of a velo or g r i d - s c r e e n of i n t e r w o v e n
threads m e e t i n g at right a n gles to determine a c c u r a t e l y the
p e r s p e c t i v e and p r o p o r t i o n of the objects in a v i s u a l fie l d
to be painted. Al b e r t i c o n s i d e r e d these p r o p o r t i o n s to be
rational, beautiful, and u n d e r s t a n d a b l e by every o n e w ho saw

i
them. By the use of this k i n d of grid all spatial u n i t s or
p o ints could be r a t i o n a l l y and m a t h e m a t i c a l l y l o c a t e d and
c o o r d i n a t e d with one a n o t h e r b y vi e w i n g the v i s u a l fie l d
49
50
t h r o u g h the grid-screen.
Alberti also e m p l o y e d some of the b a s i c concepts u sed
in the t r e a t i s e On P a i nting to c o o r d i n a t e spatial r e l a t i o n
ships in h i s D e s c r i p t i o urbis R o m a e later. In this later
t r e a t i s e A l b e r t i drew a t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a p of the city of
Rome b y d r a w i n g a serie- of c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s equa l l y sp a c e d
from e a c h o t h e r and c o n n e c t e d to the c e n t e r b y radii l i n e s . ^
He the n n u m b e r e d and d i v i d e d into e q u a l p a r t s the w h o l e pat-
term. The e xact center of the map c o r r e s p o n d e d to the Cap-
itoline Hil l in Rome. From this l o c a t i o n and by the use of
a mechanical dev i c e Albe r t i t o o k m e a s u r e m e n t s of the various
l a ndmarks in Rome c o o r d i n a t i n g one w i t h the o t h e r a c c ording
to the g e o m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n of the map. Like the velo or
grid u s e d e a r l i e r to map a vi s u a l f i e l d or scene to be
painted, this t o p o g r a p h i c a l r e n d e r i n g of the c i t y of Rome
p r o v i d e d a m o r e accurate w a y to ma p s p a t i a l relat i o n s h i p s
52
m a city. A l o n g w i t h the d i s c u s s i o n of a r c h i t e c t u r e
and p l a n n i n g , A l b e r t i s conc e p t o f p e r s p e c t i v e - p a i n t i n g and
c a r t o g r a p h y b e c a m e part of the n e w a p p r o a c h to u n d e r s t a n d i n g
spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s du r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h
centuries.
50 A l b e r t i , On P a i n t i n g , Book 2, p p . 68-70.
Sa m u e l Y. Edgarton, Jr. , F l o r e n t i n e Interest in

Pt o l e m a i c C a r t o g r a p h y as B a c k g r o u n d for R e n a i s s a n c e Painting,
A r c h i t e c t u r e , and the D i s c o v e r y of A m e r i c a , Journal of the
S o c i e t y of A r c h i t e c t u r a l H i s t o r i a n s 33(1974): 274-292, p a r
t i c u l a r l y 288- 2 9 0 and a copy of a r e p r o d u c t i o n of A l b e r t i s
ma p of Rome.
177
This r e v i e w of some of A l b e r t i ' s ideas on a r c h i t e c t u r a l
and p l a n n i n g t h e o r y suggests the range of topics c o n s i d e r e d
by a m a j o r R e n a i s s a n c e w r i t e r a nd theoret i c i a n . Environmental
concern, a n e w a p p r o a c h to spatial relationships, and the use
of m o d e l s or pla n s for b u i l d i n g a s t r u c t u r e or a city, all of
th e s e A l b e r t i c o n s i d e r e d w i t h i n the orbit of an a r c h i t e c t ' s
education. This b r o a d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the role of the a r c h i
tect a n d t he r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the n a t u r a l and u r b a n e n
vironments d i d not contract but e x p a n d e d d u ring the early
m o d e r n p e r i o d in F l o r e n t i n e history.
A n t o n i o di Piero A v e rlino, k n o w n as Filarete, 15th c e n t u r y
F i l a r e t e was a Florentine, but l i ttle is k n o w n about
his life. Apparently, he spent m u c h of his early a d u l t h o o d
in F l o r e n c e , a nd b e f o r e l eaving F l o r e n c e h e most l i kely b e g a n
his T r e a t i s e on A r c h i t e c t u r e . He w r o t e a nd d e d i c a t e d this
C T
t r e a t i s e to Piero de M e dici about 1465. Like m u c h of
Filarete's career, the exact date is not known. In the t r e a t i s e
he c i t e d A l b e r t i ' s w o r k on a r c h i t e c t u r e c o m p l e t e d about 1450,
and the t w o t r e a t i s e s share a c o m m o n p h i l o s o p h y of architecture.
At the s a m e time, Filarete*s t r e a t i s e expresses a u n ique
q u a l i t y in its r e p r e s e n t a t i o n for the first time d u r i n g the
early m o d e r n p e r i o d of a p l a n for an ideal city b a s e d on a
geometric sha p e w i t h a s y stem of simple p r o p o r t i o n s guiding
53
S ee n o t e s 1 and 3, and also Avery, Italian R e n a i s
sance E n c y c l o p e d i a , p p . 391-392.
the e n t i r e d e v e l o p m e n t of the u r b a n d e s i g n . ^ Filarete's
d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n in his t r e a t i s e of the o r i g i n a nd e v o
l u tion o f a universal s t a n d a r d of m e a s u r e m e n t and p r o p o r
t i o n is a summary of R e n a i s s a n c e thought on a r c h i t e c t u r e and
u r b a n theory. Just as A l b e r t i c o m p a r e d the c i t y to a w e l l
p r o p o r t i o n e d house, so F i l a r e t e c o m p a r e d a b u i l d i n g a n d by
e x t e n s i o n a city to a h u m a n b e i n g - - " t h e b u i l d i n g is t r u l y a
55
living m a n . " Filarete v i e w e d a b u i l d i n g and a c i t y in
this w a y in r e g a r d to its p r o p o r t i o n s and its nee d s to su s t a i n
health. It was from the i d e a l i z e d h u m a n figure that
Filarete derived a mathematical s y s t e m of p r o p o r t i o n s w h i c h
he t h e n a p p l i e d in his r a t i o n a l g e o metric d e s i g n of the city.
He c o n s i d e r e d this s y s t e m of p r o p o r t i o n s a r e f l e c t i o n of
natural laws of the universe.
In the first b o o k of the t r e a t i s e Filarete has one of
t he p a r t i c i p a n t s in a d i s c u s s i o n ex p l a i n the o r i g i n of m e a s u r e
and the source of b e a u t i f u l .b u i l d i n g s . The s peaker gave the
f o l l o w i n g response: >
As every o n e knows, m a n w a s c r e a t e d by God;

the body, the soul, the intellect, the m i n d
and e v e r y t h i n g was p r o d u c e d in p e r f e c t i o n b y
Him. The body (was) o r g a n i z e d a nd m e a s u r e d
and all its members p r o p o r t i o n e d according to
th e i r qualities and measure. He a llowed t h e m
i
54
Filarete, T r e a t i s e on A r c h i t e c t u r e , vol. 1, xxxo.
V o l u m e 1 of this edition c o n t a i n s S p e n c e r s t r a n s l a t i o n of
the treatise, while v o l u m e 2 p r e s e n t s a facsimile of the
ma n u s c r i p t . Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s in these notes are to
v o l u m e 1; H e y d e n r e i c h and Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , p p . 99-100.
F i l arete, Treatise on A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 1, p . 12.
179
to p r o d u c e each other, as is seen in nature.
He g r a n t e d the m i n d of m a n (the power) to do
various things for his existence and p l e a s u r e
. . .Many times it h appens a c c o r d i n g to the
needs of m a n that t hrough n e c e s s i t y his i n
tellect bec o m e s m u c h more acute in m a n y things
and e s p e c i a l l y in that w h i c h he needs most.
As they say, n e c e s s i t y makes m a n clever.
The first n e e d and n e c e s s i t y of man, after
food, was h a b i t ation; thus he e n d e a v o r e d to
c o n struct a p l a c e wh e r e he could dwell.
F rom this, then, p u b l i c and p r i v a t e b u i l d i n g s
w ere derived...
Since m a n is m a d e w i t h the m e a s u r e s t ated

above, he d e c i d e d to take the measures,
members, p r o p o r t i o n s , and q u a lities from
h i m s e l f and to adapt them to this m e t h o d
of b u i l d i n g . ..When a m a n is w e l l f o rmed and
every m e m b e r is in h a r m o n y w i t h every other,
t h e n w e say he is well p r o p o r t i o n e d . 56
W i t h this statement, Filar e t e o u t l i n e d a central tenet of
R e n a i s s a n c e p h i l o s o p h y of n a ture and art. God c r e a t e d the
m e a s u r e of h a r m o n y w h i c h informs the hum a n figure and
h u m a n beings are able to p e r c e i v e f r o m t h e m s e l v e s and the
e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t the d i v i n e l y c r e a t e d and nat u r a l p r o
p o r t i o n s w h i c h re f l e c t the governing p r i n c i p l e s of the uni-

57
verse. However, e a c h h u m a n figure is not identical, and
c o n sequently, the q u e s t i o n arises as to w h i c h h u m a n figure
e x e m p l i f i e s or best e x e m p l i f i e s ttie "natural laws" of p r o
portion, and harmony.
F i l a r e t e fs spe a k e r c o n t i n u e d by sta t i n g that h u m a n
m e a s u r e h ad five q u a l i t i e s - - t h e very small, the small, the
medium, the large and v e r y large. The v e r y small and very
^ Filarete, T r e a t i s e on A r c h i t e c t u r e , B o o k 1, p . 6 .
57
Gadol, Alberti: Universal Man, ch. 3, "Art, the
M i r r o r of Natur e , " p p . 3-142, and ch. 4, "The Rational Cosmos
p p . 143-212; Panofsky, " T h e o r y of Hum a n P r o p o r t i o n s , " p p . 74-86
88-98.
180
large w e r e e x t r a o r d i n a r y m e a s u r e s and thus could not be c o n
s i d e r e d a true u n iversal measure. So the ancients d e r i v e d a
universal s t a n d a r d of p r o p o r t i o n s from the remaining three
q u alities of h u m a n measure. T h e s e p a r t i c u l a r q u a lities then
b e c a m e for the ancients the b a s i s for b e a u t i f u l building.
The large, the medium, and the small F i l a r e t e b e l i e v e d the
a n c ients i d e n t i f i e d as the Doric, the Corinthian, and the

58
Ionic o rder of a r c h i tecture respectively.
Ea c h o r d e r of a r c h i t e c t u r e was m e a s u r e d in p r o p o r t i o n
to the h u m a n head. The larger Doric o r d e r had a nine h e a d
measurement, the m e d i u m C o r i n t h i a n order an eight head m e a
surement, and the Ionic o rder a seven h e a d measurement.
A g a i n w i t h the h e a d serving as a unit o f m e a s u rement,
Filarete st a t e d that the entire h u m a n figure was a n a l y s e d as
a s y s t e m of proportions . "In this f a s h i o n . ..the figure of a
w e l l - p r o p o r t i o n e d m a n comes to nin e heads. Its meas u r e in
w i d t h is equal to its length or, better, h e i g h t . . . I n this
way, if the arms are opened and the hands extended, the (man)
59
w i l l be n i n e h eads in either d i r e c t i o n . "
W i t h arms o u t s t r e t c h e d an d standing, the w e l l - p r o p o r
t i o n e d h u m a n figure w ould be equal in w i d t h as well as height.
58
Filarete, Treatise on A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 1, p p . 7-8.
59
Ibid., B ook 1, p . 8 ; Panofsky, "The o r y of H u m a n P r o
p o r t i o n s , " p p . 78-79, 86-98; Gadol, Alberti: U n i v e r s a l Man,
p p . 114-117.
181
The n a v e l w o u l d be the a p p r o x i m a t e ce n t e r for a c i r c l e w h i c h
c i r c u m s c r i b e d the h u m a n figure, and the p e r i m e t e r of the
o u t s t r e t c h e d h u m a n figure w o u l d also serve as the b o u n d a r y
lines o f a s q u a r e . ^ Thus, the h u m a n figure u n d e r s t o o d as
a s y s t e m of p r o p o r t i o n s o u t l i n e d two b asic g e o m e t r i c shapes--
the c i r c l e and the square.
Fi l a r e t e e m p l o y e d these two simple g e o m e t r i c shapes in
an e q u a l l y sim p l e p a t t e r n of p r o p o r t i o n s to d e s i g n the ideal
c i t y of Sforzinda. He focused the b asic p l a n of the c ity
a r o u n d two squares of equal p e r i m e t e r on top o f e a c h o ther
f o r m i n g an eight p o i n t star. W i t h i n e a c h angle he d r e w a
ci r c l e to lo c a t e a r o u n d t o w e r . ^ At the c e n t e r of the cit y
he p l a c e d a p i a z z a t wice as long as it was wide, and r a n the
m a i n streets o f the c ity d i r e c t l y f rom the gates to the c e n
tral p i a z z a in a ra d i a l fashion. The cat h e d r a l and r e l a t e d
b u i l d i n g s he l o c a t e d at one end of the cent r a l p i a z z a a n d the
p a l a c e of the p r i n c e an d the g o vernment offices at the other
end. In the m i d d l e of the p i a z z a he b uilt a t o w e r h i g h
e n o u g h to o b s e r v e the c o u n t r y s i d e b e y o n d the c ity walls.
A r o u n d the c e n t r a l p i a z z a r e v o l v e d smaller p i a z z a s for m a r
ket and other s p e c i f i c pu b l i c uses. W i t h i n the two l a r g e r
squares F i l a r e t e d i v i d e d the rest of the cit y into s m a l l e r
^ Filarete, T r e a t i s e on A r c h i t e c t u r e , B o o k 1, p . 8 .
6X
Ibid., vol.l, t itle page (reproduction of a m a p of
Sforzinda), and Boo k 2, p . 25, w h i c h di s c u s s e s the p l a n of
the city.
182
square p a t t e r n s of b u i l d i n g p l o t s for re s i d e n t i a l and o t h e r

62
use. He m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t the city the b a s i c g e o
m e t r i c p a t t e r n and s y s t e m of p r o p o r t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d b y the
o r i g i n a l two squares and c e n t r a l piazza. The two m a i n
squares, one on top of each o t h e r in an eight po i n t star p a t
tern, f o r m e d a 1 to 1 ratio or p r o p o r t i o n whi l e the c entral
p i a z z a twi c e as long as w i d e f o r m e d a 2 to 1 ratio or p r o
portion. It was this k i n d of u s e of simple g e o m e t r i c shapes
and p r o p o r t i o n s w h i c h F i l a r e t e b e l i e v e d to be the key
e lement of good a r chitecture. A rt r e f l e c t e d the e s s e n t i a l
q u a l i t y of n a t u r e - - a m a t h e m a t i c a l b a l a n c e of all par t s in
a h a r m o n i o u s whole.
In p l a n n i n g Plus i a p o l i s , the port city of S f orzinda,
Filarete t o o k a similar approach. He a p p l i e d a s y s t e m of
p r o p o r t i o n s to the layout of the entire city, but ins t e a d of
one central p i a z z a he d e s i g n e d m a n y s maller squares. In the
center of the city, however, he also loc a t e d a p i a z z a w h i c h
s e r v e d as the r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a of the prince's court.
In a d d i t i o n to the g e o m e t r i c spatial patte r n s applied
to the layout of the entire city, F i l a r e t e c o n s i d e r e d also
some of the q u e stions and issues w h i c h emerge in the r e l a t i o n
ship b e t w e e n the u r b a n and n a t u r a l environments. W h e n re-
62
Filarete, T r e a t i s e on A r c h i t e c t u r e , Book 1, p p . 25-26;
63
Filarete, Treatise on Architecture, Book 14, p p . 177,
183-189.
183
v i e w i n g the possi b l e sites for a city, Filar e t e has the
architect and m a i n speaker of the treat i s e d i s c o v e r a p l a c e
in a b e a u t i f u l v a l l e y w h i c h the a r c h i t e c t u r e - s p e a k e r th o u g h t
64
an e x c e l l e n t choice for the n e w city. The site was at
t a c h e d to the m o u n t a i n base and r a i s e d above the plain. It
was a b o u t a h a l f mile in c i r c u m f e r e n c e and s u r r o u n d e d by
woods. The area was fertile, and fresh w a t e r w as a v a i l a b l e
f r o m springs. Fish swam in rivers of clear water.
W h e n the a r c h i t e c t u r e - s p e a k e r of the t r e a t i s e .told his
c o m p a n i o n that he thought this a fine site for a city, the
c o m p a n i o n r e p l i e d that the b u i l d i n g of a city h e r e w o u l d
m e a n t h e c u t t i n g down of the woods. The a r c h i t e c t - s p e a k e r
r e p l i e d that this w o u l d not be necessary. He s a i d that the
trees of the site were not a p p r o priate for b u i l d i n g and that
w o o d - f o r - b u i l d i n g could be o b t a i n e d e l s ewhere and e a s i l y
t r a n s p o r t e d to the site along the n e a r b y r i v e r . ^ Like A l
b e rti, F i l a r e t e p l a c e d the develo p m e n t of the c i t y in r e l a
t i o n to a c o n c e r n for the countryside. Also this b r i e f dia-
louge r a i s e d a q u e s t i o n w h i c h g a ined gre a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e
for t he F l o r e n t i n e government d u ring the early m o d e r n period,
namely, the r e l a tionship b e t w e e n the u r b a n and n a t u r a l en
vironments at a time w h e n food and fuel supplies b e c a m e a
critical issue during p a r t of the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h
64
F i l arete, Treatise on A r c h i t e c t u r e , B o o k 2, p p . 22-23.
65 I b i d . , Book 2, p p . 24-25.
184
centuries.
Leonardo da V i n c i 1452-1519
Both Brunelleschi and L e o nardo m a r k t u r n i n g - p o i n t s in
Re n a i s s a n c e culture. Brun e l l e s c h i i n t r o d u c e d n e w concepts
and t e c h n i q u e s in art and a r c h i t e c t u r e to the fi f t e e n t h
c e n t u r y as L e o nardo c o n t r i b u t e d n e w artistic, intellectual,
and s c i e n t i f i c ideas and tools to the s i x t e e n t h century.
Leonardo's m a n y c o n t ributions to m a n y fields of l e a r n i n g i n
clu d e d designs for u r b a n p l a n n i n g and s k e tches for pub l i c
u t i l i t y programs. His ideas and d r a w i n g s i n d i c a t e d the
c h a n g i n g scale and concepts emerging in these two fields.
D i s c u s s i o n her e con s i d e r s three e x p r e s s i o n s of Leonardo's
thought in the area of u rban p l a n n i n g theory: a d e s i g n for
a n e w city, a n e w te c h n i q u e in m a p p i n g a city, and a study
of p u b l i c u t i l i t y p r o g r a m s for the A r n o R iver Valley.
In a d e s i g n of a n e w city m a d e for the Duke of M i l a n
Leonardo o u t l i n e d a t h e n new a p p r o a c h to u r b a n planning.
He p r o p o s e d a " d e c e n t r a l i z e d p l a n " for the u r b a n environment
by d i s t r i b u t i n g the p o p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n larger and smaller
cities. A r o u n d a la r g e r city, he p a t t e r n e d t e n smaller
cities w i t h a total p o p u l a t i o n a bout thirty thousand. Leo-
n ardo c l a i m e d as one of the b e n e f i t s of this p l a n the r e
d u c e d da n g e r to h e a l t h the " d e c o n g e s t i o n w o u l d bring, since
too great a p o p u l a t i o n in one c i t y " s o w the seeds of pesti-
185
lence and d e a t h . I n addition, he arranged a canal a n d
s a n i t a t i o n s y s t e m for the city w h i c h could be d r i e d up a nd
cleaned. This w o u l d improve h e a l t h as well as t r a f f i c in

fi 7
the u r b a n environment. W h e n d i s c u s s i n g the d e s i g n of the
p r i n c e s palace, he c o n s i d e r e d s a f e t y issues r e l a t e d to
b u i l d i n g s g e n e r a l l y and u r b a n areas particularly. M Let the
m e z z a n i n e s of the dwellings be d i v i d e d by walls m a d e of nar-

6Q
row bricks and wit h o u t beams b e c a u s e of the risk of f i r e .
Besides h e a l t h and s a fety considerations, L e o n a r d o also
a d d r e s s e d tra f f i c needs in the c i t y by d e s igning a t w o - t i e r
A b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of Leona r d o da V i n c i ' s life and

c a r e e r is p r e s e n t e d in the following: Avery, Italian R e
na i s s a n c e E n c y c l o p e d i a , p p . 543-553; Parsons, E n g ineers and
Engineering;, Part 1, chapter 4, "Leonardo da Vinci, the M a n
and the S c i e n t i s t , " p p . 15-38; For an outline and d i s c u s s i o n
of da V i n c i ' s w o r k after 1500 see: Carlo Repetti, A
C h r o n o l o g y of Leonardo da V i n c i ' s Ar c h i t e c t u r a l Studies
A f t e r 1500 (Geneva: E. Droz, 1962); Concerning da V i n c i 's
plans for a city see: E d ward M a c Curdy, ed. The N o t e b o o k s
of Leona r d o da V i n c i (New York: George B r a z i l l e r , 1958) ,
p p . 1034-1035; Also see: Jean Paul Richter, e d . , The N o t e
books of Leona r d o da Vin c i (New York: Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s ,
1970), p p . 27-31; M a r t i n S. Briggs, "Town Planning From the
A n c i e n t W o r l d to the R e n a i s s a n c e , " in A Hi s t o r y of T e c h
n o l o g y , e d . , Charles Singer, et al. (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1957), p p . 269-299, e s p e c i a l l y p p . 285-287; Pedretti,
Leonardo: Royal Palace at R o m o r a n t i n , p a r t i c u l a r l y Part
Two, c h a p t e r 3, "The Plans of a N e w City," p p . 87-100.
fi 7
M a c C u r d y , N o t e b o o k s , p p .1034-1035; Canal b u i l d i n g s
in R e n a i s s a n c e Italy, including comments on Leonardo's
works, is d i s c u s s e d in the following: A. W. Skempton,
" Canals a nd River N a v i g a t i o n B e fore 17 50," in A H i s t o r y of
T e c h n o l o g y , p p . 438-470, p a r t i c u l a r l y p p . 445-449 on
R e n a i s s a n c e Italy; Parsons, Engineers and E n g i n e e r i n g , pp.
323-333.
MacCurdy, N o t e b o o k s , p . 1033.
186
r o a d s y s t e m for the city. He r a i s e d one of the r o a d w a y s
six b r a c c i a (about 12 feet) h i g h e r than the lower l e v e l one,
and m a d e each r o a d w a y about t w e n t y b r a c c i a w i d e (approximately
40 f e e t ) . F r o m t h e c e n t e r to the edge of the r o a d h e fash
io n e d a two foot gradual slope as well as regular o p e n i n g s
al o n g the rou t e of the roads to al l o w w a t e r to d r a i n o f f i n
to conduits. A l o n g s i d e each roadway, he i n s talled a six
braccia wide (about 12 feet) a r c a d e w i t h columns u s e d for
walking.^
T r a f f i c p a t t e r n s d i v i d e d b e t w e e n this t w o - t i e r system.
"The h i g h - l e v e l roads are not to be u s e d by w a gons or v e
hicles such as these b ut are s o lely for the c o n v e n i e n c e of
the g e n t l efolk. All carts and loads for the service and c o n
v e n i e n c e of the c o m m o m p e o p l e should be c o n f i n e d to t he low-

70
er l e v e l r o a d s . " This r o a d s y s t e m p l a n r a t i o n a l i z e d d i f
ferent tra f f i c p a t t e r n s to improve the t raffic flow o f the
c i t y a n d also m a d e clear at the same time some of the dif-

71
ferences in R e n a i s s a n c e society.
^ M a c C u r d y , Notebooks, p p .1040-1041; For a r e p r o d u c t i o n

of c i t y streets a nd road d r a w i n g s made b y da V i n c i to go
al o n g w i t h his plans for a c i t y see: Richter, The N o t e b o o k s ,
p p . 27-31 (text), p p . 77-79 (plates).
71
For a d i s c u s s i o n of L e o n a r d o s two level r o a d p l a n
for the city and its r e l a t i o n to Re n a i s s a n c e thought see:
E u g e n i o Garin, "The Ideal City," in Science and Civic Life
in t he R e n a i s s a n c e (Garden City, N . Y . : D o u b l e d a y Co., 1969),
p p . 21-48.
187
In ad d i t i o n , to his d e s i g n for a n e w c i t y Leona r d o d e
veloped a technique for m a p p i n g t he c i t y in a very a c c u r a t e
way. This t e c h n i q u e is c a l l e d the g r o u n d p l a n map of a
city. A n e a r l i e r m e t h o d for r e p r e s e n t i n g the city in a map
or d r w i n g is r e f e r r e d to as the b i r d ' s eye or p e r s p e c t i v e

72
technique. A c c o r d i n g to the b i r d s eye persp e c t i v e , the
v i e w e r sees t he c i t y as if p e r c h e d in a tree on a hill o u t
side the city. This v i e wpoint t r a n s l a t e s the l o c a t i o n and
size of b u i l d i n g s in r e l a t i o n to o n e a n o t h e r as well as
o t h e r sp a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s into a r e l i e f p a t t e r n and r e p
r e s e n t s the c i t y as if it w e r e a c t u a l l y s e e n from that p a r
ticular point in the tree w h e r e t h e v i e w e r was perched. How
ever, the b i r d s eye v i e w is a f i x e d v i e w p o i n t of the city
and allows the c i t y to be seen f r o m o n l y one line of
vision. It does n ot include a v i e w of the city w h i c h w o u l d
c l a r i f y the exa c t location, vol u m e , and spatial r e l ation-

73
ships of e a c h st r u c t u r e w i t h i n the city. A g r o u n d p l a n m ap
p r o v i d e s m u l t i p l e v i e w p o i n t s of a c i t y as well as a more
a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of sp a t i a l rela t i o n s h i p s .
L e o n a r d o s w e l l known m a p of t he c i t y of Imola in the
t e r r i t o r y of the Ro m a g n a b o r d e r i n g t h e F l o r e n t i n e state to
72
For a v e r y good d i s c u s s i o n of m ap drawing d u r i n g the
R e n a i s s a n c e see: Edgerton, R e d i s c o v e r y of Linear P e r s p e c
tive , c h a p t e r 1, The W e s t e r n W i n d o w , " pp. 3-15, p a r t i c u l a r l y
p p . 7-11; J o h n A Pinto, "Origins a n d D e v e l o p m e n t of the
I c h n o g r a p h i c C i t y Plan," Journal o f the Soc i e t y of A r c h
it e ctural H i s t o r i a n s 35 (1976), p p . 35-50.
73
Pinto, " I c hnographis City P l a n , " p p . 35-50.
188
the east is one of the b e s t examples of the d e v e l o p m e n t of
the g r o u n d p l a n t e c h n i q u e during the early m o d e r n period.
Leonardo d r e w this m ap in 1502 whi l e c o m m i s s i o n e d as a
m i l i t a r y e n g i n e e r in the service of the Papal States. The
strategic l o c a t i o n of the city of Imola d u r i n g a p e r i o d of
c onflict in the R o m a g n a p r o v i d e d the o c c a s i o n for a r e v i e w

wm m
of the city's f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and defense. A s s i g n e d the
task to s u rvey the entire area of the city, he p r o c e e d e d to
take m e a s u r e m e n t s of the p e r i m e t e r of the c i t y f r o m the v a r
ious angles a l o n g the w a l l and to survey the inter i o r of the
w h o l e city. The result was a survey or g r o u n d p l a n map of
the city of Imola w h i c h re p r e s e n t e d the spatial r e l a t i o n
ships of all the s t r u c t u r e s of the city in an abstract,

75
linear, flat a nd n o n - r e l i e f pattern.
This g e o m e t r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the g r o u n d p l a n map is
s imilar to an a e rial p h o t o g r a p h of the city. It allows the
city to be s e e n f r o m an array of viewpoints, and outlines
the u r b a n f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n wh i c h the volume and spatial r e
l ationships e m erge clearly. T h ough the m ap of Imola was
^ Pinto, " I c h n o g r a p h i c City Plan," p p . 38-43; Also:

Ludwig H . H e y d e n r e i c h , "The M i l i t a r y A r c h i t e c t , " in The U n
k n o w n L e o n a r d o , ed. Ladislao Reti (New York: M e G r a s Hill,
1974), p p . 136-165, e s p e c i a l l y p p . 151-154.
75
The o r i g i n a l of this map is in the Roy a l Library,
W i n d s o r Castle, n u m b e r 12284. It is r e p r o d u c e d in Pinto,
" I c h n o g r a p h i c C i t y Plan," p . 37, in bla c k and itfhite, and in
Reti, U n k n o w n L e o n a r d o , p p . 154-155, a two-page c o l o r reprint.
189
d r a w n for m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s , the g r o u n d p l a n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
w o u l d find m a n y useful applications for u r b a n p l a n n i n g pur-

76
p o s e s du r i n g the s i x t e e n t h century. By this t e c hnique of
m a p p i n g a more a c c u r a t e r e a d i n g of the density, traffic
routes, b u i l d i n g lots, a n d general spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s
c o u l d be obtained, and a p i c t u r e of the actual d e s i g n and
layout of the city c o u l d be r e n d e r e d an d v i e w e d from a
n u m b e r of viewpoints. D u r i n g the e a r l y m o d e r n period, the
g r o u n d p l a n map a f f o r d e d the o p p o r t u n i t y to see what a d e s i g n
and p l a n of an entire c i t y l o o k e d like and p r e s e n t e d most
l i k e l y to. citizens t h e i r first v i e w a n d impr e s s i o n of their
w h o l e city.
M aps d rawn by L e o n a r d o of the A r n o River V a l l e y t r a c i n g
p r e c i s e l y the course of the r iver p r o v i d e d a b r o a d v i e w of
the natu r a l landscapes in some ways similar to the w a y the
m a p of Imola p r o v i d e d a gene r a l v i e w of the city. These
t o p o g r a p h i c a l maps aided in the p l a n n i n g of pub l i c u t i l i t y
programs for the A rno R i v e r Valley, for example, the long
c o n s i d e r e d pla n to b u i l d a canal b e t w e e n Florence and Pisa.
The F l orentine g o v e r n m e n t d i s c u s s e d a F l o r e n c e - P i s a canal

77
p l a n in 1458 but n e v e r i m p l e m e n t e d it. Du r i n g a wa r w i t h
Pisa in 1503 the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t devi s e d a p l a n to
divert the Arno R iver an d t h e r e b y c u t o f f Pisa from the sea
^ Pinto, "Ichnographic City Plan," p p . 42-50.

77
See the d i s c u s s i o n in c h a p t e r 6 c o n c e r n i n g t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n routes b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e and Pisa.
190
w h i c h was the source of her supplies. P r o m o t e d by N i c c o l o
Machiavelli, F l o r e n t i n e se c r e t a r y of state and wa r d u r i n g
this period, the g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n the project, but th e effort

78
failed in 1504 and the p r o j e c t e nded in the same year.
Leona rdo's role in this m i l i t a r y effort is little known.
However, the t o p o g r a p h i c a l maps of the Arn o V a l l e y w h i c h he
d rew d u r i n g this p e r i o d indicate his long s t a n d i n g i n t erest
in p u b l i c u t i l i t y p r o g r a m s in this region.
G i v e n the m a n y turns and bends of the Arno's w i n d i n g
t o w a r d the L i g u r i a n Sea, canal p r o j e c t s and a t t empts to
make the r iver n a v i g a b l e b e t w e e n F l o rence and the sea did
not drop f r o m c o n s i d e r a t i o n in the si x t e e n t h century.
L e onardo's maps of the Arn o V a l l e y suggest a p l a n fo r a
canal route fro m V i c o Pi s a n o to the sea in order to b y p a s s
an u n n a v i g a b l e s t r e t c h of the Arno. This p l a n w o u l d have
c o v e r e d a d i s t a n c e of te n miles a p p r o x i a m t e l y . Other s u g
g estions by L e o n a r d o w ere m a d e on a m uch larger scale. For
example, he s k e t c h e d a c anal route from F l o rence to P r a t o to
P ist o i a t h r o u g h the m o u n t a i n v a l l e y no r t h w e s t of P i s t o i a
79
and r e t u r n i n g to the Arno River at V ico Pisano, This
r oute w o u l d f o r m an arc c u r v i n g about tw e n t y m iles n o r t h and
Heydenreich, "The M i l i t a r y A r c h i t e c t , " p p . 142-152.

79
T hese map s are found in the following: L e o n a r d o da
V inci, The M a d r i d C o d i c e s , t r a n s c r i b e d and t r a n s l a t e d by
Ladislao Reti (New York: M c G r a w Hill, 1974), II, f 2v, ff
22v, and ff 23v; Also: Heydenreich, "The M i l i t a r y A r c h i t e c t , "
p p . 144-145.
191
ending a p p r o x i a t e l y f o r t y - f i v e m i l e s w est of Florence.
T h o u g h the p lan was not a t t e m p t e d , it does d e m o n s t r a t e
b r o a d p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h w h i c h p u b l i c u t i l i t y p r o g r a m s were
c o n s i d e r e d by Leonardo as w ell as others, and s u g g e s t s the
c h a n g i n g sense of scale w h i c h was b e g i n n i n g to c h a r a c t e r i z e
F l o r e n t i n e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y du r i n g
80
the early m o d e r n period.
M a n y of L e o n a r d o s ideas w e r e not i m p l emented. However,
his c o n cepts in r e g a r d to u r b a n p l a n n i n g and g r o u n d p l a n and
to p o g r a p h i c a l m a p p i n g e x p a n d e d the th e o r e t i c a l v o c a b u l a r y of
the six t e e n t h century. His d i s c u s s i o n of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
routes w i t h i n and b e t w e e n cities as one m o r e i n d i c a t i o n of
the t r a n s i t i o n b e i n g m a d e f r o m the m e d i e v a l to th e e arly
m o d e r n city. The r e g i o n a l scale of the p u b l i c u t i l i t y p r o
g ram and t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a p s he d e s i g n e d was e q u a l l y sugges-

81
tive of this transition. He p r e s e n t e d a n e w w a y to see
the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the n a t u r a l and c u l t u r a l landscapes.
Ea r l y M o d e r n U r b a n i s t s
To students of the R e n a i s s a n c e and e arly m o d e r n period,
Lodovico G u i c c i a r d i n i (1523-1589) is a w ell k n o w n F l orentine
80
Parsons, E n g ineers and E n g i n e e r i n g , p p . 325-328;
L.E. Harris, "Land D r a i n a g e and R e c l a m a t i o n , in H i s t o r y
of T e c h n o l o g y , p p . 309-315.
81
Richter, Noteb o o k s , c h a p t e r 17, p p . 227-239.
192
82
merchant, diplomat, e s s a y i s t and hist o r i a n . He was b o r n
in F l o r e n c e to one o f the leading f a m i l i e s o f the city, and
wa s the n e p h e w of the R e n a i s s a n c e h i s t o r i a n F r a n c e s c o G u i c
c i ar dini. Among their investments, the G u i c c i a r d i n i fam i l y
h a d a b u s i n e s s and b a n k i n g ente r p r i s e in A n t w e r p d u r i n g the
s i x t e e n t h century. Lodovico Guicciardini first b e c a m e a c
q u a i n t e d w i t h the N e t h e r l a n d s w h e n he e n t e r e d into the f a m i l y
business in Antwerp, a lead i n g city of n o r t h e r n Europe d u r i n g

83
th e s i x t e e n t h century. He e v e n t u a l l y s e t t l e d in A n t w e r p
and b e c a m e a keen o b s e r v e r of the u r b a n s cene and the h i s
torical changes i n f l u e n c i n g the c i t y s r a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t
d u r i n g the early m o d e r n period.
82
M a r i o E. C o s enza, B i o g r a p h i c a l a n d Bib l i o g r a p h i c a l
D i c t i o n a r y of the I t a l i a n Humanists and of the W orld of
C l a s s i c a l S c h o l a r s h i p s in Italy, 1 5 0 0 - 1 8 6 0 , 2d. edd 6 v o l s .
(Boston: G.K. H a l l , 1962-67), v o l . 2, p p . 1732-1733; Avery,
I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e E n c y c l o p e d i a , p . 485.
83
Goldwaite, P r i v a t e W e a l t h , p p . 109-155; For a d i s
c u s s i o n of the city of A n t w e r p du r i n g the e arly m o d e r n p e r
iod see: J.A. van H o u t t e , Essays on M e d i e v a l and E arly
M o d e r n E c o n o m y and S o c i e t y ( L o u v i a n : L o u v a i n U n i v e r s i t y
P ress, 1977), " A n t w e r p in the 15th and 16t h Centuries:
E x p a n s i o n and H e i g h t , " p p . 143-179, and " D e c l i n e and Survi v a l
of A n t w e r p 1 5 0 0 - 1 7 0 0 , " p p . 181-201. Also, A n E c o nomic H i s
t o r y of the Low C o u n t r i e s 800-1800 (New York: St. M a r t i n ' s
Press, 1977), Part Three, chapter 4, "The Gol d e n C e n t u r y of
A n t w e r p , " p p . 175-190; H e r m a n n V a n Der Wee, The Gro w t h of the
A n t w e r p Mar k e t and the Europ e a n E c o n o m y : F o u r t e e n t h and
S i x t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s , 3 vols. fThe Hague: M a r t i n u s Nijhoff,
1963); Jernis Wegg, A n t w e r p , 1477-1559, F r o m the Ba t t l e of
N a n c y to the Tr e a t y of C a t e a u - C a m b r e s i s (London: Methuen 8
C o . , 1916), and The D e c l i n e of A n t w e r p 'Under Philip of S pain
(London: M e t h u e n 8 Co., 1924). 1
B e g i n n i n g his essay o n the N e t h e r l a n d s w i t h a note to
the reader, Guic c i a r d i n i d e s c r i b e d his account of the area
and its cities as a bro a d history. He d i v i d e d the essay i n
to two m a i n parts: a general i n t r o d u c t i o n to the natural
a nd e c o n o m i c r e g i o n of the N e t h e r l a n d s a nd a specific d i s
c u s s i o n of each of the cities o f the Netherlands. In the
general i n t r o d u c t i o n he d i s c u s s e d the na t u r a l elements of
the region, including the air, seasons, land, animals, seas,
riv e r s , fish and forests. He c o n t i n u e d the introduction
w i t h a r e v i e w of g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n and economic p o l i c y
The r e m a i n d e r of the essay d i s c u s s e d the m a n y cities of this
h i g h l y u r b a n i z e d region. G i v e n its foremost p o s i t i o n in
the area d u ring the s i x t e e n t h century, An t w e r p is the s u b
ject of the longest d i s c u s s i o n o f the e s s a y . ^
B e t w e e n 1477 and 1576 A n t w e r p b e c a m e the "metropolis

85
of W e s t e r n Europe." Commerce, finance, and industry in
the c i t y d e v e l o p e d first on a r e g i o n a l scale and then on a
transcontinental and t r a n s - o c e a n i c scale b e t w e e n the four-

86
t e e n t h and fi f t e e n t h centuries. Since "all sizes of ships
^ Guicciardini, D e s c r i t t i o n e , p . 62.
85
V a n Der Wee, G r o w t h of the A n t w e r p M a r k e t , chapter
5, " A n t w e r p ' s Emergence as the M e t r o p o l i s of Wes t e r n Europe,
(c. 1493-1520), p p . 113-142; V a n Houtte, Low C o u n t r i e s , Part
Three , chapter 4, "The G o lden C e n t u r y of A n t werp," p p . 182-
183; Wegg, Antwerp, 1 4 7 7 - 1 5 5 9 , c h a p t e r s 1, 2, 8, 14 and 15.
194
cou l d n a v i g a t e the river as far as the city's site, Antwerp's
l o c a t i o n on the Scheld R i v e r about fifty miles from the sea

87
p l a y e d an important part in the city's development. In
ad d ition, A n t werp's g e o g r a p h i c a l p o s i t i o n in the N e t h e r l a n d s
m a d e the c i t y a key t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n point

88
for tra d e to and from the E u r o p e a n continent.
D u r i n g the t h i r t e e n t h and f o u r t e e n t h c e n turies p o l i t i c a l
and e c o n o m i c rivalries b e t w e e n Flanders and Brabant r e
s t r i c t e d A n t w e r p ' s development. Be g i n n i n g w i t h the f o u r
t e e n t h century, however, a gradual change beg a n to take
place in the city's history. G u i c c i a r d i n i p r o v i d e d three
main reasons for the c i t y s d e v e l o p m e n t since the later
medieval p e r i o d . ^
D u r i n g the fourt e e n t h and fif t e e n t h centuries A n t w e r p
s e c u r e d g r a d u a l l y trading p r i v i l e g e s from the local fuedal
lords. G u i c c i a r d i n i ci t e d this as the b e g i n n i n g of the com-

90
me r c i a l r o l e the city w o u l d p l a y later. In the fifteenth
c e n t u r y A n t w e r p began to r e p l a c e Bruges as the l e a d i n g city
of the Netherlands. Na t u r a l and p o l itical o c c u r r e n c e s in-
87
Guicciardini, D e s c r i t t i o n e , p . 64.
88
V a n Der Wee, G r owth of the Antwerp M a r k e t , p p . 130-
136.
89
Guicciardini, Descrit t i o n e , p p . 83-85; V a n Der Wee,
G r o w t h of the Antwerp M a r k e t , p p . 7-30. 61-111; V a n Houtte,
" A n t w e r p in the 15th and 16th C e n t u r i e s , p p . 143-151.
90
G u icciardini, D e s c r i t t i o n e , p . 83; V a n Houtte, Low
C o u n t r i e s , p p . 175-178.
195
f l u e n c e d this change. D u r i n g the fif t e e n t h c e n t u r y Zwyn
R i v e r j o i n i n g Bruges to the sea b e g a n to silt up. In 1488
M a x i m i l i a n I, the H a p s b u r g r u l e r of the N e t h e r l a n d s , met
Bruges' o p p o s i t i o n to his r u l e and p o l i c y by r e q u i r i n g the

91
fo r e i g n me r c h a n t s of that c i t y to locate in A n t werp.
A n o t h e r major r e a s o n for A n t w e r p ' s d e v e l o p m e n t g iven
b y G u i c c i a r d i n i was the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the P o r t u g u e s e
spice trade at Antwerp. In the e arly s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y the
P o r t u g u e s e trade routes to I n d i a and Calicut w i d e n e d the
t r a d e p a t t e r n s b e t w e e n Eu r o p e and the East in i n c l u d e the
A t l a n t i c as well as the M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea Lanes, Eastern
spices and luxury p r o d u c t s w e r e no longer e n t e r i n g Europe
o n l y t h r o u g h Venice. After 1501 the P o r t u g u e s e b r o u g h t these
products to the A n t w e r p m a r k e t for d i s t r i b u t i o n to the

92
E u r o p e a n continent, p a r t i c u l a r l y s o u thern Germany.
As -Antwerp b e c a m e the c e n t e r of the spice a n d o ther
n e a r l y w o r l d w i d e trade, f o r e i g n mer c h a n t s fro m v a r i o u s cities
o f the N etherlands and fro m all over Europe b e g a n to estab-

93
lis h offices in the city. Wider investment p a t t e r n s p a r
a l l e l e d w i d e r m o v e m e n t p a t terns. The N e w E x c h a n g e or Borsa
91
Guicciardini, D e s c r i t t i o n e , p . 84; V a n D e r Wee,
G r o w t h of the Antwerp M a r k e t , p p . 95-112.
92
Guicciardini, D e s c r i t t i o n e , p p . 84-85; V a n Der Wee,
G r o w t h of the Antwerp M a r k e t , p p . 124-139.
196
of A n t w e r p b e c a m e the f i n a n c i a l c o o r d i n a t i n g c e n t e r of
94
E u r o p e a n c o mmercial activity. By m i d c e n t u r y A n t w e r p was
the l e a d i n g international e x c h a n g e and d i s t r i b u t i o n c e n t e r
o f E u r o p e dra w i n g more p e o p l e a nd trade to its p o r t s and

95
m a r k e t t h a n ever before in t he city's history.
G u i c c i a r d i n i n o t e d a t h i r d r e a s o n w h i c h s t i m u l a t e d rapid
u r b a n d e v e lopment, In o r d e r to a l l o w for the c o n s t r u c t i o n of
defenses the A n t w e r p g o v e r n m e n t p r o h i b i t e d b u i l d i n g o u t s i d e
t he c i t y walls. This p r o h i b i t i o n e l i m i n a t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y
of s u b u r b a n develo p m e n t and i n t e n s i f i e d the p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h
and b u i l d i n g programs i n s i d e the city. At its h e i g h t in the
s i x t e e n t h ce n t u r y A n t w e r p ' s p o p u l a t i o n r e a c h e d about
96
100,000. Guic c i a r d i n i e s t i m a t e d there was 1 3 ,500 h o u s e s
already in existence in the city. In addition, there was
sp a c e a l l o c a t e d and s e m i - o u t l i n e d for the future b u i l d i n g of

97
1500 m o r e houses. Antwerp's expansion, p a r t i c u l a r l y to the
n o r t h a nd east, followed p l a n s d r a w n up d u r i n g the e a r l y
p a r t o f the century. It is one of the m a i n examp l e s of the
p l a n n e d e x p a n s i o n of a m a j o r c i t y d u ring the s i x t e e n t h cen-

98
tury.
94
V a n Der Wee, G r o w t h o f the A ntwerp M a r k e t , c h a p t e r
6, B, " F i n a n c i a l Metropolis,*' p p . 199-207.
95
V a n Houtte, "Antw e r p in the 15th and 16th C e n t u r i e s , "
p p . 156-1 6 4 , and Low C o u n t r i e s , p p . 178-182.
96
Guicciardini, D e s c r i t t i o n e , p.111.
97 Ibid., p . 80.
98
I b i d . V an Der Wee, G r o w t h of the A n t w e r p M a r k e t
p p . 192-193.
197
Some of the same reasons o u t l i n e d by G u i c c i a r d i n i w h i c h
i n f l u e n c e d the c i t y s de v e l o p m e n t as an i n t e r n a t i o n a l e c o n o m
ic c e n t e r also h e l p e d shaped the m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s of the re-

99
g i o n a l u r b a n environment.
B e i s d e s A n t w e r p s d e v e l o p m e n t as a s e t t l e m e n t of
houses and piazzas, the city e s t a b l i s h e d a n e x t e n s i v e t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n a nd c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m w i t h i n the c i t y and b e
tw e e n the c i t y a nd countryside. Guicciardini s t a t e d the
c i t y h a d eight p r i n c i p l e canals that h a n d l e d large and
small ships as w e l l as m a n y sma l l e r canals that r an to the
co u n t r y s i d e . S e v e n t y - f o u r bri d g e s of v a r y i n g sizes s e r v e d
as links across roads and waterways. There w e r e also in the
ci t y "two h u n d r e d and twelve m a j o r and m i n o r streets, for
the m o s t p a r t wide, straight, a nd w e l l c o n n e c t e d , as they
al m o s t a l ways are in the Low C o u n t r i e s .
As a m e t r o p o l i t a n center, A n t w e r p ' s p r o s p e r i t y or a d
versity i n f l u e n c e d m a n y of the c i ties of the region, while
Antwerp's d e v e l o p m e n t depended in t u r n on long d i s t a n c e
trade. The stages of de v e l o p m e n t o u t l i n e d a b o v e indicate
that G u i c c i a r d i n i saw cle a r l y h o w m u c h A n t w e r p ' s p r o s p e r i t y
was b a s e d on commerce. His d e s c r i p t i o n of this busy port
s u m m a r i z e d the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of the m a j o r elements in
f l u e n c i n g the c i t y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g the m i d - s i x t e e n t h
99
Gu i c c i a r d i n i , D e s c r i t t i o n e , p . 66; V a n D er Wee,
G r o w t h of the A n t w e r p M a r k e t , p p . 186-194.
Guicciardini, D e s c r i t t i o n e , p . 67.
198
century.
There is a fine pier here along the r i v e r

side w i t h a spacious p i a z z a called l o c a l l y
the Crana, bec a u s e of a most c o n v e n i e n t and
ingenious i nstrument of mac h i n e w h i c h is
here to f a c i l i t a t e the l oading and u n l o a d i n g
of ships. A nd this p i a z z a is well p a v e d and
situ a t e d o n the bank of the river w h e r e ships
of ev e r y c a p a c i t y load and unload; b e t w e e n
the large and small ships w h i c h can b e
h a n d l e d here, there is always as a r e s u l t
a great n u m b e r w h i c h are coming and going.
It is t r u l y an ag r e e a b l e and ad m i r a b l e
sight to d i s c o v e r in a glance a great space
along the coast f i lled w i t h an o n g o i n g
ebb and f l o w of traffic, to see going and
coming eve r y h o u r ships of every n a t i o n and
co u n t r y and p e o p l e and me r c h a n t s from
e verywhere, to see so m a n y styles of ships,
so m a n y instruments and ways of s a i l i n g
them that always there are n e w things to
find o u t . l O i
G e ography, technology, comm e r c e and p o l i t i c s p l a y e d their
part in m a k i n g A n t w e r p the financial and e c o n o m i c d i s
t r i b u t i o n c e n t e r of Europe d u ring the e a r l y and m i d d l e s i x
t e e n t h c e n t u r y - - a s e ttlement point of a r e v o l u t i o n in m o v e
m e n t patterns. W h i l e the re l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l struggles
Guiccia r d i n i , D e s c r i t t i o n e , p . 66; "Ha il bel molo o

p o r t o della r i v i e r a detto Vuerf, con la s ua s p a t i o s a piazza,
c h i a m a t a v u l g a r a m e n t e Crana, da un bello e c o m o d i s s i m o in-
gegnoso st r u m e n t o o machina, che vi risiede, col quale le
no v i f a c i l i s s i m a m e n t e si caric a n o e scaricano. E questa
p i a z z a l a s t r i c a t a e r i l e v a t a in su la c a r i c a r s i e scaricarsi
le n a v i d ogni p o r t a t a talche fra grandi e picco l e , ve n e
s e mpre gran numero, che van n o e vengono. V i s t a v e r amente
p i a c i v o l e e a m m i r a b i l e scopire in un o c c h i a t a grande spatio
di tanto riviera, c on flusso e reflusso p e r p e t u o , veder
a n d a r e e v e n i r e ogni h o r a a ttorno novi d ' o g n i antione, e
d o g n i paese c on ogni sorte d ' h uomini e di m e r c a n t i e , veder
ta n t e foggie di navili, tanti strumenti e m o d i di maneggiarle,
che sempre vi si t r o v a n cose nuove."
199
and the e c o n o m i c changes of the l a t e r six t e e n t h c e n t u r y
h e l p e d to b ring about Ant w e r p ' s decline, the role of the
m e t r o p o l i s of W e s t e r n Europe s h i f t e d again. First A m s t r e d a m
and t h e n London during the s e v e n t e e n t h and e i g h t e e n t h c e n
turies b e c a m e the financial and e c o n o m i c centers of m o v e
m e n t and trade patterns of an u n p r e c e d e n t e d scale p r i o r ro

102
the m o d e r n p e r i o d of history.
Like F l o r e n c e and V e n i c e at an e a r l i e r date, Antwerp
ha d b e c o m e a m e e t i n g point and g e n e r a t o r of i n n o v a t i o n dur ing

103
the s i x t e e n t h century. The r e v o l u t i o n a r y change in
movement patterns along w i t h the c h a n g i n g scale of E u r o p e a n
e c o nomic, poli t i c a l , and cultural activity introduced a new
stage of u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t during the e arly m o d e r n period.
It was p a r t of Guiccia r d i n i ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n to e arly m o d e r n
urban literature to re c o g n i z e key e l e m e n t s in this s tage of
E u r o p e a n u r b a n history. His a p p r o a c h h e l p e d to p l a c e the
e arly m o d e r n u r b a n i z a t i o n proc e s s and the d e v e l o p m e n t of a
s p e c i f i c city in a broa d e r h i s t o r i c a l perspective.
In his e ssay on cities G i o vanni Botero also p r o v i d e d a
wide perspective from w h i c h to v i e w the h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p
men t of cities. Though mor e k nown for p r a g m a t i c p o l i t i c a l
writings, his d i s c u s s i o n of cities was a m ajor s e l e c t i o n in
V a n Houtte, Low C o u n t r i e s , c h a p t e r 5, "The G o l d e n

Age of A m s t e r d a m , " p p . 1910210; C l a r k and Slack, E n g l i s h
T o w n s , p p . 81-91.
103
See not e 85.
the e a r l y m o d e r n urban l i b r a r y of readings. It w as an
ear l y a t t e m p t to analyse w h a t stim u l a t e s and limits a city's
growth. His criteria for d e t e r m i n i n g a s u c c e s s f u l city i n
c l u d e d a large p o p u l a t i o n a n d an eco n o m y b a s e d o n trade. He
c o n s i d e r e d b o t h to be i n t e r r e l a t e d . 1 0 ^
D u r i n g the 1580s w h e n m o s t of his w r i t i n g s w e r e p u b
lished, B o tero was s e c r e t a r y to A r c h b i s h o p Carlo B o r r o m e o of
Milan. While in M i l a n he c o u l d obs e r v e first h a n d the w o r k
ings o f one of the l e a d i n g c i t i e s in Italy and Europe. His
interest in the p r a c t i c a l i t i e s o f c i t y life, s u c h as, the
goods a nd the price of goods a c i t y imports a nd exports, is
e x e m p l i f i e d in the c o n v e r s a t i o n s he is said to h a v e h a d w i t h
the c u s t o m s o f f icials at the gates of M i l a n and in t he e x
p l a n a t i o n s he p r e s e n t e d for the de v e l o p e m n t of c i ties in his
essay.10^ His main a p p r o a c h to the q u e s t i o n of the g r o w t h
of c i t i e s e m p h a s i z e d the p r a c t i c a l and f u n c t i o n a l m o r e than
the s y m b o l i c and formal d i m e n s i o n s of urban history.
B o t e r o d i v i d e d his e s s a y o n cities into t h r e e books.
In b o o k one he defined a c i t y and p r e s e n t e d an a n a l y s i s of
the r e a s o n s w h i c h m o t i v a t e t he e s t a b l i s h m e n t and d e v e l o p m e n t
104
G i o v a n n i Botero, G r a n d e z z a d e l l a C i t t a , B o o k 1,
chapter 1, p . 295.
1 0 ^ D i z i o n a r i o B i o g r a f i c o , p p . 13, 354-357; Avery,

I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e E n c y c l o p e d i a , p p . 160-161; The G r e a t n e s s
of C i t i e s is accessible in the f o l l o w i n g E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n
G i o v a n n i Botero, The R e a s o n o f State and the G r e a t n e s s of
C i t i e s , intro. D.P. Waley, trans. D.P. Wal e y and P.J. W a l e y ,
(New Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1956.)
201
of a city. He d i s c u s s e d in b o o k two the v a r i o u s w a y s cities
att r a c t p e o p l e a nd also m a d e m a n y c r o s s - c u l t u r a l comparisons
b e t w e e n ancient and e a r l y m o d e r n and b e t w e e n e a s t e r n and
w e s t e r n cities. His m a i n focus in b o o k t h r e e w as on the
li mits of a c i t y s growth.
In b o o k one B o t e r o b e g a n w i t h the d e f i n i t i o n of a city
w h i c h o u t l i n e d m a n y of the topics of the rest of the essay.
" A city is c o n s i d e r e d an a s s e m b l y of p e o p l e d r a w n t o g e t h e r
107
for the p u r p o s e o f l i v i n g w e l l and h a p p i l y . " According
to Botero, a city's greatness is m e a s u r e d not by its physical
size but by its p o p u l a t i o n size. The size of the p o p u l a t i o n
he c o n s i d e r e d l a r g e l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the causes and m o t i v a
tio n s w h i c h d r a w p e o p l e to cities. He c i t e d four m a i n
c a u s e s w h i c h m o t i v a t e d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of cities: au
t hority, force, p l e a s u r e , a nd p r o f i t . * ^ 8
Cities e s t a b l i s h e d by a u t h o r i t y o c c u r e d w h e n an i m
portant figure in the a n c i e n t past e m e r g e d to c o n v i n c e
p e o p l e who w e r e l i v i n g " s c a t t e r e d here and t h ere" that m a n y
benefits and "great p r o f i t " t\rould be a c h i e v e d by their unit-

109
ing to live in one place. I n c reased c o m m u n i c a t i o n and
E ach b o o k d i s c u s s e s a n u m b e r of t o p i c s w i t h i n the
g e n e r a l s ummary m e n t i o n e d above.
107
Botero, G r a n d e z z a de l l e C i t t a , Book 1, c h a p t e r 1,
p .295.
108 Ibid.
109
Ibid., chapter 2, p . 296.
2 02
c o m m e r c e w o u l d result from l o c a t i n g in one place. This
h e i g h t e n e d cultu r a l exch a n g e w o u l d b r i n g g reater social and
e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s as w e l l as a m o r e c i v i l i z e d w a y of life.
Cities e s t a b l i s h e d by force or n e c e s s i t y o r i g i n a t e d w h e n
people sought to escape d a n g e r o u s circ u m s t a n c e s . For
example, d u r i n g period s o f c o n f l i c t p e o p l e f o u n d e d cities
for d e f e n s e r e a s o n s in h a r d to r e a c h places, usually mountain
locations or islands. T h o u g h t h e y m a y be well c i t e d for
defense purposes, Botero c o n s i d e r e d the s e cities l a c k i n g in
" c o n v e n i e n c e of t e r r i t o r y or t r a f f i c , " and so h a d no basis

110
for f u t u r e development. He e s t i m a t e d that the f u ture
b e l o n g e d to t h o s e cities fou n d e d for p l e a s u r e and profit.
B o t e r o v i e w e d p l e a s u r e and p r o f i t as the m o r e u s u a l and
c o m m o n m o t i v a t i o n s vrhich a t t r a c t e d p e o p l e to cities. He
n o t e d p e o p l e w e r e ofte n d r a w n to live in a p l a c e b e c a u s e it
w as b e a u t i f u l . Both the n a t u r a l b e a u t y of the site o f a
c i t y a n d the h u m a n art w h i c h pla n s and builds a beautiful

I
city g a v e " d e l i g h t and p l e a s u r e " and a t t r a c t e d p e o p l e to
live t h e r e . A f t e r d e s c r i b i n g the b e a u t y of m a n y a ncient
c ities, he c o n s i d e r e d R o m e and V e n i c e as "the m o s t fre
quented" among the E u r o p e a n cities b e c a u s e of the m a n y
beautiful sights each o f f e r e d to the viewer.
Botero, Gr a n d e z z a delle C i t t a , Book 1, c h a p t e r 3,'

p . 299. Compare w i t h A l b e r t i ' s and G u i c c i a r d i n i ' s comments
on the l o c a t i o n of cities.
111 Ibid., Book 1, ch a p t e r 6, p p . 302-303.
203
However, Botero h e l d that authority, force, or p l e a
sure were ins u f f i c i e n t by t h e m s e l v e s "to m a k e any c i t y

112
great" unless a c c o m p a n i e d b y profit.
And the reasons for this is b e c a u s e our

nature is so d e s i r o u s and s u c h a lover
of o p p o r t u n i t y and u t i l i t y that it is
not p o s s i b l e for our n a t u r e to be q u i e t e d
and c o n t e n t e d w i t h n e c e s s i t i e s alone. Like
plants, th o u g h they are r o o t e d firmly in the
ground, still the y cannot long endure and
last w i t h o u t the flavor of h e a v e n and the
n o u r i s h m e n t of rain; s imilarly, h u m a n c o m
mu nities, h a v i n g b e g u n by m e r e n e cessity,
are not long m a i n t a i n e d if o p p o r t u n i t y
and u t i l i t y are not p r e sent. M u c h less
important then is p l e a s u r e and d e l i g h t . H 3
S ince profit is see n as "the p r i n c i p l e ca u s e " of a city's
growth, Botero c o n t i n u e d his d i s c u s s i o n b y listing the c o n
d i t i o n s he thought mos t f a v o r a b l e to p r o d u c e the kind of
p r o f i t that w o u l d lead to d e v e l o p m e n t of a great city. He
p r e s e n t e d three c o n d i t i o n s n e e d e d for a city's growth to
greatness: the trade value of a city's site, the f e r t i l i t y
112
Botero, Grandezza delle C i t t a , Boo k 1, chapter 6,
p p . 304-305.
113
Ibid.; "E la r e g i o n e si e, p e r c h e la na t u r a n o s t r a
e tanto arnica, e d e s i d e r o s a d e l l e sue comodita, che n o n
e p o s s i b l e che si acqueti, e si c o n t e n t i di quel che n o n
e lse non necessario. E si come le piante, se ben sono
fisse f ermamente in terra, n o n p o s s o n o pero durare, e
lunga m e n t e c o n s e r v a r s i senza f a v o r del cielo, e senza
b e n e f i c i o d ella pioggia; cosi la m e r a n e c e s s i t a , no n si
m a n t e g o n o lungo tempo, se n o n si aggiunge comodita.
M o l t o meno po i vale il p i a c e r e , et il diletto.
204
of the n e a r b y countryside, and the c i t y s a c c e s s i b i l i t y .
B o t e r o e s t i m a t e d the impo r t a n c e of a city's site in
r e l a t i o n to the degree that the c i t y c o u l d act as a t r a f f i c
and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n center for c o n v e r g i n g trade routes a n d to
the d e g r e e that the city was not o n l y a s t o p - o f f poi n t b u t
a'participant in the exchange t a k i n g place. The m o r e c e n t r a l
or a d v a n t a g e o u s a city's l o c a t i o n b e t w e e n the extreme p o i n t s
o f a tra d e p a t t e r n the more l i k e l y it w i l l serve as a k e y
d i s t r i b u t i o n a nd exchange center. G e n o a and V e n i c e w e r e de
s c r i b e d as great cities because they w e r e c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d
and s e r v e d not o n l y for passage but also as "storehouses
and w a r e h o u s e s " of merchandise.
C o n c e r n i n g the fertility of the c o u n tryside, Botero
m a d e two m a i n points. Since h u m a n life derives what it n e e d s
f r o m the fruit f u l n e s s of the earth, a p r o d u c t i v e r e g i o n is
a major stimulus for a city's growth. If more is p r o s u c e d
f r o m the c o u n t r y s i d e than is n e e d e d by the inhabitants, the
r e sult is the co u n t r y s i d e will d o u b l y help the city by n o t
o nly p r o d u c i n g w h a t it needs but also by p r o d u c i n g a s u r
plus for trade. If the r e g i o n is so produc t i v e , however,
that n e a r l y e v e r y t h i n g d e s i r e d can be fo u n d there, the re-
Botero, G r a ndezza delle C i t t a , B o o k 1, chapters 8-10,

p p . 305-319; J acques Le Goff, "The Town as an Agent of C i v i l
i z a t i o n 1 2 0 0 - 1500," in Fontana Econ o m i c H i s t o r y of E u r o p e , 6
vols., ed. Carlo . Cipolla (Mew York: H a r vester P r e s s / B a r n e s
6 Noble, 1976), vol. 1, "The M i d d l e A g e s , p p . 76-77.
Botero, G r a ndezza delle C i t t a , Book 1, c hapter 8,

p . 306; Braudel, The M e d i t e r r a n e a n , voT. 1, p p . 312-317; Lopez,
" T rade of M e d i e v a l Europe," C E H , vol. 2, p p . 273-274.
205
suit w o u l d l i k e l y be to d i s c o u a g e trade an d u r b a n d e v e l o p
ment, since t h e r e w o u l d be little or no r e a s o n to look

11
els e w h e r e for w h a t c o u l d be f o u n d so e a s i l y so near.
Thus, Botero c o n c l u d e s that the f e r t i l i t y o f the soil alone
cannot m ake a c i t y great and that w h a t is m o r e important

117
for u r b a n development is a city's accessiblity.
In c o n s i d e r i n g the land and sea r o u t e s to a city,
Botero mad e the a r g u m e n t that the simpler, safer, easier,
and m o r e e c o n o m i c a l the routes the m o r e a c c e s s i b l e and v a l u
able the c i t y ' s site. He c o n c l u d e d that th e m o r e acce s s i b l e
the c i t y the m o r e l i k e l y the city w o u l d grow. Trade t e n d e d
to seek the r o u t e s of greater e c o n o m y a n d c o n v e n i e n c e and

118
to b e n e f i t m o s t the cities along such routes.
Water travel Bot e r o d e s c r i b e d as easier, faster, and
be t t e r for h e a v y c a r g o e s than land travel. T h o s e cities
which were most a c c e s s i b l e by sea and r i v e r s w e r e thus the
most likely to flourish. Inland cities w e r e also best situ-

ii q
ated w h e n t h e y w e r e m o s t easily reachable.
Botero, G r a n d e z z a d elle C i t t a , B o o k 1, chap t e r 9,

p p . 307-308.
117
Ibid.; Braudel, The M e d i t e r r a n e a n , vol. 1, pp.
312-317.
118
Botero, G r a n d e z z a delle C i t t a , B o o k 1, chap t e r 10,
p p . 309-315.
119 Ibid.
206
A nd F i e s o l e w as d e s e r t e d and F l o r e n c e f r e
q u e n t e d for no other r e a s o n t h a n that Fiesole
is l o c a t e d on too steep and too h i g h a place,
al most i n accessible, and F l o r e n c e in a plain,
e a s i l y reached. A nd in Rome the people have
a b a n d o n e d the A v e n t i n e and o t h e r hills there
and a s s e m b l e d t o g e t h e r on the p l a i n and
p l a c e s n e a r e s t to the Tiber b e c a u s e of the
c o n v e n i e n c e w h i c h the p l a i n and the water , 2Q
al lows to the tr a n s p o r t of goo d s and traffic.
De s p i t e the m a n y examples g i v e n a n d the arguments made for
the i m p o r t a n c e of a c c e s s ibility, B o t e r o c a u t i o n e d that the
success o f a c i t y includes other f actors besides access
ibility. He asked, for example, h o w it comes about that
al o n g the same riv e r or in v i r t u a l l y the same l o c a t i o n some
citi es at t r a c t m o r e p e o p l e and a d v a n c e m o r e t h a n another.
B o tero c i t e d v a r i o u s r easons for the de v e l o p m e n t of one .
c i t y r a t h e r than a n o t h e r in v i r t u a l l y the same location.
A m o n g such r e a s o n s he i n c l u d e d the grant o f san c t u a r y and
the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of freedom. R o m e b e c a m e populous p a r t l y
by g r a n t i n g c i t i z e n s h i p w h i c h d r e w p e o p l e to the city.
R e l i g i o n also c a u s e d the g r o w t h of a city. When people
came to a c i t y to worsh i p , the c i t y w o u l d grow in authority,
reputation, and commerce. U n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e also a m a j o r
a t t r a c t i o n for p e o p l e to come to the city. For w h a t e v e r
120
B otero, G r a n d e z z a delle C i t t a , B o o k 1, ch a p t e r 10,
p . 316; "Ne p er alt r a c ogione si e d e s a r t a t a Fiesole, e fre-
q u e n t a t a Fiorenza; se n o n p e r c h e q u e l l a e in sito troppo
erto, e q u e s t a e in piano. Et in Roma n oi v e g gianio il
p o p o l o h a v e r a b b a n d o n a t o e Ave n t i n o , e gli altri colli e
ridotto si tutto al piano, e ne l u o g h i p i u vicini al Tevere,
per la c o m m o d i t a la p ianura, e 1 a c q u a r e c a alia c o n d o t t a
delle robbe, et al t r a f f i c o . "
207
reas o n s p e o p l e came to a cit y t h e y c o n t r i b u t e d in one w a y

121
or a n o t h e r to the b u s i n e s s and trade o f the city.
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e an d e c o n o m i c i n f luence were also among
th e a t t r a c t i o n s w h i c h m a d e one cit y a d v a n c e mor e than a n
other. W h e n a cit y is also a g o v e r n m e n t center m a n y p e o p l e
wi l l be d r a w n to the c i t y for diplom a t i c , political, and
legal reasons. The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of j u s t i c e and the a s s e m
blies of p a r l i a m e n t s increase the flow of pe o p l e to a city
on a m o r e r e g u l a e r and f r e q u e n t basis and, as a result, stim
ulate commerce considerably. If it is c u s t o m a r y for the
court an d the n o b i l i t y to r e s i d e in the city, for example,
as it was in m e d i e v a l an d e a r l y m o d e r n Italy, this also
would mean a substantial i n v e s t m e n t in cit y real estate and

122
sometimes in b u s i n e s s a n d c o m m e r c e as well.
Economically, Botero l i s t e d three m a i n ways a city
c o u l d be advanced. W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g the greater i mportanc e
b e t w e e n "the f e r t i l i t y of the soil or the industry of m an"
for the d e v e l o p m e n t of a state or a city, he chose i n d ustry

1 ?3
"without hesitation."
121
Botero, G r a n d e z z a d elle C i t t a , Book 2, chapters
1-4, p p . 320-330; Le Goff, "The T own as an Agent of C i v i l
i z a t i o n , " p p . 79-85.
122
Botero, G r a n d e z z a d e l l e Citta, B ook 2, chap t e r 10,
p p . 340-341.
123
Gi o v a n n i Botero, D e l l a Ra g i o n di Stato (Venice:
I. Gioliti, 1589), B o o k 8, c h a p t e r 2, p.2d2.
208
Firstly, h u m a n skill makes p r o d u c t s greater

in q u a n t i t y and q uality than n a t u r e , since
n a t u r e p r o v i d e s the m a t e r i a l s and resources
b ut h u m a n i n g enuity and skill ch a n g e s the
r e s o u r c e s into various forms a nd products.
W o o l is a s i mple and basic r a w m a t erial,
but art turns this mater i a l into m a n y m a r
v e l o u s forms. Moreover, m a n y m o r e people
live b y i n d u s t r y than by rents, as m a y be
seen in the cities of I t a l y - - e s p e c i a l l y
V e n i c e , Florence, Genoa and M i l a n . . w h e r e
almost t w o - t h i r d s of the p e o p l e m a k e their
l i v i n g b e c a u s e of the silk a n d w o o l e n i n
d ustries. 124
In a d d i t i o n , he n o t e d that b o t h t he e s s ential and l u x u r y
indus t r i e s and crafts e s t a b lished a f l o w of m o n e y a nd p e o p l e
as w e l l as a d i v e r s i f i e d economy: some p roduce goods and
services, some trade in the f i n i s h e d products, some p r o v i d e
raw m a t e r i a l s , and others buy, sell a nd transport f r o m one
p l a c e to a n o t h e r the fruits of h u m a n inventiveness, ingenuity,
and s k i l l . 125
R e m o v i n g customs barriers to fairs and markets B o tero
s u g g e s t e d w as a n o t h e r way to p r o m o t e the d evelopment of the
124
G i o v a n n i Botero, Della R a g i o n di Stato (Venice: I.
Gioliti, 1589), Book 8, chapter 2, p . 202; " L ' i n d u s t r i a senza
dubbio; p r i m a p e r c h e le cose p r o d o t t e dall' a r t i f i c i o s a mano
d e l l h u o m o sono m o l t o piu, e di m o l t o mag g i o r prezzo, che le
cose g e n e r a t e dalla natura; c o n c i o s i a c h e la n a t u r a da la
mater i a , e 1 sogetto; ma la s o t t i g l i e z z a , e l arte d e l l
huomo da 1 i n e n a r r a b i l e v a r i e t a d e l l e forme. La lana e frutto
s e m p l i c e e rozo d e l l a natura: q u a n t e bel l e cose, q u a n t o
varie, e m o l t i f o r m i n e fabrica l a r t e ? . . . D i piu m o l t a m a g g i o r
nu m e r o di gen t e vive d industria, che d entrata; del chi ci
fanno fede in Italia molte citta, m a p r i n c i p a l m e n t e F i o renza,
Genova, V e n e t i a , d e l l a cui grandezza, e m a g n i f i c e n z a n o n
a c cade parlare: e p ur quivi con l ' a r t e della seta, e d e l l a
lana si m a n t e n g o n o quasi due terzi de gli h a b i t a n t i , "
125 Ibid., p p . 203-206.
209
city. He c o n s i d e r e d the p o l i c y of customs exem p t i o n s the
m a i n cause for the c o m m e r c i a l success of the cities of
Flanders, "the m o s t m a r k e t o r i e n t e d and the bu s i e s t commer-

1 7
cial cities in all E u r o p e . " An o t h e r r e a s o n he gave for
a city's success was the s p e c i a l i z a t i o n in a h i g h demand
produ c t , for example, the spice trade of A n t w e r p or the

127
b r o c a d e cloth o f Florence.
In these div e r s e w a y s one city m ay ad v a n c e more than
a no t h e r in a similar or n e a r b y location. B o tero v i e w e d p o
litical, religious, social, e c onomical and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
factors i nfluencing one or ano t h e r city's c a p a b i l i t y to
a ttract people and business. He summ a r i z e d that it was the
c o n t i n u i n g flow of peo ple, revenue, and r e s o u r c e s w h i c h p r o
m o t e d a city's d e v e l o p m e n t and growth. Future g r o w t h d e
p e n d e d on the city's c o n t i n u i n g ability to at t r a c t such a
flow. Besides c o n s i d e r i n g w h a t o r i g i n a l l y m a d e a city's
g r o w t h possible, he also c o n s i d e r e d what l i m i t e d a city's

1 7 ft
f u t u r e growth.
Botero th e o r i z e d that a city and a state increased
p a r t l y th r o u g h the h u m a n d e s i r e to re p r o d u c e and p a r t l y
t h r o u g h the ab i l i t y of a c i t y to attract the n e e d e d food
126
Botero, G r a n d e z z a del l e C i t t a , Book 2, chapter 7,
p . 334.
127
Ibid., Book 2, c h a p t e r 8, p p . 335-338; V a n Houtte,
L ow C o u n t r i e s , p p . 175-181
128
Botero, G r a n d e z z a del l e C i t t a , B o o k 3, cha p t e r 1,
p p . 361-366.
210
129
s u p p l y and r e s o u r c e s for its growth. Since he v i e w e d the
human desire to r e p r o d u c e as b a s i c a l l y c o n s t a n t t h r o u g h o u t
history, B o tero l o o k e d to the s u p p l y side of the q u e s t i o n to
e x p l a i n w h y a c i t y a d v a n c e d to a p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n
limit b e y o n d w h i c h it d i d not go. He o u t l i n e d the l i m i t a
tions on p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h in the f o l l o w i n g way.
P o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h requires an e x p a n d i n g use of r e s o u r c e s
for e c o n o m i c a n d food s u p p l y reasons. Since it is f o r e i g n
trade w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y makes a city g r o w in p o p u l a t i o n and
r evenue, the n e e d for g r e a t e r supplies in a gr o w i n g c i t y
w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y be s a t i s f i e d from m o r e and m o r e d i s t a n t
f o r e i g n areas. Yet, the natural, geographical, political
a nd e c o n o m i c obstacles to trade and t r a n s p o r t increase
s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h the d i s t a n c e of the s u p p l y source. At
the same time, the g r e a t e r dista n c e o f the s u p p l y s o u r c e r e n
ders m o r e p r e c a r i o u s a w i d e range of c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h
co u l d h i n d e r trade. Besides obs t a c l e s to trade as the sup
p l y line b e c o m e s longer, the costs o f t r a d e increase w i t h
di s t a n c e , and the d i s a d v a n t a g e s of t r a d i n g w i t h a c i t y too
far away c o u l d b e g i n at some point to o u t w e i g h the a d v a n
tages. In t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , trade p a t t e r n s tend to turn
to w a r d m o r e a c c e s s i b l e markets. E v e n t u a l l y a large c i t y
w o u l d no longer be able to attract or be supplied with
e n o u g h f o o d a n d r e s o u r c e s to support an i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a -
129
Botero, G r a n d e z z a delle C i t t a , Book 3, c h a p t e r 1,
p p . 361-366.
211
tion. For t h e s e reasons, Botero s a w limits to the city's
g r o w t h pattern.
In the c o n c l u s i o n of his essay, Botero h e l d that the
cau s e s w h i c h p r o d u c e d a city's g r o w t h c o u l d also c o n s e r v e
it. Besides "the c o n d i t i o n of the sit e and o t h e r c i r c u m
stances" wh i c h allow urban development, he f o u n d the means
b y w h i c h a c i t y r e a c h e s and r e t a i n s its g r e a t e s t s tate in
justice, pe a c e , and plenty. "For j u s t i c e a s s u r e s to each
p e r s o n t h e i r own. P eace causes agriculture, t rade and the
arts to flourish. And a plentiful food supply facilitates

131
the s u s t a i n i n g of h u m a n life."
Ease, convenience, accessibility, trade and p r o f i t
w e r e ke y t erms in B o t e r o ' s u r b a n v o c a b u l a r y , He v i e w e d the
c a u s e s of a city's d e v e l o p m e n t to c e n t e r on the int e n s i t y
a n d d i r e c t i o n of the m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s or "flow" of p e o p l e
a n d trade. The site and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of the c i t y in r e
l a t i o n to t h e s e m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s p l a y e d an e s s e n t i a l role
in u r b a n d e v e l opment. In an age of w i d e r m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s
t h a n ever b e f o r e Botero*s functional a n a lysis of the city
a d d e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i m e n s i o n to e a r l y m o d e r n u r b a n c o n
s c i o u s n e s s b y o r g a n i z i n g into a g e n e r a l p a t t e r n or model
the v a r i o u s elements w h i c h i n f l u e n c e u r b a n deve l o p m e n t .
T h o u g h m u c h was included in B o t e r o ' s m o d e l of u r b a n
1 ^0
Botero, G r a n d e z z a d elle C i t t a , Boo k 3, c h a p t e r 1,
p p . 361-366.
1 31
Ibid., Book 3, chap t e r 2, p . 367.
212
development, he d i d n o t a n t i c i p a t e the e x tent of t e c h n o l o g
ical and social c h a n g e that w o u l d c h a r a c t e r i z e m o d e r n h i s t o r y
or the scale to w h i c h s o c i e t y w o u l d b e c o m e u r b a n i z e d d u ring
the m o d e r n period. M o d e r n mea n s of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m
m u n i c a t i o n h a v e e l i m i n a t e d d i s t a n c e as a b a r r i o r to e c o n o m i c
exchange and h a v e a d v a n c e d the u r b a n i z a t i o n pro c e s s to an
u n p r e c e d e n t e d degree. Political, social, e d u c a t i o n a l and
economic c h a n g e h a v e c h a r a c t e r i z e d u r b a n life also on a
scale w h i c h w as n ot p r e s e n t d u r i n g the ear l y m o d e r n per-

132
iod. W h i l e r e f l e c t i n g the limits and p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
the h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t of the early m o d e r n period, both
G u i c c i a r d i n i and B o t e r o also h e l p e d to b r i n g into focus
some of the m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and trends of an u r b a n i z a
t ion pro c e s s that w a s to c o n t i n u e in f l u e n c i n g E u r o p e a n
cities in the c e n t u r i e s ahead.
All of the ab o v e ar c h i t e c t s , engineers, w r i t e r s and
theoreticians considered in this .chapter c h a r t e d n e w i n t e l
lectual h o r i z e n s in the d e v e l o p m e n t of ear l y m o d e r n u r b a n
theory. They affected early modern European urban history
b o t h d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y by w a y of the s p read of
R e n a i s s a n c e c u l t u r e a n d their writings. In r e l a t i o n to
i
Florence p a r t i c u l a r l y , B r u n e l l e s c h i and Leonardo held p u b l i c
c ommissions g r a n t e d b y the F l orentine g o v e r n m e n t in the
*1 7 0
J o h n C. B o l l e n s and K e n r y J Schmandt, The M e t r o p
olis: Its People, P o l i t i c s and Economic L i f e , 3rd ed. t N ew
York: H a r p e r Row, 1975), p a r t i c u l a r l y chapters 1-5, 9-10,
a nd 15-16.
213
field of p u b l i c u t i l i t y service and also e x p r e s s e d their
vi e w s t h r o u g h urban d e s i g n models, plans, ideas and sketches.
A l b e r t i a nd Filarete b e came w e l l - k n o w n a r c h i t e c t - t h e o r i s t s
d u r i n g the early m o d e r n period. B o t e r o a nd G u i c c i a r d i n i
made i m p ortant contri b u t i o n s to s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y urb a n
t h e o r y t h r o u g h their writings. For v a r i o u s r easons Florence
was a receptive, favorable and n o u r i n s i n g cli m a t e for n e w
ideas g e n e r a l l y and n e w u r b a n v i e w p o i n t s p a r t i c u l a r l y
d u r i n g the R e n a i s s a n c e and ear l y m o d e r n period.
D u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s a n e w
r a t i o n a l i t y a n d sense of i n n o v a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d Florentine
in t e l l e c t u a l and artistic history. R e n a i s s a n c e h u m anists and
historians a p p r o a c h e d in a n e w w ay a n c i e n t sources and

133
society. Humanist scholars d e v e l o p e d the d i s i p l i n e of
p h i l o l o g y d u ring this p e r i o d and s t u d i e d the m e a n i n g of
words in r e a l t i o n to the text and the text in r e l a t i o n to
the times and culture in w h i c h it was written. H istorians
l o c a t e d social and p o l i t i c a l events in a s p e c i f i c h i storical
co n t e x t and c o n t r i b u t e d to a n e w sense of time b a s e d on

134
historical studies, a c c u r a c y and c o ngruity. By their
1 33
Paul Oskar Kristeller, R e n a i s s a n c e Thought: The
Classic, S c holastic and H u m a n i s t ~ S t r a i n s (New York: Harper
kow, 1961), chapter 1, p p . 3-23; c h a p t e r 5, p p . 92-119; and
c h a p t e r 6, p p . 120-139; Also: K r i s t eller, R e n a i s s a n c e Thought
II: Papers on Human i s m and the Arts (New York: H a rper Row,
1965), c h p a t e r s 1-3, p p . 1-88; Wa l l a c e K. F e r guson, Renais s a n c e
Stu d i e s (New York: H a rper 6 Row, 1963), c h a p t e r s 1 and 2,
p p . 17-54; Schevill, M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , vol. 2,
c h a p t e r 18, p p . 310-325.
134 Ibid.
214
s y u d y of the ancient past h u m a n i s t s and h i storians p l a c e d
e v e n t s w i t h i n a f r a mswork m o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e and m e a s u r
a b l e by hum a n reason.
Paralleling a n e w sense o f time was a n e w rational-

135
i z a t i o n of spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s and physi c a l reality.
M e d i e v a l p a i ntings and maps r e p r e s e n t e d points and objects
in space as an u n c o o r d i n a t e d a s s e m b l y of d i s s i m i l a r parts.
T h e r e was no focu s i n g or internal o r d e r i n g p r i n c i p l e w h i c h
r e l a t e d parts to a wh o l e in a r a t i o n a l l y m e a s u r e d and pro-

136
p o r t i o n a t e way. During the R e n a i s s a n c e artists and c a r
t o g r a p h e r s br o u g h t spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s in pa i n t i n g s and
maps into visual p e r s p e c t i v e b y the study and a p p l i c a t i o n

137
of p r i n c i p l e s of math e m a t i c s , geometry, and optics.
S p a t i a l r e l ationships b e c a m e a r a t i o n a l order of m e a s u r a b l e
distances and proportions. T h e y i n t e r r e l a t e d the parts and
t he w h o l e in a b a l a n c e d and r a t i o n a l s y s t e m of proportions.
Maps of Florence p o r t r a y v i v i d l y the change in a p p r o a c h to
sp a t i a l relationships. The Bigallo fresco of the f o u r t e e n t h
135
Samuel Y. Edgerton, Jr., The R e n a i s s a n c e D i s c o v e r y
o f L i near Perspe c t i v e (New York: Basic Books, 1975); This
e n t i r e book is helpful in u n d e r s t a n d i n g the n e w sense of
s patial re l a t i o n s h i p s that d e v e l o p e d in Florence during
the Renaissance. It discusses p e r s p e c t i v e painting, optics,
ca r t o g r a p h y , and the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of B r u n e l l e s c h i and A l
b e r t i particularly. See e s p e c i a l l y chapters 1, 4 - 1 1 j pp.
3-15, 50-165.
136 Ibid.
137 Ibid.
215
century, the C a t e n a p e r s p e c t i v e map of F l o r e n c e of the
f i f t e e n t h c e n tury, and the B o n s i g n o r i m a p of the s i x t e e n t h
c e n t u r y i l l u s t r a t e d clearly the t r a n s i t i o n f rom the m e d i e v a l

138
to the R e n a i s s a n c e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of th e city.
For t h e s e as well as o t h e r r e a s o n s already mentioned
Florence was a ce n t e r of cultural i n n o v a t i o n d u r i n g the

139
Renaissance and e arly m o d e r n period. As m e r c h a n t s , indus
t rialists, humanists, guild m e m b e r s , architects and o t h e r
c i t izens p a r t i c i p a t e d in i n t e l lectual d i a l o u g e and e x c h a n g e
and b e c a m e p u b l i c o f f i c e h o l d e r s there w a s p r e s e n t in F l o r e n c e
a cultu r a l c o n t i n u u m w h i c h a l l o w e d for a f l o w of n e w v i e w s
and a p p r o a c h e s f r o m one sector of s o c i e t y to another.
Perhaps, b y a p r o c e s s of c u l tural t r a n s f e r and m u t u a l ex
change the n e w r a t i o n a l i t y of one area o f F l o r e n t i n e culture
found e x p r e s s i o n in another. H o w e v e r that m a y be, it w a s in
an a t m o s p h e r e of general c u l tural i n n o v a t i o n that artists,
w r i t e r s an d p o l i c y m a k e r s c o n t r i b u t e d to the f o r m a t i o n of a
138
The M u s e o : Firenze C o m ' E r a has on d i s p l a y the
above as w e l l as m a n y other map s of F l o r e n c e p r o d u c e d d u r i n g
this and l a t e r periods. For r e p r o d u c t i o n s of these m a p s see:
E n c i c l o p e d i a I t a l i a n a , vol. 15, p p . 436-439; Storia d ' ltalia:
A t l a n t e , vol. 6. p p . 311 and 313.
139
B r u cker, Re n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , p p . 241-255. See also
the s e c t i o n on m e d i e v a l and e arly m o d e r n F l o r e n c e in c h a p
ter 1 of this dissertation.
140
F or a d i s c u s s i o n of the c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e that was
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Flore n t i n e social e n v i r o n m e n t see:
Krey, Cit y That Art B u i l t , p p . 5-51.
more coherent a p p r o a c h to F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n p l a n n i n g and
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d u r i n g the e a r l y m o d e r n period.
217
C H A P T E R 4: REGIONAL U R B A N A D M I N I S T R A T I O N
D u r i n g the fi f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h centuries Florence
m a d e the t r a n s i t i o n from the c e nter of a c i t y - s t a t e to the
c e n t e r of a regi o n a l state. Administrative reorganization
a c c o m p a n i e d this change and became one of the m a i n avenues
by w h i c h it was accomplished. At the same time, a c h a n g e in
s c a l e took p l a c e in the p l a n n i n g o f the u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t
a n d in the field of p u b l i c services.
This c h a p t e r discusses the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the follow
ing m a i n offices w h i c h p l a y e d key roles in the d e v e l o p m e n t of
a F l o r e n t i n e regio n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and in the a r e a o f u r
b a n a f f a i r s - - t h e Tow e r Officials and the Guelf Party, a nd then
t he Cinque, the Otto, and the Nove. T h o u g h the h i s t o r y of
F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is complex, two t r e n d s emerge
a m i d the m a n y p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c turns d u r i n g this p e r
iod: a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n b a s e d on a w i d e r j u r i s
d i c t i o n and, though limited, a h i g h e r d e gree of special i z a t i o n .
A d i s c u s s i o n of the origin, definition, and range o f acti v i t y
o f the abo v e offices will help p r o v i d e a p e r s p e c t i v e on the
d e v e l o p i n g regional u r b a n i z a t i o n of the f i f t e e n t h and s i x
t e e n t h c e n turies and the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e structure of an
e a r l y m o d e r n state. It will also give an i n d i c a t i o n o f the
way problems and h o p e d for solutions w e r e viewed.
The change from a c i ty-state to a regional s t a t e reflec
t e d and b r o u g h t n e w political trends a nd n e w e c o n o m i c condi
218
tions. This change a l s o t r a n s l a t e d into a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of
g ove r n m e n t admi n i s t r a t i o n . Since the F l o r e n t i n e regional
state was a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h u r b a n i z e d area, the develo p m e n t
of a w i d e r te r r i t o r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a f f e c t e d clos e l y and
d i r ectly u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . 1
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , the p a t t e r n of i n t e r w e a v i n g re-
sponsibilites for u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n betw e e n the various
levels of g overnment a n d w i t h i n the wider j u r i s d i c t i o n of a
central m a g i s t r a c y o u t l i n e d a b a s i c t rend in c o m p l e x g o v e r n
men t a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of this period. As u r b a n i z a t i o n and
inte r d e p e n d e n c y i n creased, the cent r a l g o v e r n m e n t acted more
a nd m o r e to coor d i n a t e and to r e g u l a t e po l i c y on a statewide
basis, and one re s u l t of this d e v e l o p m e n t was that local c o m
munities also acted in the c o n t e x t of a wider s y s t e m of p o l
itical, economic, environmental and cultural exchange. Never
theless, p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m i c conditions in local communi
ties c o n t i n u e d to v a r y f r o m one p a r t of the s t a t e to another.
Politically, n e i t h e r the f i f t e e n t h century Repub l i c of
Florence nor the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y M e d i c e a n P r i n c i p a t e was a
u n i t a r y state, namely, a state w i t h one c o n s t i t u t i o n a l struc
ture for all its parts. Nor was there also a t h o r o u g h l y
s p e c i a l i z e d b u r e a u c r a c y of a single function and clearly d e
fined j u r i s d i c t i o n for eac h g o v e r n m e n t department. These
political and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e differences, along w i t h ec-
^ E l e n a Fasano Guarini, Lo Stato Medi c e o di Cosimo I

(Florence: Sansoni, 1973), p p . 49-62.
219
onomic v a r i a t i o n s f r o m one part of the region to another, in
fluen c e d a d e v e l o p m e n t that pr o c e e d e d u n e v e n l y f r o m p l a c e to
place. Some areas, such as, the remote mo u n t a i n s and feudal
enclaves, w e r e not always as immediatly i n t e r d e p e n d e n t or as
u r b a n i z e d as o t h e r areas. Districts of separate j u r i s d i c t i o n
also existed, for example, Pisa and Pistoia. Both h a d their
own office of p u b l i c works a nd urban a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d u ring the

y
s i x teenth century. Yet, each r e m a i n e d direc t l y and c e n t r a l l y
a key p a r t i c i p a n t in the larger interurban p a t t e r n of trade
and traffic. E v e n some of the more remote regions of the
state drew g r a d u a l l y c l oser to the patterns of e x c h a n g e of the
six t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h e n an energy crisis became m o r e p r e s s i n g
b ec a u s e of a t i m b e r s h o r t a g e . 3
Regional interdependence, political change, and d e m o g r a p h
ic growth w e r e key dynamics shaping F l orentine c u l t u r e a nd the
internal a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the early m o d e r n state. Having
made the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a city-state to a r e g i o n - s t a t e there
was u n d e r s t a n d a b l y an i n c r e a s e d emphasis on i n t e r u r b a n affairs
and a d m i n istration. T h o u g h m u c h of this emphasis and the m a n y
changes in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and policy found m o t i v a t i o n in p o l
itics and finance, it is to be considered also that the h i g h e r
the degree o f u r b a n i z a t i o n the greater the n e e d to be able
2 Giorgio Spini, "A r c h i t e t t u r a E Polit i c a Nel P r i n c i p a t o

M ediceo Del C i n q n e c e n t o ," Rivista Storica Italiana 83(1971):
p p . 813-814, 821-822; Repetti, Dizionario, vol. 4, o p . 356-367,
426-427.
3 See c h a p t e r 9; Also: Carlo M. Copolla, Before the I n

dustrial Revolution: E u r o p e a n Society and Economy, 1000-1700
(New York: W. W. N o r t o n C o . , l 9 ? 6 ) , p p . 228-230.
220
to m o v e goods, services, information, ideas, and p e o p l e in an
e f f e c t i v e w a y over a w i d e area.^ The n e e d for fuel and food
a n d e c o n o m i c and social life occ u r y e a r around. Changing
political, economic, environmental and u r b a n c o n d i t i o n s es
t a b l i s h e d a n e w f r a m e w o r k for a d a p t a t i o n a n d development.
T he Tower Of f i c i a l s and the G u e l f Party
Both the Tow e r Officials and the G u e l f Par t y w e r e the
antecedents of a n e w m a g i s t r a c y e s t a b l i s h e d in 1549 k n o w n as
the Par t e . ^ F o l l o w i n g the u n i o n of the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s and
t he Gue l f Party to f o r m the Parte in 1549, the R i v e r Officials,
a b r a n c h of the Parte, acted as a s p e c i a l i z e d d e p a r t m e n t w i t h
j u r i s d i c t i o n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the i n t e r u r b a n r o a d and
r i v e r systems of the M e d i c e a n P r i n c i p a t e . ^ This is one m a i n
r e a s o n w h i c h makes the h i s t o r y of the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s , an a d
m i n i s t r a t i v e office, and the G u e l f Party, a powerful political
association, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g for a s t u d y of u r b a n
^ See c h a p t e r s 4-8.
** The s i x t e e n t h c entury M e d i c e a n state is d i s c u s s e d in

the following: A n t o n i o Anzilotti, La C o s t i t u z i o n e dello Stato
f i o r e n t i n o sotto i l D u c a Cosimo I de M e dici (Florence: FT
Lumachi, 1910) and La Crisi c o s t i t u z i o n z l e d e l l a R e p u b b l i c a
f i o r e n t i n e (FlorencFT B. Seeber, 1912), p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a p t e r
6, "Dalla R e p u b b l i c a al P r i n c i p a t o p p . 121-148; Caggese,
F i r e n z e della D e c a d e n z a di R o m a , vol. 3, "II P r i n c i p a t o " ;
A r n a l d o d'Addario, "Burocrazia, Economia, e F i n a n z e , " ASI 121
(1963): 362-456, p a r t i c u l a r l y 362-383; E l e n a F a s a n o G u a r i n i ,
Lo Stato M a d i c e o di Cosimo I (Florence: Sanso n i , 1973).
^ The o f f i c e o f the River O f f icials is d i s c u s s e d later in

this chapter.
administration.
Since records b e f o r e 1300 are g e n e r a l l y less a v ailable
than records after 1300, the origins and f u n c t i o n s of Floren-

7
tine m e d i e v a l m a g i s t r a c i e s are not so e a s i l y determined.
N e i t h e r the origins n o r the origi n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n of the
T o w e r Officials are d e f i n i t e l y known. Originally, the Tower
O f f i c i a l s may hav e e x e r c i s e d some typ e of j u r i s d i c t i o n over
matters rela t e d to the m a n y feudal towers b u i l t in Florence
d u r i n g the twelth and t h i r t e e n t h c e nturies, but this has not
b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h certainty. Also, it is v e r y likely
that the Tower O f f i c i a l s h a d at least some r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
for the walls and f o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f the city.
H o w e v e r u n c e r t a i n t h e i r origins, the y e a r 1349 p r o v i d e d
a c lear d i v i d i n g line in the h i s t o r y of the T o w e r Officials.
F r o m 1349 to the m i d - s i x t e e n t h cent u r y the Libro d e l l a Luna

9
registered a detailed account of T o w e r O f f i c i a l activities.
W h a t e v e r their o r i ginal jurisdiction, it is c l e a r that during
the fourt e e n t h cent u r y the Tower Of f i c i a l s w e r e responsible
for d i v e r s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c tivities and a c q u i r e d m u l t i p l e
jurisdictions.
The P r i orate and the Colleges, the e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h of
n
Milanesi, " D o c u m e n t o ine d i t o , " p p . 5-7; Pampaloni,
F i r e n z e al Tempo di D a n t e , Intro d u c t i o n , x x i i i - x x x v i i i ; Ottokar,
" C r i t e r i d ' O r d i n e , " "pp. 101-106.
8 Ibid.
^ The dates of the L ibro della L una b e g i n w i t h the yea r

1349 and continue to 158TTT
222
the F l o r e n t i n e g overnment, and the Councils, the legislative
branch, d e t e r m i n e d the e x t e n t and boundaries of the authority
of the To w e r Officials. Without the explicit appro v a l of the
F l o r e n t i n e gover n m e n t the Tower Officials cou l d n o t exercise
the a u t h o r i t y of their office. Before i n i t i a t i n g any a c
tivity w i t h i n their j u r i s d i c t i o n the Tower O f f icials sub
mitted a proposal for the d e l i b e r a t i o n of the P r i o r a t e and
the Councils. Some of the e a r l i e s t entries in the Libro della
Luna p r e s e n t a picture o f b o t h the activities w h i c h w e r e the
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the T o w e r Of f i c i a l s and the close inter
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n this a c t i v i t y and w h a t a f f e c t e d the city
generally. 10
One o f the m a i n fu n c t i o n s of the To w e r Of f i c i a l s was
the a u t h o r i t y to sell or lease city p r o p e r t y . H As p r e v i
ously discussed, the p l a g u e of 1348 brought d e v a s t a t i o n to
the p o p u l a t i o n of Europe and Florence. Part of the economic
side of this disaster a p p e a r e d in the Tow e r Officials' man
a g e m e n t of city property. W i t h the loss of p o p u l a t i o n and
the e c o n o m i c d i s l o c a t i o n f o l l o w i n g the plague, the shop-
1 Brucker, F l o r e n t i n e Politics and S o c i e t y , p p . 9-27;

For a d i s c u s s i o n of the g e n e r a l fourt e e n t h cen t u r y d e m o g raphic
and e c o n o m i c trends in E u r o p e see: Lopez, The B i r t h of
E u r o p e , p p . 394-402.
11 A. S. F . , Libro Lune, 1-3. The date of the first

entry in the Tower O f f icials records is 23 O c t o b e r 1349, and
the issues d i s c u s s e d in this entry reflect the p r o b l e m s and
di f f i c u l t i e s brought about by the 1348 plague; See also:
A l i b e r t o B. Falsini, " F i r e n z e dopo il 1348. Le C o n s e q u e n z e
del l a P e s t a Nera," ASI 129 (1971-72): 425-502, p a r t i c u l a r l y
437-449.
223
keepers, artisans, and p e o p l e generally of F l o r e n c e were not
able to p a y rents or debts. City properties let for c o m m e r
cial and industrial p u r p o s e s w e r e left u n u s e d and abandoned.
T he result was a c o n s e q u e n t drop in city revenues at a time
of critical need. 12 jn addition, it was b e c o m i n g increasing
ly d i f ficult for the T o w e r Officials to find a n d to employ
a s t a f f whi c h w o u l d a l l o w their office to c a r r y out the r e
sponsibilities a s s i g n e d to them. The Tower O f f i c i a l s com
p l a i n e d of their s i t u a t i o n to the Priorate in the form of a
petition.^
Due to the p o p u l a t i o n loss and the s u b s e q u e n t drop in
demand, the Tower O f f i c i a l s asked for the a u t h o r i t y to lease
c i t y properties at low e r rates and to increase the salary
o f their officials. It w as thought that this w o u l d help
s t i m u l a t e the rental m a r k e t of city property, al l e v i a t e the
b u r d e n of debt of s h o p k e e p e r s and artisans, and allow for
the recruitment of a n e e d e d staff by the Tower Officials.
H a v i n g considered the pe t i t i o n , the Priorate g r a n t e d the a p
proval and authority for b o t h requests. 14 B e s i d e s d e scribing
s o m e of the early a c t i v i t i e s of the Tower Offic i a l s , this
ex a m p l e indicated a c o n t i n u i n g p r o b l e m for c i t y officials
and, consequently, one o f the m a i n motives for a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
12 See note 11 in this chapter.
13 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 1-5.
14 Ibid.
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n was financial d ifficulty. This led to a m a j o r
le g i s l a t i v e r e f o r m in 1364.
The 1364 r e f o r m law c o n s o l i d a t e d s ix m u n i c i p l e of f i c e s
into one and assi g n e d the name o f the T o w e r Officials to the
merger.*5 A list of the five of f i c e s n e w l y i n c o r p o r a t e d
outlines the m u l t i p l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and functions attrib
u ted to the T o w e r Officials by the l egislative re o r g a n i z a t i o n .
The five offices were: the g a b e l l e (the c o l l e c t i o n o f m u n i c
ipal tolls) , beni dei ribelli ( the c o n f i s c a t i o n and c u s t o d y
of rebel p r o p e r t y ) , the m u l i n a ( s u p e r v i s i o n of the m i l l s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y the grain mills for food s u p p l y ) , del mare
(river a nd fl o o d control and m a i n t e n a n c e ) , and delle v i e ,
p o n t i , e mura (responsibility f or the streets, bridges, a nd
w a l l s ) . *6 The above last two areas of resp o n s i b i l i t y h a v e
p a r t i c u l a r impor t a n c e for u r b a n a d m i n istration, and b o t h
will be d i s c u s s e d more fully l a t e r . * 7 Some comment, h o w
ever, c o n c e r n i n g the tenure a nd j u r i s d i c t i o n of the o f f i c e
of streets, bridges, and walls m a y be hel p f u l at this p o i n t
in s u g g e s t i n g some of the q u e s t i o n s and issues c o n c e r n i n g
e a r l i e r u r b a n administration.
To w h a t extent the office of streets, bridges, a nd w a l l s
e x e r c i s e d a continuous tenure a n d a d i s t i n c t j u r i s d i c t i o n as
* 5 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 29-34.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
225
a separate municipal depar t m e n t d u ring the ear l i e r c o m
m un a l p e r i o d is not certain. Some refer e n c e s in the c o m
m un a l statutes and records e s t a b l i s h its ex i s t e n c e b e f o r e

18
1300. It is a q u e stion, though, w h e t h e r or not this of
fice p r a c t i c e d a c ontinuous tenure b e t w e e n 1300 and 1364.
A n o t h e r q u e s t i o n concerns jurisd i c t i o n : namely, w h e t h e r or
not its j u r i s d i c t i o n r e m a i n e d w i t h i n or w e n t b e y o n d the
city's b o u n d a r i e s or walls. No series of records are a v a i l
able w h i c h cl e a r l y answers these and ot h e r questions.
Perhaps, some conje c t u r e m a y be p e r m i t t e d on this topic
until m o r e d e f i n i t e evid e n c e e merges to indic a t e a more
d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e of earlier c o m m u n a l u r b a n a d m i n istration.
From time to time it may have o c c u r e d that the F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t r e d i r e c t e d the a u t h o r i t y of the office o f streets,
bridges, a nd walls to its own im m e d i a t e j u r i s d i c t i o n a nd
supervision. W h e n n e e d e d again, the Prior a t e and Councils
w o u l d r e c o n s t i t u t e the office to direct and to a c c o m p l i s h
a l a r g e - s c a l e p r o j e c t or a p a r t i c u l a r c o m m i s s i o n in the
19
city. Or, the o f fice may h a v e c o n t i n u e d to exist on
p a p e r w i t h a small or v i r t u a l l y no p e r m a n e n t staff. As
n e e d or o c c a s i o n arose a c o m m i t t e e w o u l d be o r g a n i z e d to
manage the n ew s i t u a t i o n and employ the s t a n d b y staff.
18
A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 34-37; Caggese, Statuti, vol.
1. bk. 4; Mi l a n e s i , "Documento inedito," pp.5-!T
19 Villani, Cro n i c a VII, p p . 116-117; II, p p . 41, 75: Pam-

paloni, Firenze al Tempo di D a n t e , p p . 5-8, 86-87, 106-109,
159-162, and other entries cited and i n c l u d e d in the above
work.
226
F i n a n c i a l reasons m a y have b e e n a m o t i v a t i o n to m a i n
t a i n o n l y a t e m p o r a r y o r p a r t - t i m e office. Also, it m a y
s i m p l y have not b e e n a p a r t of the intellectual or p o l i t i c a l
c l i m a t e o f the time to e s t a b l i s h a more p e r m a n e n t f o r m of
u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as a s p e c i a l i z e d d e p a r t m e n t o f g o v e r n
ment. However, this does remain c o n j e cture, a nd the q u e s t i o n
of the t e n u r e and j u r i s d i c t i o n of this e a r l y o f f i c e of u r b a n
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n has not y e t been a d e q u a t e l y resolved.
More cle a r l y d o c u m e n t e d , though, is the m o t i v a t i o n for
r e f o r m and the m e t h o d o f o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the T o w e r Officials
p r e s e n t e d in the l e g i s l a t i o n of 1364. T wo m a i n reasons
p r o m p t e d the reform. Tt is s t ated e x p l i c i t l y that the p r e
v i o u s l y s e p a r a t e d o f f i c e s were o r g a n i z e d "in s u c h a w a y that
u seless a nd needless expenses resulted." Moreover, there
a p p e a r e d t o b e " little c o n c e r n or r e s p o n s i v n e s s for w h a t
needs to be d o n e . " 2 A ll o f this w o r k e d to the d i s a d v a n t a g e
o f the city. A f t e r h a v i n g given " p r o p e r and due c o n s i d e r a t i o n
to the issues r a i s e d a nd s e e k i n g u s eful s e r v i c e for the c i t y , "
the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t appro v e d the r e f o r m l e g i s l a t i o n . 21
A c c o r d i n g to the legi s l a t i o n , a co u n c i l of eight w o u l d
direct the T o w e r Officials. Two of f i c i a l s w e r e to be e l e c t e d
f r o m each q u a r t e r o f the city. The el e c t i o n s w o u l d be by lot,
and w o u l d be h e l d eve r y three months. Four o f the eight of-
20 A. S. F., Libro L u n a , 27-28
21 Ibid.
in
ficials wo u l d be e l e c t e d each time, thus p r o v i d i n g both r o
t a t i o n and c o n t i n u i t y of office. Offices w e r e d i v i d e d b e
t we e n "grandi" and "popolani". Two of the seats on the
cou n c i l were to be- f i l l e d by two ng r a n d i ,?, but each h a d to
come from a dif f e r e n t quarter. Six seats w e r e h e l d by

22
" p opolini" who h a d to be "F l o r e n t i n e citizens and G u e l f s . "
As a result of this r e o r g a n i z a t i o n the Tower Off i c i a l s
r e c e i v e d the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the i n c o r p o r a t e d offices. The
1364 le g i s l a t i o n d e f i n e d the Tower Officials' role in the
fie l d of public u t i l i t y and u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n until the

23
c hanges of the s i x t e e n t h century. This role w o u l d e x p a n d
a nd b e c o m e more i m p o r t a n t as the i n terurban n e t w o r k of t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n g a i n e d m o r e at t e n t i o n f r o m the
2Q
Flore n t i n e gover n m e n t after a m a j o r p o l i c y change in 1415.
In some ways, h o w e v e r , the Tower Officials w e r e not alone
in this field. Other offices cla i m e d o v e r l a p p i n g respon s i b i l i t i e s .
The role of these other offices also g r e w in impor t a n c e w h e n
the F l orentine state e x p a n d e d during the fif t e e n t h century.
One s u c h office was the Capi t a n i di Parte G u elfa or the G u e l f
Party.
As already discussed, the origins of the G u e l f Party
date from the early t h i r t e e n t h century factional feuds in
^ A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 29-30.
2 3
See the comments in the next s ection of this chapter.
^ The reforms of 1415 are d i s c u s s e d in the n e x t chapter.
228
Flor e n c e and f r o m the mid-century stru g g l e for the control of
Italy bet w e e n the P apal-Guelf forces and the Imperial-Ghibel-
line forces. W i t h the defeat of the G h i b e l l i n e forces in
1266-67 and the chance for Imperial rule ended in Italy, the
F lore n t i n e Guelfs fixed their control o v e r the city by e s
t ablishing a formal organization for th e i r pa r t y in 1266.
The old feudal a nd aristocratic families of Florence and
some of the m o s t w e d l t h y merchant a nd b a n k i n g families of
Flor e n c e f i lled the ranks of the Gue l f P a r t y hierarchy. The
f o l l o w i n g of th e s e families included m e m b e r s f r o m the guilds
and almost all the other classes of F l o r e n t i n e society.
Since the G u e l f Party i dentified i t s e l f as the champion
of the papal cau s e and the h e r a l d of F l o r e n t i n e liberty against
any w o u l d be oppo n e n t s , particularly, the Ghibellines, they b e
came the focus o f m u c h p opular support d u r i n g the t h irteenth
and f o u r t e e n t h centuries. They also e n t r e n c h e d themselves
in F l o r e n t i n e p o l i t i c s by e x e r c i s i n g the p o w e r to prohibit
a Flor e n t i n e c i t i z e n from h olding p u b l i c office by d e c laring
a p e r s o n a Ghibelline. This label l e d someone a rebel and
e x c l u d e d them f r o m exercising their c i v i c rights. There was
no appeal from the Guelf Party's verdict. Not even the F l o r e n
tine g o v e r n m e n t could reverse this judgment. The ve r d i c t fell
not only on the individual but on the indi v i d u a l ' s family and
7 *5
s u c c e e d i n g generation.
25 S c h evill, Medieval and R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , vol. 1,

p p . 103-118, 137-144, 151-225; Brucker, F l o r e n t i n e ~ 7 o l i t i c s
and Society 1 343-1378, pp. 73-84, 86-90^ 99-104, 337-351.
229
A n o t h e r result of the Guelf v i c t o r y was the c o n f i s c a t i o n
of the p r o p e r t y of the rebel Ghibellines. The Guelf*s
d i v i d e d the p r o p e r t y into three p a r t s : one part went to the
F l o r e n t i n e government; another part p a i d the individual
Guelf m e m b e r s w h o suffe r e d p r o p e r t y l o sses to the Giibel-
lines in the past; the third part w e n t to the Guelf Party.
To the G u e l f Pa r t y ' s po l i t i c a l p o w e r w a s a d d e d consi d e r a b l e

26
econ o m i c status. For the next c e n t u r y F l o r e n t i n e polit i c s
was b a s i c a l l y G u e l f politics.
Since the G u e l f Party e x e r c i s e d the p o w e r to declare
someone a rebel, w h i c h then u s u a l l y l ed to exile and c o n f i s
c a t i o n of p r o p e r t y , their influence w as f o r m i d a b l e d u ring the
c e n t u r y of p o p u l a r government b e t w e e n 1266-1378. Fo l l o w i n g
the w as b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e and the Papal States in 1375-78
and the r e v o l u t i o n a r y government of the C i ompi from 1378-81,
Fl o r e n t i n e p o l i t i c s took a turn t o w a r d m o r e olig a r c h i c a l rule.
A s F l o r e n t i n e f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n c r e a s i n g l y v i e w e d the b o r d e r
Papal States a t h reat to Flor e n t i n e i n d e p e n d e n c e and interests,
the p o l i t i c a l role of the Gue l f Party d e c l i n e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y
fo l l o w i n g a c o n f l i c t w i t h the F l o r e n t i n e government in 1378
over d o m e s t i c and foreign p o l i c y issues. D u r i n g the next
c e n t u r y the p o l i t i c a l influence of the G u e l f Party ended
26
V i l l a n i , C r o n i c a , VII, p . 16; R e p e t t i , D i z i o n a r i o , vol.
2, p p . 153-159; R o molo Caggese, M Su l ' O r i g i n e della Parte g u elfa
e le sue R e l a z i o n e col Cummune," A S I , 32(1903): 302-310; See
also the d i s c u s s i o n of medieval F l o r e n c e in c hpater 1.
27
while its administrative functions increased.
Already possessing extensive property holdings of its
own and the m a i n t e n a n c e responsibilities that w e n t w ith them,
the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t sometimes g r a n t e d the G u e l f Party
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for some c o m munal p r o p e r t y
as well. E ventually, the

G u e l f Party a d m i n i s t e r e d various
28
city pr o p e r t i e s , even forts and castles. T h e r e w e r e not
always clea r l y d rawn j u r i s d i c t i o n a l lines b e t w e e n the Tower
Officials, the G uelf Party, and other governmental agencies.
M o r e o v e r , w h e n the F l o r e n t i n e s tate e x p a n d e d d u r i n g the
f i f t e e n t h century, the n e e d to a d m i n i s t e r a w i d e r area and
a b r o a d e r range of a c t i v i t i e s also developed.
The Flor e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t a l l o w e d the Guelf P a r t y to
expand its j u r i s d i c t i o n a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e rol e by i n
corporating the U f f i c i a l i delle C a s t e l l a di F i r e n z e in 1419.
Al s o i n c o r p o r a t e d d u r i n g this c e n t u r y w e r e the Sei di A r e z z o
in 1459 and the Consoli di M a r e of Pis a in 1481. W i t h these
addit i o n s , the Guelf P a r t y n o w e x e r c i s e d a j u r i s d i c t i o n p r a c
ti c a l l y f r o m the s o u t h e a s t e r n b o u n d a r y of the s t a t e at A r e z z o
to the w e s t e r n b o u n d a r y at Pisa. Mor e o v e r , the r a n g e of a c
tivities of the i n c o r p o r a t e d offices in A r e z z o a n d in P isa

29
i n c l u d e d the field of p u b l i c works.
27 Brucker, F l o r e n t i n e Politics and Society, p p . 101-104,

202-221, 226, 387-396.
2R
A. S. F . , C a p i t a n i di P a r t e , Nu m e r i neri, 1-6.
29 Ibid.
231
Particu l a r l y , the Consoli di M a r e of P i s a h a d in its
o r i g i n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n the sea tr a f f i c of the port a nd r e l a t e d
issues, but its j u r i s d i c t i o n later e x t e n d e d to include river
a nd r e c l a m a t i o n p r o j e c t s in the P i s a n c o n t a d o and i m m e d iately
a r o u n d the city. This r e s p o n s i b i l i t y n o w p a s s e d to the

30
G u e l f Party. By the end of the f i f t e e n t h century, the Gue l f
Par t y e m p l o y e d i n d e e d m u c h more of its energies in a d m i n i s
t r a t i v e a nd p u b l i c u t i l i t y matters t h r o u g h o u t the F lorenti ne
state. T h o u g h these d e v e lopments w e r e i m p o r t a n t , an even
more significant administrative change in r e g a r d to i n t e r
u r b a n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n and p u b l i c u tility
p o l i c y took p l a c e in the six t e e n t h century.
D u r i n g the y e a r s 1494 and 1537 F l o r e n c e m o v e d from
r e p u b l i c a n to o l i g a r c h i c a l to m o n a r c h i c a l rule. W i t h the
c o m i n g to office as h e a d of the F l o r e n t i n e state in 1537 of
Cosimo I (1537-1574), the p r i n c i p l e o f l e g i t i m a t e h e r e d i t a r y
s u c c e s s i o n r e p l a c e d government b y e l e c t i o n and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
assemblies. Both p a t r i c i a n councils and p o p u l a r o r ganizations
came u n d e r the m o n a r c h y ' s control. Cosimo I rul e d and reigned.
H e r an the g o v e r n m e n t p e r s o n a l l y f r o m his o wn desk first in
the P alazzo V e c c h i o (the old city hall) a nd then in the Palazzo
Pitti across the A r n o (his perso n a l residence in F l o r e n c e ) .
Cosimo built an effective b u r e a u c r a c y to implement his
p o l i c y in a wide range of a r e a s - f r o m r e v e n u e r a i s i n g to land
A, S. F . , Capit a n i di Parte, N u m e r i neri, 1-6.
232
r e c l a m a t i o n projects. He and his Privy Cou n c i l made policy.
The Supreme M a g i s t r a c y , c o m p o s e d of four c o u n c i l l o r s c h osen
f r o m the Senate of the Council of Fo r t y - E i g h t every three
months and c h a i r e d by Cosimo I's appointee, and Cosimo I's
p e r s o n a l l y s e l e c t e d a u d i t o r s and secretaries sec u r e d the
l e g i s l a t i o n n e e d e d to im p l e m e n t his policy. To a c o n s i d e r
able d e gree he r e s t r i c t e d the Florentine p a t r i c i a t e to the
Senate w h i l e he s t a f f e d the bu r e a u c r a c y a nd k e y offices of
the state w i t h loyal m e m b e r s of the p o p u l a r classes f r o m the
towns and cities s c a t t e r e d throughout the r e g i o n a l state b e
y o n d Florence. Cosimo I's personal, e c o nomic, landholding,
and p o l i t i c a l interests e x p r e s s e d more a r e g i o n a l than a

31
s t r i c t l y F l o r e n t i n e cutlook.
Cosimo I i n i t i a t e d a general r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the g o v e r n
m e n t b u r e a u c r a c y d u r i n g the years 1549 to 1559. The r e o r g a n
iza t i o n a c h i e v e d at this time and its a m p l i f i c a t i o n d u ring the
reigns of F r a ncesco I (1574-87) and F e r d i n a n d o I (1587-1609),
Cosimo I's immediate sucessors, e s t a b lished the basic a d m i n i s
trative f r a m e w o r k for the M e d i c e a n P r i n c i p a t e until it ended in

32
1737. Part of the r e f o r m movement b e g u n b y Cosimo I was the
u n i o n of the Tower Of f i c i a l s and the Gue l f P a r t y into the M a g i s
trate di Capit a n i Parte or the Parte. This n e w l y formed
31
A n z i l l o t t i , La Crisi C o s t i t u z i o n a l e , ch a p t e r 6, pp.
121-148; Hale, F l o r e n c e and the M e d i c i , pp"Tl27-143.
32
Guarini, Stato M e d i c e o , p p . 49-62.
233
office o c c u p i e d a central p lace in the g o v e r n m e n t structure
until the r e f o r m m o v e m e n t of 1769, w h i c h f o l l o w e d the end
of the M e d i c e a n Principate earlier in the century, reorga n i z e d
the state a d m i n i s t r a t i o n once again. W i t h such a long tenure
and n e a r l y sta t e w i d e j u r i sdiction for the rivers an d roads of
m u c h of Tuscany, this office and its e n a b l i n g l e g i s l a t i o n
m e r i t c o n s i d e r a b l e attention.
The Parte b e g a n its ca r e e r w i t h the l e g i s l a t i o n of 18
September 1 5 4 9 . ^ The c o n s o l i d a t i o n p r o c e s s and the P a r t e s
o r g a n i z a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d the way r e f o r m and an i n c r e a s e d
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n was achieved during this period. S ince the
j u r i s d i c t i o n of the two previous offices wa s retained, the
Parte e x e r c i s e d b o t h judicial and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e functions.
The n e w office was r e s p o nsible to h e a r cases a r i s i n g f r o m alleged
damage to p u b l i c property, disputes o ver p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y rights,
c o n f i s c a t i o n of rebel property, n e g l e c t or v i o l a t i o n of laws
g o v e r n i n g p u b l i c w orks activities and st r u c t u r e s , and m a i n
tenance of the river and road systems. This j u d i c i a l role
o c c u p i e d p r e v i o u s l y much of the time an d the e n e r g y of the
G uelf Party, and was, in fact, one of the reasons st a t e d
for the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n in 1549, namely,to improve the ad-

34
m i n i s t r a t i o n of justice c oncerning the above matters. The
e x e rcise of these judicial functions also m e a n t the collection
of fines and fees w h i c h were appl i e d to the costs of public
33
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 2, p p . 98-126.
34
I b i d . , p . 98.
234
works a nd the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the Parte.
B esides judic i a l r e a s o n s , a range of m o t i v ations issued
from the e n a b l i n g l e g i slation. In r e g a r d to the a d m i n i s t r a
tion of rivers and roads, the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n intended to
allow the n e w office to be able "more readily than in the
past to m a i n t a i n the roads in ord e r that one may p r e v e n t by
every o p p ortune r e m e d y the i n f i n i t e damages caused by the
rivers" t h r o u g h o u t the state. R e d u c e d expenses, adminis
trative efficiency, and p u b l i c p o l i c y in the form of the n e e d
for a v i a b l e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m m o t i v a t e d the basic a d
m i n i s t r a t i v e r e f o r m . 3^ The st r u c t u r e of the new m a g i s t r a c y
r e f l e c t e d these general influences a nd objectives.
A co m m i t t e e of ten c i t i z e n s act e d as the exe c u t i v e c o u n
cil of the Parte. Except for two of the officials, they w e r e
c h osen p a r t l y by e l e c t i o n a nd p a r t l y by lot for a one y e a r
t e r m o f office. The d u k e or gr a n d d u k e ap p o i n t e d the two e x
ceptions w ho were c a l l e d the River Officials. These two
officials h e l d their o f f i c e not for a y e a r but at the
pleasure of the ruler, and, with some important q u a l i f i c a t i o n s
the i r j u r i s d i c t i o n e x t e n d e d t h r o u g h o u t the state over the
roads as well as the r i v e r s . 37 Thus, the River O f f icials
acted as a s p e c i a l i z e d d e p a r t m e n t by o c c u p y i n g two d i s t i n c t
positions in the new magistracy. They sat as two of the ten
33 Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 2, p . 98.

36
Ibid.
37 Ibid., p p . 98-99.
235
members o f the e x e c u t i v e c ouncil of the P a r t e in g eneral
s e s s i o n and as the two River O f f i c i a l s in s e p a r a t e session.
L a t e r l e g i s l a t i o n e l a b o r a t e d the s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of the River
Officials and the role they p l a y e d in i n t e r u r b a n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
and c ommunication.
In r e g a r d to finances, the tax on an i m a l s (the gab e l l a
delle bestie) and the p r o p e r t i e s v a c a t e d as a result of river
a nd r o a d p r o j e c t s the l e g i s l a t i o n a s s i g n e d to the b u d g e t of
the R i v e r Officials. If expenses re q u i r e d , howev e r , the
Ri v e r O f f i c i a l s and the Parte h e l d the a u t h o r i t y to t ax by
grant o f one of the p r o v i s i o n s o f the r e f o r m law. Si n c e it
was r e a s o n e d that it was a p p r o p r i a t e to r e q u i r e a u n i v e r s a l
tax for a u n i v e r s a l benefit, this authority to tax for
public utility programs applied throughout the state. The
tax p o wer, howev e r , the above offices could invoke only when
the o r d i n a r i l y a s s i g n e d revenues w e r e insufficient to meet
expenses.3
I
A f t e r 1549 the problems w h i c h e m e r g e d a n d the solutions
a t t e m p t e d r e f l e c t e d the gr e a t e r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p bet w e e n the
various areas o f the r e g i o n a l state. This h e i g h t e n e d inter
r e l a t i o n s h i p h a d b e e n d e v e l o p i n g since the f i f t e e n t h century.
The e l a b o r a t i o n of the role o f the R i v e r O f f i c i a l s was one
of the m a i n forms of e x p r e s s i o n this i n t e r a c t i o n took. This,
in turn, led to a m o r e r e g u l a r a nd d e f i n e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e
twe e n the v a r i o u s levels of g o v e r n m e n t f r o m the p e r i p h e r y to
38
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 2, p p . 100-102.
236
the c e n t e r o f the state. L e g i s l a t i o n b e t w e e n 1561 and 1581
7Q
s i g n a l e d this t r e n d clearly.
The s i g n i f i c a n c e of the c hanges i n t r o d u c e d in the 1560s
and 1570s a p p e a r m o r e clearly w h e n i n t r o d u c e d in r e l a t i o n to
the general s t r u c t u r e of the f i f t e e n t h and sixteenth century
r egional state. Beginning with the m o s t local g o vernment
and m o v i n g t o w a r d larger g o v e r n m e n t a l u n i t s , the early m o d e r n
F l o r e n t i n e state m a p generally d i v i d e d into four levels of
government. The villages and s m a l l e r towns at the most local
level f o r m e d p o p o l i or comuni. Usually, the popoli or comuni
j o i n e d or e s t a b l i s h e d a league or a s s o c i a t i o n r e f e r r e d to as
a comunita. The t h i r d and n e x t l a r g e r g o v e r n m e n t a l unit
after the c o m u n i t a was the po d e s t e r i a . The largest of the
governmental units of local j u r i s d i c t i o n w e r e the v i c a r i a t o
and the c a p i t a n a t o . Since the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the River O f
ficials was state w i d e , their a c t i v i t i e s interrelated with

40
these d i f f e r e n t units of government. W i t h this b r i e f sketch
of government structure, it is e a s i e r to identify the role
the Riv e r O f f i c i a l s p l a y e d in i n t e r u r b a n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and
c o mmunication.
On 29 N o v e m b e r 1561 a g o v e r n m e n t p r o c l a m a t i o n a c k n o w l
edged a g r o w i n g p r o b l e m of f l o o d i n g b e c a u s e rivers and streams
39
See a l s o the d i s c u s s i o n in the f o l l o w i n g chapters,
p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a p t e r 9.
Guarini, Stato Mediceo, p p . 55-56.
237
IU *|
left and o v e r f l o w e d t h e i r "a c c u s t o m e d places. In a d
dition, w a t e r b o g g e d lands and roads. The w a t e r on the
roads should h a v e b e e n fl o w i n g in r o a d s i d e drains and
channels. All of this c a u s e d damage to p u b l i c and p r i v a t e
p r o p e r t y and i m p e d e d r o a d traffic. The m a i n t e n a n c e s y s t e m
for w a t e r w a y s a nd roadw a y s was simply n o t w o r k i n g well.
The 1561 p r o c l a m a t i o n s u m m a r i z e d the p r o b l e m in the
following way. Part of the p r o b l e m was due to the lack
of in f o r m a t i o n and a f ailure to attend to the issue soon
enough. As a result, damage w o r s e n e d w h i c h m i g h t have b e e n
r e m e d i e d by e a r l i e r attention, and, simultaneously, the n u m b e r
of disorders increased. Without proper notification, the
repairs and p r e v e n t i o n s co u l d n ot be made.
As a s o l u t i o n to this p r o b l e m of i n s u f f i c i e n t information
and n e g l e c t e d m a i n t e n a n c e , the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t m a n d a t e d
that anyone w h o h a d p r o p e r t y along n a t u r a l or c o n s t r u c t e d
w a t erways do two things. For one, p r o p e r t y owners w e r e to
report any current f l o o d i n g or d i s o r d e r in w r i t i n g to the
local m a g i s t r a t e w i t h i n fifteen days of the p u b l i c a t i o n of
the proclam a t i o n . In the future, e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g the s e ason
of heavy rains, the p r o c l a m a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d an eight day
time limit for the n o t i f i c a t i o n of disorders. Secondly, each
y e a r d u ring the m o n t h of A u gust p r o p e r t y owners along the
various, w a t e r w a y s h a d to r e move "any o b s t a c l e w h a t s o e v e r
^ Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 4, p p . 228-230.
w h i c h obstructs the flow o f water. 238
One of the m a i n defen s e s against flooding d e p e n d e d on as
straight and as free a f l o w of the course of the w a t e r as p o s
sible. Mills, dams, sluices, and the like, u s e d for i n d u s
trial and fishing pu r p o s e s , oft e n i n t e r r u p t e d the flow of
wat e r and so caused or i n c r e a s e d the chance of flooding. The
object of the 1561 p r o c l a m a t i o n as w e l l as other l e g i s l a t i o n
aim e d to pre v e n t the o b s t r u c t i o n of the flow of the w a t e r and
to disallow the use of the w a t e r for those purp o s e s whi c h

43
w o u l d increase the chance of flooding.
More extensive and d e t a i l e d l e g i s l a t i o n b e t w e e n 1574 and
1581 s u g gested that the p r o c l a m a t i o n in 1561 did not s ucceed
in reaching its objective. In the 1561 le g i s l a t i o n there was
no adequate p r o p o s a l for a r e v i e w s y s t e m to insure the i m p l e
m e n t a t i o n of the p r o v i s i o n s of the p r oclamation, nor, more
importantly, was there a p l a n or d e s i g n for a broader, more
c o mprehensive appr o a c h to deal w i t h the road and r i v e r systems.
The L e g i s lation b e t w e e n 1574 a nd 1581, however, p a i n t e d w i t h a

I
b r o a d e r brush. These laws o u t l i n e d a public u t i l i t y p r o g r a m
and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m w h i c h included the va r i o u s levels
42
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 4, p . 229.
A *Z
For a good d i s c u s s i o n on R e n a i ssance t e c h n o l o g y and
e n g i n eering see: W i l l i a m B a r c l a y Parsons, Engineers and E n
g i n eering in the R e n a i s s a n c e ( C a m b r i d g e : The M IT Press, 1967,
1939) , p a r t i c u l a r l y chapters 20 and 21 wh i c h discuss en g i n e e r i n g
on the Arno River.
239
of g o v e r n m e n t .44 The n e w reforms and the 1549 r e f o r m d r e w f r o m
past influences as w e l l as i n i t i a t e d n e w dire c t i o n s for the
future.
A c c o r d i n g to th-e .river l e g i s l a t i o n o f 1574 and 1581, the
River Of f i c i a l s c o n d u c t e d a y e a r l y r e v i e w o f all the m a i n
rivers w i t h i n t h e i r j u risdiction. D u r i n g the m o n t h of A p r i l
the c h a n c e l l o r o f the River Officials p r e s e n t e d t h e m a p r o g r a m
of works for d e l i b e r a t i o n . T h e n in M a y the Riv e r O f f i c i a l s
w e n t on tour to r e v i e w all the m a i n rivers w i t h i n t h e i r j u r i s
diction. The Arno t r a c k b e f o r e and after Flore n c e r e c i e v e d
p a r t i c u l a r attention. W h e n r e v i e w i n g the Arno, the " E n g i n e e r
of the Arn o " a c c o m p a n i e d the River Officials. This k ey o f
ficial, the " E n g i n e e r of the Arno", gave p r o f e s s i o n a l advice
on all p r o j e c t s on or n e a r the Arno w h i c h w as for all p r a c t i c a l
purposes a statement of policy. In addition, this o f f i c e h ad
w i d e l i c e n s i n g and gen e r a l p o wers c o n c e r n i n g any a c t i v i t i e s
on or near the A r n o - - c o m m e r c i a l , industrial, or otherwise.

I
The M e d i c e a n court a nd offi c i a l architect B e r n a r d o B u o n t a l e n t i
h e l d this p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h m o s t of his c a r e e r s t r e t c h i n g f r o m
the 1560s t h r o u g h the 1580s. This fact alone more than s u g
gests the i m p o r t a n c e o f this o f f i c e . 45
1 The A u g u s t i n s p e c t i o n c o m p l e t e d the r e v i e w c i r c u i t
44 Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 8, p p . 12 7 - 1 3 3 ( l e g i s l a t i o n
of 9 July 1574) a nd vol. 10, p p . 182-194 ( l e g islation of 1581).
45 parsons, En g i n e e r s and E n g i n e e r i n g , p p . 345-352; Spini,

" A r c h i t t e t u r a e P o l i t i c a , " p p . 811-812.
240
w i t h a tou r to all p r o j e c t s w h i c h e x c e e d e d the s u m first of
100 scudi and t h e n l a t e r 300 scudi fiorentini. Two a d d i t i o n a l
o f ficials also m a d e this r o u n d of i n s p e c t i o n - - a c a p o m a e s t r o
Ca supervisor) an d an. a g e n t e d e l l e s t r a d a (director of r o a d s ) . 46
B o t h officials gave a d v i c e c o n c e r n i n g the roads along the r iver
and the n e e d for s t r u c t u r a l repairs. The agente d c l l e strade
took notes on w h a t was a n d was not a c c o m p l i s h e d at the various
sites and on w h a t was a n d was no t in a c c o r d w i t h the r e g u l a
tions of the m a g i s t r a c y . He t h e n s u b m i t t e d t hese n o t e s in the
form of a w r i t t e n r e p o r t to the River O f f i c i a l s for t h e i r
deliberation. Fo r p u b l i c u t i l i t y proje c t s less than the sums
s t a t e d above, the p r o v e d i t o r e or s o t t o - p r o v e d i t o r e (the d e p a r t
m e n t s e c r e t a r y or the a s s i s t a n t secretary) c o n d u c t e d the review.
B y the en d of A u g u s t the office of the R iver Off i c i a l s cl o s e d
the ci r c l e of the y e a r l y r e v i e w s y s t e m . 4 7
A c c o r d i n g to l e g i s l a t i o n p a s s e d in 1578, the F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t o u t l i n e d in d e t a i l a y e a r l y r e v i e w s y s t e m for roads
even m o r e e x t e n s i v e t h a n the one for r i v e r s . 48 The r e v i e w
s y s t e m i n v o l v e d eac h l e v e l of the g o v e r n m e n t a l structure.
F r o m the b e g i n n i n g of M a y to the end of O c t o b e r the pe o p l e
of the c o u n t r y s i d e and p o p o l i be c a m e r e s p o n s i b l e for c l e a r i n g
46
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 8, p p . 129-133; vol. 10,
p p . 189-190; A. S. FT, C a p i t a n i di P a r t e , Relazioni. The reports
are o r g a n i z e d by y e a r b e g i n n i n g wit h 1549 and are f ound u n d e r
the listings "numeri n e r i " and "numeri r o s s i . "
47 Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 10, p p . 191-192.
48 Ibid., vol. 9, p p . 17-25 (14 June 1578).
241
the roa d s of any obstacles, m a k i n g repairs, and m a i n t a i n i n g
the d r a i n a g e systems along the roadways. In brief, the p e o p l e
o f the co u n t r y s i d e w e r e to r e p a i r a n d to correct anyt h i n g
that i n t e r r u p t e d traffic or d a m a g e d the roadway. D u ring the
m o n t h o f Oct o b e r i rettori (the governors) and i sindaci (the
mayors) o f the comun i t a and p o p o l i w e r e to do a study of the
road conditions in their r e s p e c t i v e districts.
In N o v e m b e r the podesta, vicarii, and capitani or their
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s made an on- s i t e v i s i t to inspect the m a i n
roads (jnaestra strade) and the c o u n t r y roads (vici.nali) of
the areas w i t h i n their districts. In F e b r u a r y and M a r c h the
a g e n t e delle strade of the River O f f i c i a l s office c o n d u c t e d
a follow-up i n s p e c t i o n tour. And, finally, by M a r c h 15 o f each
y e a r e a c h podesta, vicario, and c a p i t a n o sent to the River
Officials in Florence a w r i t t e n or p r i n t e d report of the e s
t i m a t e d p r o g r a m of works for the n e x t year.
T h e s e reports c o n s t i t u t e d a libro delle s t r a d e --a r e g i s
try o f roads. A copy of the road r e g i s t r y stayed in the r e s
idence of each podesta, vica r i o , a nd capi t a n o for the r e v i e w
of the a g ente delle strade a nd a n y o n e who w i s h e d to see it.
The libro delle strade was a c o m m o n r e f e r e n c e point for c o m
m u n i c a t i o n bet w e e n the central and local government. It b e
came the basis for d e t e r m i n i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of labor and
taxes for the works p r o g r a m o f a g i v e n y e a r . ^
49
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 9, pp. 22-23.
242
Ea c h p o p o l o or local c o m m u n i t y kept its own libro delle
strade. The registry i n c l u d e d the s t r e t c h of r o a d w i t h i n
each community's boundaries for w h i c h the c o m m u n i t y was
responsible. The libro d e l l e s t r a d e , or the lack of one,
c o u l d be at the center of d i s p u t e s o v e r the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
for the road s y stem w i t h i n a g i v e n area and the labor and
fi n ancial b urdens that w e n t w i t h it. If a p o p o l o or c o m
m u n i t y c o u l d not sustain the expen s e s for the r o a d b u i l d i n g
an d m a i n t e n a n c e in its area, t h e n the f i n ancial r e s p o n
s i b i l i t y m o v e d to the next larger governmental u n i t . ^
By the later s i x t e e n t h century, then, the River Officials
w e r e the a d m i n i s t r a t o r s of a m o r e i n t e g r a t e d u r b a n n e t w o r k of
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n ication. M o b i l i t y and e n v i r o n m e n t a l
needs i n t r e l a c e d an u r b a n s o c i e t y on a regio n a l scale.^
E v e n ear l i e r during the f i f t e e n t h century, the F l o r e n t i n e
government a c k n o w l e d g e d the c h ange in scale and the i n t e r
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n v i a b i l i t y and u r b a n i z a t i o n by b r o a d e n i n g
I
t he a c t i v i t y of the Tower Officials. The reforms of 1549
a nd after gave r enewed emphasis to this r e c o g n i t i o n of the

52
i n t e r u r b a n ch a r a c t e r of the r e g i o n a l state.
A w i d e r role for the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of i n t e r u r b a n m o b i l
ity also c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h n e w e r c o n c e p t s in u r b a n d e s i g n and
p l a n n i n g and a c h a n g e d role for architects. A r c h i t e c t s made
^ Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 9, p p . 23-24.
See also chpaters 3-8.

52
Guarini, Stato Medic e o , p p . 55-59.
243
m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s b o t h to u r b a n d e s i g n a nd p l a n n i n g as well
as to civil engineering. Brunelleschi, Alberti, and Leonardo
and M i c h e l a n g e l o as well as others i n t r o d u c e d conce p t u a l and
pr a c t i c a l innovations in the f i e l d of u r b a n p l a n n i n g a nd p u b
lic works. Pri v a t e p r a c t i c e and p u b l i c e m p l o y m e n t were not
m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e activities for R e n a i s s a n c e a r c h i t e c t s .^3
D u r i n g the f i f teenth a nd early s i x t e e n t h centuries,
Brunelleschi, Leonardo, and M i c h e l a n g e l o p a r t i c i p a t e d in p u b
lic works and g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e on a t e m p o r a r y basis and w e r e
o therwise e m p l o y e d on c o m m i s s i o n s of p r i v a t e or court p a t r o n
age. By the t u r n of the century, howe v e r , a trend already
began t o ward the in v o l v e m e n t o f architects in more p u blic s e r
vice. D u ring the p e r i o d g e n e r a l l y f r o m 1560 to 1580 Buontal-
enti, as r e f e r r e d to earlier, p r a c t i c e d two careers simultane
ously. He was both a p r i v a t e l y e m p l o y e d architect and a f u l l
time p u b l i c l y e m p l o y e d " E n g i n e e r of the Arno". His career as
an a r c h i t e c t - a d m i n i s t r a t o r c o m p l e t e d the t r e n d of the R e n a i s
sance a r c h i t e c t toward g r e a t e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in public
s e r v i c e . ^4
B esides the known names above, m a n y of the c apomaestri and
agente delle s t r a d e made m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s to the field of
public works a nd the v i a b i l i t y of i n t e r u r b a n transportation.
Like the " E n g i n e e r of the A r no", they w e r e p u b l i c employees
For a d i s c u s s i o n of c o n t r i b u t i o n s of R e n a i ssance a r
tists and w r i t e r s to u r b a n p l a n n i n g see c h a p t e r 3.
Parsons, Engineers and E n g i n e e r i n g , p p . 345-352; Spini,

" A r c h i t t e t u r a e P o l i t i c a , " p p . 811-812.
244
on a f u l l-time basis. Their experience and c o n t i n u i t y in
o f f i c e p r o v i d e d a r i c h b a c k g r o u n d to d r a w u p o n for s h o r t - t e r m
a n d l o n g e r - t e r m planning. P r o f e s s i o n a l service an d a w o r k i n g
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n architects, artists, engineers, and a d
m i n i s t r a t o r s was as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y F l o r e n
t ine culture as it was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the e a r l i e r R e n a i s s a n c e
o f the fif t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 55
Th e Cinque, Otto, and Nove
As the T o w e r Officials and R iver Off i c i a l s exercised a
wide j u r i s d i c t i o n over the v i a b i l i t y of roads a n d rive r s , so the
Cinque, Otto, and N ove a c h i e v e d a b r o a d j u r i s d i c t i o n over the
finances and p o l i c y o f local governments. This e x t e n s i o n of
the role of c e n t r a l m a g i s t r a c i e s reached a height d u r i n g the
r e i g n of Cosimo I, but its origins are to be f ound m u c h earlier
w i t h the e x p a n s i o n of the F l o r e n t i n e state d u r i n g the fif t e e n t h
c e n t u r y . 56 In a v ery c o n s i d e r a b l e way, the above offices
w e r e the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e side o f the m a k i n g of a r e g i o n a l state
in Tuscany. In 1559 Cosimo I i n i t i a t e d another reorganization
of the g o v e r n m e n t by a b o l i s h i n g the offices of the C i n q u e and the
Ot t o and by u n i t i n g t heir j u r i s d i c t i o n s to f o r m a n e w m a g i s
tracy- -the N o v e . ^ The i m p o r t a n c e o f the N ove for u r b a n ad-
See n o t e 39.
5^ Anzil o t t i , La C o s t i t u z i o n e , chapters 1 and 2, and La

Crisi C o s t i t u z i o n a l e , chap t e r 6.
57 The r e f e r e n c e s for the f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n of the o f

fices of the Cinque, Otto, and Nove are: A. S. F . , Nove,
245
m i n i s t r a t i o n is d i fficult to un d e r e s t i m a t e . The p r o m i n e n t
role o f the Nove in the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e c o m e s m o r e a p p arent
w h e n s e e n in r e l a t i o n to the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h i s t o r y o f the
Cinque a n d Otto p r i o r to the 1559 reform. A l o n g w i t h the
o f f i c e o f the Farte, the N o v e ' s role w ill be e l a b o r a t e d u p o n
a g a i n in c h a p t e r 7 c o n c e r n i n g jurisdiction.
By the e arly 1400s the government in F l o r e n c e already
e s t a b l i s h e d a closer s u p e r v i s i o n of the c o m m u n i t i e s in the
contado a n d distretto. On 18 J a n u a r y 1419 the F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z e d the o f f i c e o f the Cinque Mto c o n t r o l and
regulate useless e x p e n s e s " in the budgets of l ocal c o m m u n i t i e s . 58
The C i n q u e was to r e v i e w a n d to audit the finances of each
c o m m u n i t y subj e c t to t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n . Since r e c o r d s are
lacking, h o w f r e q u e n t l y a n d e f f e c t i v e l y this r e v i e w was c a r r i e d
out rema i n s a question. To w h a t extent local c o n t r o l over
f i n a n c e s . a n d p o l i c y was a c t u a l l y a f f e c t e d in all areas of
d e c i s i o n m a k i n g is anot h e r u n c e r t a i n matter. Reorganization
o f the Ci n q u e during the s i x t e e n t h century, h o w e v e r , portrayed
in g r e a t e r detail the role this office was d e s i g n e d to play.
On 12 F e b ruary 1549 the F l o r e n t i n e Senate elected a com
m i s s i o n o f four to s t u d y the n e e d for a r e f o r m o f the C i n q u e . 59
3596 a n d 3235; A. S. F., A r c h i v i o M e d i c e o dura n t e il P r i n c i p a t o ,

633; A. S. F . , A u d i t o r e d e l l e R i f o r m a g i n i , 118; A. S. F., Otto
di P r a t i c a , 184, 198, 199; A. S. F . , M i s c e l l a n e a R e p u b b l i c a , 102.
5 A. S. F . , M i s c e l l a n e a R e p u b b l i c a , 102, 1-3; A. S. F.,

Nove, 3596, 184.
59 A. S. F . , N o v e , 3596, introduction; Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e ,

vol. 2, p p . 144-145; A. S. F . , A u d i t o r e delle R i f o r m a g i o n i , 118.
246
Within a s h o r t time, the r e s u l t of the study led to the r e
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the Cinque a n d the ena c t m e n t of a n e w c h a r t e r
on 4 N o v e m b e r 1551.60 P a r t i c u l a r articles of the n e w c h a r t e r
s p e c i f i e d c l e a r l y the extent o f the j u r i s d i c t i o n o f this
m a g i s t r a c y a n d its r e l e v a n c y for u r b a n administration.
W i t h some i m portant e x c e p t i o n s , the Cinque gained juris
d i c t i o n o ver the commun i t i e s o f the contado and d i stretto.
Some o f the e x c e p t i o n s w e r e Pisa, Vol t e r r a , Ar e z z o a n d Pistoia.
T h o u g h t h e s e cities m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r o w n j u r i s d i c t i o n and
offices of urban administration, they d i d not r e m a i n i s o l a t e d
fr o m issues w h i c h i n v o l v e d the Cinque o r the River Officials.
Environmental a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n issues e x c eeded the limits
of local j u r i s d i c t i o n and, as a result, brou g h t local communi
ties int o c o n t a c t w i t h the C i n q u e or River Officails. In
addition, tax a s s e s s m e n t and c o l l e c t i o n as well as suits b e
t ween c o m m u n i t i e s i n v o l v e d the Cinque in relations w i t h c o m
munities t h r o u g h o u t the s t a t e . 61
Besides o u t l i n i n g the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the Cinque, the n e w
c h a r t e r p r o c l a i m e d that a m a i n p u r p o s e and o b l i g a t i o n of this
m a g i s t r a c y was "to c o n serve an d i n c rease the p u b l i c reve n u e
an d to r e d u c e the pu b l i c expe n s e o f the said places subj e c t
to .their office. "62 This m a n d a t e o p e n e d the w a y for the Cinque
to b e c o m e i n v o l v e d in any m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g p u b l i c m o n e y or
^ R e f e r to note 59.
Jurisdictional issues are d i s c u s s e d in c h a p t e r 8.
^ A. S. F . , Nove, 3596, article 1.
247
the public interest of local communities. O v e r s i g h t power
in r e g a r d to budgets p r o v i d e d ample o p p o r t u n i t y for the
C i nque to direct p o l i c y and to n e g otiate b e t w e e n communities
a nd v arious levels o f government. These p o wers and respon
sibilities, s p e c i f i e d in different articles of the charter,
d e f i n e d the role o f the Cinque as the r e g u l a t o r a n d c o o r d i
n a t o r b e t w e e n the p e r i p h e r y and the center of the state.
W i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e g a r d to urb a n p l a n n i n g a n d services
the Cinque had b r o a d powers. Without the express approval
o f the magistracy, n o local community could s p e n d m o n e y for
the b u i l d i n g or r e p a i r o f "walls, mills, streets, bridges, or
like m a t t e r s . " 63 The c h a r t e r did exempt from this provision,
however, the residences o f local officials or g o v e r n m e n t r e p
resentatives from Florence. At the same time, though, the
C i n q u e required that s u c h costs were not to e x c e e d their
c u s t o m a r y amount. The s u p e r v i s i o n of p u b l i c w o r k s , particu
l ar l y streets and b r i d g e s , p r e s e n t e d j u r i s d i c t i o n a l problems
b e t w e e n the Cinque a nd o t h e r magistracies, such as, the Parte
a nd the Otto. The limits of the wide a u t h o r i t y a t t r i b u t e d
to the Cinque and Riv e r O f f icials remained c o n f u s e d and u n
c e r t a i n . 64
B esides the s u p e r v i s i o n of expenses c o n c e r n i n g urban
infrastructure, there w as also a r e view of and c o n t r o l over
local u r b a n services. N o e xpense could be made for preachers,
63
A. S. F . , Nove, 3596, article 11.
^ 4 Ibid. Again, see chapter 8.
248
teachers, doctors or w a t c h guards u n less the Cinque g r a n t e d a
special license for these p u r p o s e s . A c c o r d i n g to the c h a r t e r
the m u l t i p l i c i t y and c o n f u s i o n o f local criteria and m e t h o d s
in these areas failed to m e e t the a c tual needs of communities
and r e s u l t e d also in m i s m a n a g e d spending. The role of the
Cinque was to r e v i e w the n e e d for s p e n d i n g and to r e s t r a i n what

66
it c o n s i d e r e d as u n n e c e s s a r y spending.
Needless to say, f i n ancial a ffairs were a first concern.
The close s u p e r v i s i o n o f local finan c e s by the Cinque, at
least in theory, was a n y t h i n g but lessened. Community c r e d i t
and debt, b o r r o w i n g and l e n d i n g came u n d e r thorough and
r e g u l a r scrutiny. The authors o f the charter argued that it
was i m p o r t a n t that c o m m u n i t i e s did not follow a financial
p o l i c y w h i c h o b l i g a t e d t h e m " u s e l e s s l y and wit h o u t n e ed."
W h e n such obligations a nd debts oc c u r they continued, then
there is a greater risk there will be "damages and expenses,
and it brings about every m a n n e r of f r a u d . T o curb any
such t e n d e n c y and to c h e c k such a p r o b l e m before it began,
the cha r t e r m a n d a t e d that no b o r r o w i n g or lending be c o n t r a c t e d
w h i c h o b l i g a t e d the c o m m u n i t y unless express license and ap-

ft Q
p r o v a l be o b t a i n e d first f r o m the Cinque. Furthermore, if
any such financial a c t i v i t y o c c u r r e d w i t h o u t this license and
^ A. S. F . , N o v e , 3596, article 13.
66 Ibid.
^ Ibid., a rticle 23.'
68 Ibid.
approval and against the p r e s e n t o r d i n a n c e , it was o f no 2^ 9
it6 9
v alue and as if it w e r e not done.
Finally, the j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the Cinque i n c l u d e d the
p r o c e d u r e to r e v i e w the c o n s t i t u t i o n of local communities.
B efore any r e v i s i o n or cha n g e in a local c o n s t i t u t i o n or
statute c o u l d be mad e or pu t into e f f e c t the local c o m m u n i t y

70
ha d to p r e s e n t the d o c u m e n t to the Ci n q u e for review. After
c o n s i d e r i n g the document, the Cin q u e j u d g e d if 't w e r e of
be n e f i t to the local c o m m u n i t y an d if and w h e r e it c o n t r a v e n e d
the interests and c o m p e t e n c y of its o w n office. Even with
these r e s t r i c t i o n s , h o w ever, local communities did m a i n t a i n
the right to ch a n g e t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n s w i t h i n the g i v e n limits
ou t l i n e d by the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the C i n q u e . 7^
Th o u g h in some w a y the a bove is a b r i e f summary, it is
still easy to o b s e r v e that the j u r i s d i c t i o n and p o w e r of this
office was extensive. H o w e x t e n s i v e l y was this p o w e r a p p lied?
This is no t as easy to determine. S i n c e the wide a u t h o r i t y
g iven this o f f i c e was e x p r e s s e d in gene r a l terms, for example,
to i n c rease r e v enues and to reduce n e e d l e s s expenses, m u c h of
its use w o u l d d e p e n d on h o w b r o a d l y or n a r r o w l y this authority
was i n t e r p r e t e d and c o u l d be m a d e e f f e c t i v e by the central
government f rom one p e r i o d to a n o t h e r an d from p lace to place.
Also, cond i t i o n s v a r i e d from c o m m u n i t y to community, and the
69
A. S. F . , N o v e , 3596, article 23.
79 Ibid., arti c l e 34.
71 Ibid.
role of a c o m m u n i t y in shaping such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s often
v a r i e d w i t h the p o litical, econo m i c and s o c i a l c o nditions of
the time. A l t h o u g h the local communities r e t a i n e d the right
to change their c o n stitution, they e x e r c i s e d this right w i t h i n
c e r t a i n n e c e s s a r y limits. It is v e r y l i kely that the more
local the issue the greater the auton o m y allowed. Still, it
can be i m a g i n e d that local c o m m u n i t i e s o f t e n e x e r c i s e d an i m
po r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o v e r spending for a p r e a c h e r , teacher, doc
tor, or the b u i l d i n g or re p a i r i n g of a n e e d e d b r i d g e or road

72
for its e c o n o m i c a n d social well-being.
A n y a s s e s s m e n t o f the in f l u e n c e of the Cinque is made
m o r e u n c e r t a i n by the re lat i v e l y short t e n u r e of this office.
As alr e a d y i n d i c a t e d , the 1559 r e f o r m a b o l i s h e d the office of
the Cinque a n d the Otto and u n i t e d their j u r i s d i c t i o n s to form
the o f fice of the Nove. This incorporation made the Nove one
o f the p r i n c i p a l o ffices of state a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Before d i s
c u s s i n g the Nove, a b r i e f c omment on the O t t o w i l l help to
e xplain the s i g n i f i c a n c e the office of the N o v e came to r e p
resent.
U n c e r t a i n t y also remains c o n c e r n i n g the exact origins of
the Otto, but it a ppears that the o f fice w a s e s t a b l i s h e d before

73
1481. Its j u r i s d i c t i o n orig i n a l l y was in m i l i t a r y affairs.
The Otto a d m i n i s t e r e d the forts and citadels t h r o u g h o u t the
72
G u a n n i , Sta t o M e d i c e o , p p . 56-59.
73
A. S. F . , Otto di Pratica, registro 50; A. S. F . , Nove,
3235, 150. ----
251
the F l o r e n t i n e state. This a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n c l u d e d b o t h
material supply and p o l i t i c a l authority. In addition, the
Otto f u n c t i o n e d as a p o l i c e force and a state g u a r d w i t h

*7 A
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to m a i n t a i n p u b l i c order.
Like other ma g i s t r a c i e s , the Otto came to include m u l
t i p l e f u n ctions in its office. One such func t i o n was the
p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the Otto in the hea r i n g of suits b e t w e e n
local of f i c i a l s and the cen t r a l government. Gi v e n the w i d e
s p r e a d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of w a l l e d p l aces (villages and towns
w h i c h w e r e or included cita d e l s and forts) by the Otto,
j u r i s d i c t i o n a l disputes b e g a n to occur be t w e e n the Otto, the

75
Cinque, a nd other magistr a c i e s . These quarrels r e f l e c t e d
p a r t l y the symptoms of b u r e a u c r a t i c ambitions and a d m i n i s
trative incoherence. Once more, Cosimo I su p p o r t e d a
m a j o r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of g o v e r n m e n t offices.
On 16 J anuary 1559 a r e f o r m c o m m i s s i o n of eight j o i n e d

7f i
the j u r i s d i c t i o n s of the Otto and Cinque to form the Nove.
Since the Nove will be d i s c u s s e d further later, com m e n t here
is introductory.
Rea s o n s e x p ressed for the c h ange included:
S e e i n g that the m u l t i c p l i c i t y of .
m a g i s t r a c i e s w h i c h do not have an
a p p r o p r i a t e and distinct j u r i s d i c t i o n
g e n e r a t e c o n fusion for the p u b l i c
74
A. S. F., Otto di Pratica, registro 50; A. S. F., Nove
3235, 150. ------------------ ----
75 Ibid.
76
A. S. F., N o v e , 3596, p r e f a c e to the charter.
a n d b e t w e e n the m a g i s t r a c i e s disputes
a n d dissension, and b e i n g aware through
e x p e r i e n c e that w i t h i n the Office of
O t t o di Pratica and the O f fice of the
C i n q u e C o n s ervadori del Con a t d o e
D i s t r e t t o di Firenze th e s e p r o b l e m s
h a v e occur r e d m a n y t i m e s , and quarrels
a n d controversi.es c o n c e r n i n g j u r i s
d i c t i o n s are occiiring n o w m o r e than
before. . .77
These d i f f i c u l t i e s p r o d u c e d M affronts, great inconve n i e n c e s ,
and e x p e n s e s " for those w ho h a d cases and suits b e f o r e these
magistracies. W i t h full a u t h o r i t y to seek an " o p p o r t u n e
remedy", the c o m m i s s i o n of e i g h t was to proceed to f o r m a n e w
magistracy-the Nove.^8
This r e f o r m e s t a b l i s h e d the Nove as one of the m o s t important
o ffices o f the state. Signs o f its importance a p p e a r e d in the
N o ve's o r g a n i z a t i o n and jurisdi c t i o n . With elections scheduled
every s ix months, nine citiz e n s s e r v e d as the e x e c u t i v e council
o f the Nove. The h i g h e s t a s s e m b l i e s o f the state chose the c a n
d idates for the Nove's e x e c u t i v e council. The Nove p o s s e s s e d
the full j u r i s d i c t i o n o f both the C i n q u e and the Otto. This
j u r i s d i c t i o n included all that has 'already b e e n d i s c u s s e d and,
also, the general p r o t e c t i o n of the rights and p r o p e r t y of the
local c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n the N o v e s jurisdiction. In addition,
the N o v e ac t e d as the ge n e r a l accounts and budget office for
all ^ t a t e expenses, i n c l u d i n g tho s e o f the Parte and Riv e r
77 A. S. F . , N o v e , 3596, p r e f a c e to the charter.
78 Ibid.
253
Officials.
In the s i x t e e n t h century regional state the role of the
Nove in the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of internal state affairs was in
deed e n c o m p a s s i n g . By the p art it p l a y e d in the r e g u l a t i o n
and c o o r d i n a t i o n of the relations b e t w e e n local communities
and the cent r a l g o v e r n m e n t and in the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f i n t e r
urban affairs, the N o v e became a m a j o r center of g o v e r n m e n t

on
activity. The N o v e also r e p r e s e n t e d a ne w f r amework for
the politics a n d economics of an u r b a n i z e d regional state.
79
A . S. F . , N o v e , 3596, p r e f a c e to the charter.
80 Guarini, S tato M e d i c e o :, pp. 51-53.
254
CHAPTER 5: A D M I N I S T R A T I O N A N D TRANSPO R T A T I O N :
A P E R I O D OF T R A N S I T I O N 1 3 7 0 - 1 4 1 5
D u r i n g the e a r l y f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y the F l o r e n t i n e gov
er n m e n t set a n e w d i r e c t i o n for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n policy.
T h o u g h the p l a g u e of 1348 r e d u c e d s e v e r e l y the po p u l a t i o n ,
F lor e n c e r e m a i n e d a h i g h l y u r b a n i z e d society a nd e c o n o m y o c
c u p i e d in l o n g - d i s t a n c e tra d e a nd financial exchange. When
Flore n c e e x t e n d e d its c o n t r o l over the seap o r t s o f Pisa and
Liv o r n o in 1406 a nd 1421 respectively, there w as an even
g re a t e r interest t h a n b e f o r e in a r e a w i d e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and
c o m m u n i c a t i o n services. This c h a p t e r d i s cusses the changes
in F l o r e n t i n e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y b e t w e e n the years 1370
and 1415, the d e f i n i t i o n of a n e w p o l i c y in 1415, and, during
the same period, the n e w l y o u t l i n e d central c o n t r o l of the
T o w e r O f f icials in the f i e l d o f u r b a n p l a n n i n g and t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n policy.
F o l l o w i n g the o r i g i n of the Tower Of f i c i a l s in 1349 the
Florentine gover n m e n t b e g a n a pr o c e s s of b u i l d i n g an a d m i n
i s t rative o r g a n i z a t i o n to m e e t a v a r i e t y of needs of a c o m
p l e x u r b a n environment. The To w e r O f f i c i a l s 1 records regis
t e r e d a gradual e x p a n s i o n of the role o f their o f fice and
r e f l e c t e d the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n e w u r b a n policy. Increasing
ly the Flor e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t m a d e a conscious at t e m p t to
r e s p o n d to the c o m p l e x i t i e s of an u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t in a
255
m o r e c o o r d i n a t e d way. Florentine policymakers expressed a
g r o w i n g r e c o g n i t i o n of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m and e c o n o m i c and
u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e i r p lans to b u i l d and m a i n t a i n the
roads and brid g e s of the F l o r e n t i n e s t a t e . 1 Numerous entries
in the T o w e r O f f icials records tell c l e a r l y the g r o w i n g i n
v e s t m e n t in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and u t i l i t y p o l i c y and the n e w
s e n s e o f p u b l i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d b u i l d i n g the t r a n s
portation capabilities of the area. T h e s e records also trace
the c a p a b i l i t i e s and c o n s t r a i n t s b o r d e r i n g the a c t i v i t y of
the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t in the f i e l d of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
p o l i c y and p u b l i c u t i l i t y s e r v i c e . 2
By t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e these t r a n s p o r t a t i o n initia t i v e s
an d p r o g r a m s r e q u i r e d p l a n n i n g and l a r g e - s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n
on the p a r t of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t . 3 in the decades
f o l l o w i n g the crisis o f the 1340s and in the y e a r s following
the c o n f l i c t s of the 1390s and e a r l y 1400s Florentine cul
tural, f i n a n c i a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l resources were not ade
q u a t e l y m a t c h e d wit h the needs of the u r b a n e n v i r onment.
O n l y g r a d u a l l y did F l o r e n t i n e s o c i e t y o v e r c o m e som e o f the
m a j o r c o n s t r a i n t s of this p e r i o d on f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t .^
* See the d i s c u s s i o n that follows in this c h a p t e r and

also chapt e r s 6 and 7; A l s o see: H e r l i h y , M e d i e v a l and Ren-
a i s s a n c e P i s t o i a , p p . 17-26; Lopez, " E v o l u t i o n of Lan d Trans -
p o r t , " p p . 26-27.
2 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 18, 22, 27; A l s o see n o t e 3.
3 Ibid., 25, 29, 62, 110, 132.
4 Molho, Flore n t i n e Public Finance, p p . 1-8.
256
One s i g n of the cultu r a l renewal t a k i n g place in the early
fifteenth century was the c a p a b i l i t y o f the Florentine
g o vernment to f o r m an u r b a n and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y w h i c h
lo oked ah e a d p o s i t i v e l y to the f u t u r e and to orga n i z e an
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o g r a m to imp l e m e n t ef f e c t i v e l y this p o l i c y . ^
A f t e r a p e r i o d of financial p r o b l e m s and abuses d u ring
the l a t t e r four t e e n t h century, the F l o r e n t i n e government
r e o r g a n i z e d a n u m b e r of g o v e r n m e n t o ffices in the early
f i f t e e n t h century, i n c l u d i n g the T o w e r Officials. After
these reforms the T o w e r O f f icials b e g a n to play the maj o r
o p e r a t i o n a l role in urb a n p l a n n i n g p o l i c y and road and
b r idge b u i l d i n g programs. D u r i n g the fifteenth century
their office b e c a m e the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e center for the i m
p l e m e n t a t i o n of F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n policy. T hrough the e m
pl o y m e n t of pe r m a n e n t cleri c a l a nd te c h n i c a l s t a f f the
Tower Officials p r o v i d e d the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e means to r e g u
larize the c o l l e c t i o n and flow of i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d for the
d e v e l o p m e n t and m a i n t e n a n c e o f the stru c t u r a l qua l i t y of the
u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t and to r a t i o n a l i z e the p u b l i c respo n s e to
p u blic nee d s . ^ T h o u g h needs o f t e n o u t p a c e d resources
ava i l a b l e and p r o b l e m s o f t e n e x c e e d e d the p o t ential to deal
e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h them, the Tower O f f i c i a l s and the adminis-
^ See the d i s c u s s i o n later in this chapter.
^ A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 1-5, 117-120; Also see the d i s

cus s i o n in cha p t e r 3 c o n c e r n i n g the needs and mo t i v a t i o n s
for r e f o r m of key offices.
257
trative changes of the early fi f t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e p r e s e n t
ed an att e m p t on the part of the F l o r e n t i n e g overnment to
introduce a n e w and m o r e c o o r d i n a t e d a p p r o a c h to
the di v e r s e needs of a com p l e x u r b a n environment.
Policy a nd A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : 1370-1396
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n b e t w e e n Florence and P i s a on and a l o n g
side the A r n o River m a d e this tract the cen t r a l corridor of
the T u scan region.^ A l o n g this m a i n e a s t - w e s t corridor the.
river p o r t of Signa about ten miles w e s t of Florence acted
as the k e y t r a n s s h i p m e n t point not only for e a s t-west but
also for n o r t h - s o u t h tr a f f i c as w e l l . Riv e r barges and
light ships u n l o a d e d their cargo at Signa. Stevedores then
r e l o a d e d the cargo onto carts and w a g o n s for the remaining
o v e r l a n d tra n s p o r t to Florence. Land t r a f f i c along the
b usy s t r a d a P i sana p a s s e d d i r e c t l y by the r i v e r port on
the e a s t - w e s t corridor. The b r idge at Signa, in addition,
was a c r o s s o v e r point for traffic going n o r t h across the
plains to Pra t o and P i s t o i a a nd for t r a f f i c going south in
to the P e s a V a l l e y t o ward Volterra, Siena, or Rome.
In the ear l y four t e e n t h c entury the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n
m e n t a s s i g n e d the Capitano del Popolo the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to
7
This a r e a is d i s c u s s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y in chapter 6;
See also: Mi c h a e l Mallett, The F l o r e n t i n e Galleys in the
F i f t e e n t h C e n t u r y (Oxford: Cl a r e n d o n Press, 1 9 6 7 J , p p . 14-16;
Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 1, p p . 136-147.
Ibid.; Also: Caggese, Statuti, vol. 1, bk. 4, p . 10.
258
m a i n t a i n and to c o n s e r v e " u n d a m a g e d and u n i m p a i r e d " the
"new roads" for w h e e l e d traffic at Ponte di Signa.^ As
the comm e r c i a l and indu s t r i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f Florence a d
vanced, traffic i n t e n s i f i e d along the A rno River and the
strada Pisana in the m a i n e a s t - w e s t c o r r i d o r ar o u n d the river
port. To m a i n t a i n this vital access route was a m a j o r r e s p o n
sibility r e q u i r i n g s i g n i f i c a n t resources.
D u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h a n d s i x t e e n t h centuries w h e e l e d
traffic came i n c r e a s i n g l y into u s e . 10 R e l a t i v e l y flat ter
rain f o l l o w e d by the st r a d a Pi s a n a a long the Arno R i v e r to
the w e s t of F l o r e n c e and o p e n p l a i n s of the b asin to the
n o r t h m a r k e d by the arc of Florence, Prato and P i s t o i a
were m o r e m a n a g e a b l e areas for an i n c rease in w h e e l e d t r a f
fic than other m ore h i l l y an d m o u n t a i n o u s terrains on the
Tuscan countryside. E v e n the m o u n t a i n r o a d to Bologna, how
ever, did c arry some w h e e l e d traf f i c on some of its routes.
This change in the m o d e of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n h a d regio n a l ef
fects on the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y . H
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e changes also i n f l u e n c e d pu b l i c u t i l i t y
policy. T hese changes c o n t r i b u t e d to a n e w f o r m u l a t i o n of
g
Caggese, Statuti, vol. 1, bk. 4, p . 10.
^ Joh n Day, " S t r a d e e Vie di C o m u n i c a z i o n e ," in S t o r i a

d * I t a l i a , 6 vols. (Turin: Guido Einaudi, 1973), vol. 5, pp.
97-98; Though the m u l e r e m a i n e d the m a i n m eans of t r a n s p o r
tation, there was an increase in the use of wagons and
coaches du r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h centuries.
See the d i s c u s s i o n in c h a pters 6 an d 7.
259
p o l i c y a nd d e f i n e d the years b e t w e e n 1396 a nd 1415 a p e r
iod o f transition. Various examples f r o m the To w e r O f
f i c i a l s re c o r d s i l l u s t r a t e this d e v e l o p m e n t .
A n e n t r y of the 1370s c o n c e r n i n g the c o l l a p s e of the
Elsa River bridge m i d w a y along the r o a d to Pisa s u g g e s t e d
t he i m p o r t a n c e of the east-west t r a v e l r o u t e and p r o v i d e d
a g l i m p s e of the role of the F l o r e n t i n e government in the
f i e l d o f p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y d u r i n g the l a t t e r part o f the
f o u r t e e n t h century. In a p r o v i s i o n of 1373, the P r i o r a t e ac
k n o w l e d g e d the d a n g e r and i n c o n v e n i e n c e to " F l o r e n t i n e
cit i z e n s , tr a v e l l e r s , and also to the R e p u b l i c of F l o r e n c e "

12
by n o t h a v i n g a b r i d g e over the E l s a River. Travel b e
t w e e n San M i n i a t o and Florence w o u l d be seriously interrup
ted w i t h o u t it. L o c a t e d just w e s t of the E l s a River b r i d g e
where the riv e r f l o w e d into the A r n o f r o m the south, S an
M i n i a t o m a r k e d the w e s t e r n b o r d e r of the c o n t a d o and w a s a
m a j o r stop about m i d w a y to P i s a . 13 Any major breakdown in
this t r a v e l rou t e for any length of t i m e c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y
b l o c k a lar g e se g m e n t of the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f the m a i n
e a s t - w e s t corridor.
To prevent such an o c currence a nd for the future "to
provide prudently in order to av o i d a c c i d e n t s and h a r d s h i p s , "
the P r i o r a t e d e l i b e r a t e d that u t i l i t y as w e l l as other
12 a . S. F., Libro L u n a , 44.
13 Ibid., 45-47; Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 1, p p . 38-39.
260
reasons r e q u i r e d the a p p roval of the b u i l d i n g of a "sound
and ade q u a t e " b r i d g e across the Els a "at the p l a c e where it
w i l l be jud g e d b est to con s t r u c t o n e . " ^ They als o stated
that the cost o f the bridge was "at the expe n s e of the
Comune di F i r e n z e " and s p e c i f i e d a tim e table for the b e g i n
n i n g o f the work. U n d e r p e n a l t y of a fine for s t a r t i n g late,
w o r k o n the b r i d g e was to b e g i n w i t h i n the n ext six months.
Th e T o w e r O f f i c i a l s w e r e "to s u p e r v i s e w i t h e v e r y diligence
the c o m p l e t i o n of the bridge."'*'5
This e ntry in the E l s a River b r i d g e p r o g r a m d e m o n s t r a t e d
many characteristics of Florentine public utility policy
d u r i n g this time. All of the above e l e m e n t s i n d i c a t e d the
i m p o r t a n c e a t t r i b u t e d to this link in the travel and t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n of the i m m e d i a t e a rea as w e l l as the r o u t e betw e e n
F l o r e n c e and Pisa. Safety, convenience, and the u t i l i t y of
the R e p u b l i c o f F l o r e n c e wer e t r a d i t i o n a l guides of F l o r e n
tine policy. The F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t o u t l i n e d a general
time frame for the w o r k program. Financial l i a b i l i t y for
the b r i d g e b u i l d i n g work, however, m a n i f e s t e d the l i ngering
e c o n o m i c burdens and d i s l o c a t i o n f o l l o w i n g the p l a g u e and
crisis of the 1340s.
Part of all the ex c i s e taxes an d customs d u t i e s (le
gabelle) of F l o r e n c e the g o v e r n m e n t a l l o c a t e d to m e e t e x
penses. Moreover, the e n a b l i n g l e g i s l a t i o n a l l o w e d the
A. S. F., Libro L u n a , 45.
15 I b i d . , 46.
261
Tower Officials to sell or to t r a n s f e r rents and rights of
the City of F l o r e n c e in cer t a i n di s t r i c t s of the state "in
o r d e r that the i r tr e a s u r e r have e n o u g h revenue so that the
w o r k is c o m p l e t e d " and to apply to the purpose of b u i l d i n g
the Elsa R i v e r b r i d g e all r evenue c o l l e c t e d by their o f f i c e
p r e v i o u s l y o w e d to the City of F l o r e n c e . 16 To d r a w on all
the gabel l e s and to allow the sale or transfer of some c i t y
rents and r i g h t s in d i c a t e d the f i n a n c i a l restr i c t i o n s in
f l u e n c i n g p u b l i c u t i l i t y policy. A t the same time, it s u g
g e s t e d the " u t i l i t y " and s i g n i f i c a n c e the F l orentine g o v e r n
m e n t p l a c e d on a v i a b l e r o a d and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system, par
t i c u l a r l y a l o n g the m a i n e a s t-west access route to F l o r e n c e . 1 ^
This m i s m a t c h b e t w e e n p u b l i c u t i l i t y needs and re v e n u e short--
ages was one e l e m e n t w h i c h led to a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c h ange in
1415.
En t r i e s or r e ferences of the 1390s of the bridges on
the Pesa a n d Greve Rivers s k e t c h e d an even more v i v i d p i c
ture of the c o n s t r a i n t s h e d g i n g and the capabilities enhan
cing p u b l i c u t i l i t y policy. Both rivers are near each o t h e r
and flow into the A r n o f r o m the s o u t h b e t w e e n Signa and
Florence. 1 L o c a t e d in the h e a v y traffic zone of the east-
w e s t corridor, the bridges across the s e rivers were also par-
16 A. S. F., Libro L u n a , 47.

17
See the d i s c u s s i o n in c h a p t e r 6 - -Florence to Pisa.
18
Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 1, p p . 140, 145.
262
t i c u l a r l y important for the a p p r o a c h to Florence. D u ring
the 1390s, r e f erence to these two r i vers s i g n a l e d both the
c o n t i n u i n g p r e s e n c e of old e r r e s t r a i n t s and a r e n e w e d sense
of capability.
An entry of 1394 took a b r i e f look at a segment of the
h i s t o r y of p u blic u t i l i t y a c t i v i t y d u r i n g the f o u r t e e n t h
century.The entry d e s c r i b e d a bridge located on the Pesa
R i v e r at a place commo n l y kno w n as the Pon t e di C e r b a i a n e a r
San Casciano on the w a y to V o l t e r r a and Siena. The "great
fl ood" o f 1333, however, w a s h e d o v e r and c o l l a p s e d it. 20
Li ttle remai n e d b u t some of the f o u n d a t i o n of the bridge, and
for m a n y years little was done to r e b u i l d the bridge.
A quote from this r e f e r e n c e p r e s e n t s a clear s t a t e m e n t
of some of the limits of p u b l i c u t i l i t y activ i t y d u ring the
f o u r t e e n t h century.
A n d from the time the b r i d g e c o l l a p s e d

(1333) until n o w (1394), e v e n t h o u g h the
br i d g e was at that site r e q u i r e d and
needed, n e v ertheless, t h r o u g h n e g l e c t
a n d sloth of those in the p a s t r e s p o n
sible for r e p a i r i n g the b r i d g e as well
as those n o w responsible, the r e w e r e no
steps taken to r e pair this bridge. A nd
still now there is a great c o n c o u r s e of
g o i n g and coming of persons, animals,
me r c h a n d i s e and other things w h e r e this
b r idge used to be l o c a t e d . 21
19 A. S. F., Libro L u n a , 108-112.
20 I b i d . , 108.
21 Ibid., 108-109; "E che dal tempo dal q u a l e il d e t t o in

qua, b e n c h e il detto pon t e fosse in quel luogo n e c e s s a r i o e
di bisogno, n o n d i m e n t o per n e g l i g e n t i a e p i g r i t i a di c o l o r o a
263
Besides limits, a sen s e of r e n e w e d effort a ppears in this
a ssessment of the past. H o w capable the F l o r e n t i n e govern
ment was to r e s p o n d to a h e i g h t e n e d sense of i n i t i a t i v e
w i t h a w i d e r ran g e o f a c t i v i t y r e m a i n e d q u e stionable.
To r e m o v e any f u r t h e r n e g l e c t and to p r e p a r e for the
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the Ponte di Cerbaia, the P r i o r a t e a p p l i e d
the f o l l o w i n g m e a sures. T h e y d e c i d e d first to b u i l d a
b r i d g e w i t h arches, piers, a nd other n e c e s s a r y s t r u c t u r e s . " 22
This d e s c r i p t i o n i n d i c a t e d a b r idge of su b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r
tion a nd d u r a b i l i t y was to be built.
Next, the P r i orate, not the Tower Officials, e l e c t e d and
d e l e g a t e d a s p e c i a l c o m m i s s i o n to direct the b r i d g e r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n progr a m . G r a n t e d b r o a d aut h o r i t y and p o w e r this
commission was to o r g a n i z e the labor a nd the r e s o u r c e s nec
essary to a c c o m p l i s h the task assi g n e d to them. Florentine
citizens w h o w e r e " p o p o l a n i " and "Guelfs" sat on the c o m m i s
sion. The g o v e r n m e n t fix e d a tenure of not m o r e t h a n five
years for the c o m m i s s i o n s t a r t i n g ' f r o m the day of its o f
ficial a p p o i n t m e n t a nd acted qui c k l y by a p p o i n t i n g a c o m m i s
sion of f o u r . 23
quali s o p p a r e n e v a d r a c c o n c i a r e il detto pon t e e al p r e s e n t e

soppartiene, n o n fu a n c o r a p r o v e d u t o di r a c c o n c i a r l o , e che
n e l ' l u o g o dove il det t o ponte soleve essere e g r ande c o n s o r s o
in andare e t o r n a r e si con le pe r s o n e e bestie, animali, mer-
catantie e c o s e . "
22 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 110.
23 I b i d . , 111.
264
Finances for the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m the legislation
a l l o c a t e d in the f o l l o w i n g way. The law r e q u i r e d the t r e a
s u r e r of the T ower Of f i c i a l s to p a y to the t r e a s u r e r of the
commission 50 fiorini d 'oro e ach m o n t h for five years. This
p a y m e n t came fro m "the first r e v e n u e s " t hat e n t e r e d into the
T o w e r Officials treasury. It was m a d e w i t h o u t any reductions
w h a t s oever. Late p a y m e n t s and f a i l u r e to m e e t the p r o v i
sions o u t l i n e d by the P r i o r a t e w e r e s u b j e c t to penalty. In
a ddition, the law also r e q u i r e d the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s to mak e
a p a y m e n t o f 200 fiorini d ' o r o to the c o m m i s s i o n f r o m the
proceeds of a current sale o f c o n f i s c a t e d p r o perty. This
s ame l e g i s l a t i o n p a s s e d by the C o u n c i l s an d a c c e p t e d by the
Priorate obliged u s i n g the s t i p u l a t e d m o n e y o nly for the
b r i d g e - b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m . 2^
However, the P r i o r a t e w e n t e v e n f u r t h e r to a l l o w for
the c o m p l e t i o n of the b r i d g e p r o g r a m by a t t e m p t i n g to remove
obs t a c l e s in the p a t h of the c o m m i s s i o n . 25 To d r a w support
f r o m sources outs i d e Florence, the y o r d e r e d the g o v e r n o r s of
the contado to p r o v i d e aid for the c o m m i s s i o n ' s work. More
over, the c o m m i s s i o m itself, through its t r e a s u r e r or d e l e
gated representative, h e l d the a u t h o r i t y to d r a w d i r e c t l y
the a p p r o p r i a t e d m o n e y and n e e d e d r e s o u r c e s f r o m the Tower
Off i c i a l s a n d the governors of the c o n t a d o to c o m p l e t e the
b r i d g e - b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m w i t h o u t s e e k i n g any f u r t h e r license
2^ A. S. F., Libro L u n a , 111-112.
25 I b i d . , 108-112.
265
or l e g i s l a t i o n f r o m the F l o r e n t i n e government. The F l o r e n
tine g o v e r n m e n t p l a c e d b o t h the Tower O f f i c i a l s a nd the g o v
ernors w i t h i n the above d e f i n e d j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the a p p o i n t e d
commissions.
Nevertheless, this b r o a d a u t h o r i t y and i n d e p e n d e n c e of
the c o m m i s s i o n d id n ot r e m o v e all the o b s t a c l e s in the i r
path. In a s e c o n d ent r y of 1396 the q u e s t i o n o f f i n a n c i n g
the Pon t e di C e r b a i a on the P e s a River s u r f a c e d again.
This e n t r y s t a t e d that the T o w e r Officials' revenues were
d i m i n i s h i n g and that the m o n t h l y payment of 50 f i o r i n i d'oro
for the b u i l d i n g o f the Ponte di Cerbaia w as p a r t i c u l a r l y

27
d i f f i c u l t to meet. The financial s i t u a t i o n o f the To w e r
Of f i c i a l s w as so s t r a i n e d that other p r o g r a m s a s s i g n e d to
their o f f i c e w e r e not b e i n g accomplished. A specific p r o
ject r e f e r r e d to was the Ponte a Greve.
This b r i d g e a l o n g the Greve River was n e a r completion.
If r e v e n u e w e r e n ot p r o v i d e d to finish its c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
"great d a m a g e " w o u l d r e s u l t for the City of Florence.
Moreover, the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s still owed p a r t o f a debt of
700 fi o r i n i d oro to J a c o p o di Francesco, a maestro (con-
t r a c t o r - m a n a g e r ) , for the b u i l d i n g of the Ponte a Greve. The
a g r e e d u p o n time p e r i o d for pa y m e n t was p a s t due, and "the
s a i d J a c o p o has r e c i e v e d only 334 fiorini d ' o r o . " 2 Gi v e n
2 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 102-104.
27 Ibid., 102.
28 I b i d . , 103.
266
the f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t y of the Tow e r O f f i c i a l s , it was
p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e for them to p a y the r e m a i n i n g s u m of
366 f i o r i n i d oro to Jacopo di F r a n c e s c o a nd also to m e e t
their m o n t h l y c o n t r i b u t i o n for the b u i l d i n g of the Ponte
di Cerbaia.
As a result, the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t d r e w up a n e w
p a y m e n t p r o g r a m for the Tower Officials. For the n e x t year,
the g o v e r n m e n t s u s p e n d e d the Tower O f f i c i a l s m o n t h l y p a y m e n t
for the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the Ponte di Cerbaia. Instead, the
first r e v e n u e s w h i c h came into the h a n d s " o f the T o w e r O f
ficials' t r e a s u r e r they allocated n o w for the p a y m e n t of the
remaining part of the debt to Jacopo di Francesco. Any r e
v en u e b e y o n d that assig n e d to the p a y m e n t of this debt the
n e w p a y m e n t p r o g r a m reserved "for the c o m p l e t i o n of the
other w o r k s of the C o mune."29 A n o t a t i o n at the end of the
entry includes a list of dates and p a y m e n t s m a d e to J a c o p o
di F r a n c e s c o by the treasurers of the T o w e r Officials, Al-
d o b r a n d o di Cino and Cino di Stefano Lippi. It is also
s t ated that the debt was p a i d in full b y the end of the s u m
mer 1 396.^0
B o t h the above and later examples s u g g e s t a b o r d e r area

31
of t r a n s i t i o n for public u tility policy. The Flore n t i n e
20 a . S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 104.
30 Ibid.
31
See the discu s s i o n of the c h a n g e that took p l a c e b e
tween 1396 and 1415 in the next s e c t i o n of this chapter.
267
government m a n i f e s t e d gre a t e r concern, attention, a n d re n e w e d
activity at the turn of the century. In some ways, however,
the activity and att e n t i o n o u t r a n the basis for its support.
The Ponte di C e r b a i a . a n d the Ponte a Greve could n ot be
carried f orward simultaneously. M a j o r expense for a b r i d g e
p r o g r a m p r e c l u d e d the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of other p u b l i c u t i l i t y
services.
Older c o n s t raints and an e m e r g i n g sense of c a p a b i l i t y
we r e still at odds. As a p e r i o d of u n f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s
for development and of r evenue shortages continued, the
Florentine g o v e r n m e n t took steps to control m o r e c l o s e l y the
budgets of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e agencies whi l e at the same time
to draw more revenue to the g o v e r n m e n t treasury.
Polic y and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Change: 1396-1415
Two l egislative enactments of 1396 indicated the finan
cial problems of the Tower Officials and the F l o r e n t i n e
government during this p e r i o d of transition. Though both
laws relate dire c t l y to the Tower Officials and f o l l o w each
other in close sequence, the s e c o n d does not make e x p l i c i t
reference to the first. Yet each reflects the s p e c i f i c c o n
straints p resent on the Tower Officials and the F l o r e n t i n e
government.
By legislation of 7 June 1396 the Priorate r e q u i r e d the
treasurer of the Tow e r Officials to p ay to the t r e a s u r e r of
the "Comune di Firen z e " 150 fiorini d oro every m o n t h . ^2
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 103.
268
The T o w e r Officials w e r e to m a k e this m o n t h l y p a y m e n t o f
c o n s i d e r a b l e s u m from the r e v e n u e they gathe r e d as c i t y r e v
enue colle c t o r s and p r o p e r t y m a n a g e r s - - a j u r i s d i c t i o n g r a n t
e d to theii office by the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n e m n t earlier. In
ad d i t i o n , the l aw ob l i g e d the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s 1 t r e a s u r e r to
m a k e this p a y m e n t each m o n t h b e f o r e m a k i n g any oth e r p a y
m e n t to any oth e r gove r n m e n t or p r i v a t e individual. At a
t i m e w h e n city revenues f r o m rents, license fees, excise
taxes, c u s t o m tolls, and o t h e r sou r c e s w e r e in decli n e , this
monthly payment r e q u i r e d o f the T o w e r Officials w as all the
more i m p o r t a n t and w o u l d h a v e a p r o p o r t i o n a l l y g r e a t e r ef-

33
feet on their b u d g e t and activity. It was not long b e f o r e
some of the c o n s equences of this d e c i s i o n for p u b l i c u t i l i t y
a c t i v i t y emerged.
A s e c o n d entry of 1396 d e m o n s t r a t e d that r e v e n u e s h o r t
ages w e r e not the only p r o b l e m of the Tower O f f i c i a l s a n d the
Florentine government. On 8 D e c e m b e r 1396 e n a c t e d l e g i s
l a t i o n d e f i n e d a new p r o c e d u r e r e g u l a t i n g the r e v e n u e p a y
m e n t s m a d e to the F l o r e n t i n e t r e a s u r y by the v a r i o u s depart
ments a nd agencies of the g o v e r n m e n t , including the T o w e r O f
f i c i a l s . ^ This step the F l o r e n t i n e gove r n m e n t took f o l l o w
ing reports of the m i suse of r e v e n u e s by some g o v e r n m e n t
offices acting e i ther in the n a m e and a u t hority of the
C o m u n e o f Flore n c e or their o wn office.
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 103.
34 I b i d . , 104-106.
269
Th e r e have b e e n m a n y re v i e w s i n d i c a t i n g
that the f o l l o w i n g offices have made
e x p e n d i t u r e s c o n t r a r y to the ordi n a n c e s
of the City of Florence: the U f f i c i a l i
d e l l a Grascia, d e l l a To r r e e de Beni de
rubelli, degli U f f i c i a l i della Castella,
de r e g o l a t o r i .and c e r t a i n other o f f i c e s . . . 33
B e c a u s e of the r eports of the illegal c o l l e c t i o n of fees and
fines, the g o v e r n m e n t c h a r g e d the above l i s t e d offices w i t h
violating government ordinances; also, w h e n w i t h h o l d i n g
m o n e y leg a l l y c o l l e c t e d , the gover n m e n t c h a r g e d t h e m again
w i t h v i o l a t i o n of the o r d i n a n c e s be c a u s e t h e y reta i n e d what
properly should have gone into the F l o r e n t i n e treasury. 3(i
A b u s e of o f f i c e was a m a i n p r o b l e m on the p o l i t i c a l and
l e g i s l a t i v e table b e f o r e the F l o r e n t i n e state.
The s e two e ntries i n d i c a t e some of the restraints of
this p e r i o d of t r a n s i t i o n a f f e c t i n g the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n
m e n t g e n e r a l l y and the T o w e r Officials p a r t i c u l a r l y . In a d
dition, b e c a u s e of the 150 f iorini d oro m o n t h l y p ayment
r e q u i r e d of t h e m by t he 7 J u n e 1396 legi s l a t i o n , the Tower
Officials soon found that the i r p u b l i c u t i l i t y assignments ex
c e e d e d their a b i l i t y to r e s p o n d to t h e m effectively. As
F l o r e n t i n e cul t u r e e n t e r e d into a p e r i o d o f r e n e w a l and i n
n o v a t i o n d u ring the e a r l y f i f t e e n t h century, p u b l i c utility
35
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 104-106; " . . . p i u v o l t e sia stata
fa t t a r e l a t i o n e (to t he C o mune of Florence) che appreso agli
u f f i c i a l i della Grascia, d e l l a Torre, e de b e n i de rubella,
e gli u f f i c i a l i del l e C a s t e l l a de r e g o l a t o r i , e di certi
altri uffici, si fanno certe spese c o ntra gli ordinamenti
del det t o c o m u n e . "
3 ^ A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 112-113.
270
needs s i m p l y o v e r s t e p p e d their resources.
In 1398 an entry d i s c u s s e d t h r e e important bridges in
n e e d of r e p a i r - - t h e Ponte R u b a c o n t e inside Florence and the

?7
"newly b u i l t " Ponti Greve a nd E l s a o u t s i d e Florence.
Th ough no o ne s p e c i f i e d cause is given, the Tower Of f i c i a l s
s t ated the s e bri d g e s were in a d a n g e r o u s con d i t i o n and n e a r
collapse. If r e m e d y and m a i n t e n a n c e w e r e not soon pr o v i d e d ,
the bri d g e s w o u l d d e t e r i o r a t e furt h e r , b r i n g i n g "great
damage to the C o m u n e di F i r e n z e . "38
T h o u g h the b r i d g e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m was part of
the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s , the Prior a t e also
r e c o g n i z e d that the income of " t h e i r o f f i c e has been d i m i n
ished due m o s t l y to the m o n t h l y a l l o t m e n t of 150 fiorini
d'oro w h i c h they are r e q u i r e d to p a y the F l o r e n t i n e t r e a s u r y
from the first revenues w h i c h come into their h a n d s . "39
To all o w t he T o w e r Officials to r e p a i r the bridges and "to
spend all that is n e c e s s a r y for this e f f o r t , " the g o v e r n m e n t
gra n t e d an ei g h t m o n t h s u s p e n s i o n o f the above p a y m e n t . ^ A
b r i d g e - r e p a i r p r i o r i t y list s c h e d u l e d w o r k first on the Ponte
Rubaconte, then the Ponte Greve, a n d l a stly the Ponte Elsa.
1 ^7
A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 106-107.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid.
271
In 1399 a simi l a r s i t u a t i o n developed. On the e a s t e r n
side o f the city in the area of San Salvi, la Piagen t i n a , and
P orta G i u s t i t i a a n d Porta Croce, the Arno R i v e r r u s h e d fro m
its course u n d e r m i n i n g the dams and n e a r i n g the w a l l s of
the city. Again, the T ower Officials' t r e a s u r y di d not have
the m o n e y n e e d e d to make the repairs and the r e a s o n g i v e n
was the same:
...revenues are d i m i n i s h e d since this

t r e a s u r y is o b l i g e d to give and to pay
ea c h m o n t h 150 fiorini d ' o r o to the
t r e a s u r y of the Comune di Firenze, and
is not able to pay for a n y t h i n g else
u n t i l this p a y m e n t is the first m a d e . 41
Onc e again, the s o l u t i o n a p p l i e d to the p r o b l e m was in
the f o r m o f a n o t h e r s u s p e n s i o n o f the m o n t h l y p a y m e n t owe d
by the T ower Officials. This tim e it was for t h r e e m o n t h s --
July, August, a n d S e p t e m b e r . 42 The reve n u e w h i c h a c c r u e d to
the T o w e r O f f i c i a l treasury d u r i n g this time the g o v e r n m e n t
a p p r o p r i a t e d onl y for repairs an d r e b u i l d i n g on the e a s t e r n
side o f the city, and a s s i g n e d the revenue for the r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m in the f o l l o w i n g way: 300 fiorini d'oro
for repairs to the dam, f loodgates, river b anks and a d j acent
41 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 113; "E che il c a m a r l i n g o del det-

to u f f i c i o d e l l a Torre nonna p e c u n i a per la q u a l e il detto
riparo si puo fare. Pero che ogni mese s e c o n d o i o r d i n a m e n t i
il c a m a r l i n g o d e l l ' u f f i c i o d e l l a Torre, e tenuto, e d e b b a dare
e p a g a r e a i c a m a r l i n g o della ca m e r a d e l ' c o m u n e di Firenze la
detta q u a n t i t a di fiorini c e n t o c i n q u a n t a ea n i u n o altro puo
pa g a r e se p r i m a n o n n a o s servato le cose s o p r a s c r i t t e . "
42 Ibid., 114.
272
lands and 150 fiorini d'oro to r e b u i l d a small b r i d g e n e a r
P o r t a G i u stitia and the A f f r i c o torrent. 43
These t e m porary a d j u s t m e n t s , however, did not remove
the financial p r o b l e m of the Tower Officials. Their m u l
tiple role as city re v e n u e collectors, property manag e r , and
p u b l i c utility d e p a r t m e n t c o n t i n u e d to reflect the imbalance
b e t w e e n p u blic service nee d s and the a l l o c a t i o n of available
resources. The F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t even t u a l l y took new
steps to redress this i m b a l a n c e and also to draw m o r e r e v
enue to the Flore n t i n e treasury.
In 1400 and 1401 n e w l e g i s l a t i o n granted the Tow e r O f
ficials the au t h o r i t y to e x t e n d the time limit on overdue
rents and fees owed to the F l o r e n t i n e government by local
communities a nd i n d i v i d u a l s . 44 The gove r n m e n t c o n s i d e r e d
this step an aid to d ebtors and the F l orentine g o v e r n m e n t
alike. Also, the law a t t e m p t e d to secure easier a n d more a c
curate r e g i s t r a t i o n of city p r o p e r t y users and city rights in
or d e r to allow for the c o l l e c t i o n 'of revenues due the City
of Florence. M u c h of this r evenue F l orentine officials al
l o c a t e d for the m a i n t e n a n c e of city walls and f l o o d g a t e s . 45
However, revenue r a i s e d in this w a y still fell short of
m e e t i n g the expenses for p u b l i c u t i l i t y services.
This r evenue short a g e re a c h e d also into the offices of
45 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 114-115.
44 I b i d . , 117-118.
45 Ibid.
273
the T o w e r Officials. In 1403, an e n t r y s u g g e s t e d the e x
tent of the p r o b l e m of a r e v e n u e s h o r t a g e and also r a i s e d
an echo o f an e a r l i e r p r o b l e m m e t by the Tower Officials
a f t e r the p l a g u e o f 1 3 4 8 . 46
It h a p p e n s m a n y times that the t r e a s u r e r

of the T o w e r O f ficials b e c a u s e o f the
150 fiorini d oro m o n t h l y p a y m e n t to
the F l o r e n t i n e t r e a s u r y as w e l l as o t h e r
e x p enses does not then pay, or p a y entirely,
off i c e e m p l o y e e s ... and n o t r e c i e v i n g their
salary, the said emp l o y e e s are r e q u i r e d
to w i t h d r a w from the serv i c e of the
T o w e r O f f i c i a l s - - a l l to the d a m a g e o f the
City o f F l o r e n c e a n d to the d e c l i n e of
the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s . 47
The q u i c k a d o p t i o n of a n e w p r o v i s i o n a l l o w e d the
Tower Officials to p a y "before all e lse" the salary of office
employees.4 Perhaps, m o r e c l e a r l y tha n most, this entry
identified another major problem before the Flore n t i n e g o v
ernment, namely, a r e v e n u e s h o r t a g e a n d its consequences.
The revenue shortage meant a t h r e a t e n e d r e d u c t i o n of s t a f f
4 ^ A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 120-121.
4 ^ I b i d . ; "E che sp e s s e v o l t e a d v i e n e che il c a m a r l i n g o

d e l l detto u f f i c i o per altri p a g a m e n t i che essi fanno pe r
lui e m a x i m a m e n t e pe r fiorini c e n t o c i n q u a n t a i quali ogni
m e s e d ebba p a g a r e al c a m a r l i n g o d e l l a c a m e r a cel Comune di
Firenze s e c o n d o gli o r d i n a m e n t i g a t t i p e r lo p a s s a t o p e r S i g
nori Priori del l ' A r t i e G o n f a l o n i e r di G i u s t i t i a e loro Col-
legi, la s c i a di p a g a r e i salari s o p r a d e t t i . Per la q u a l c o s a
i detti messi, ifficiali, e m i n i s t r i c o s t r e t t i dal bisogno
n o n p o s s o n o servire i detti u f f i c i a l i e r i t r e g g o n s i da il
loro s e r v i z i o per no n p o t e r e h a v e r e i loro salari in danno
del Comune di Firenze e in d i m i n u t i o n e d e l l ' u f f i c i o dei detti
ufficiali."
48 Ibid.
274
which, in turn, m e a n t less re v e n u e c o l l e c t i o n and less p u b
lic u t i l i t y service. The a d o p t i o n o f the ab o v e p r o v i s i o n
fo r e s a w that such a result w o u l d not be to the benefit of
the City of F l o r e n c e . 49 At the same time, no other pro-
posial in this e n t r y c o n s i d e r e d f urther the specific f i n a n c i a l
circumstance of the T o w e r Officials.
Fi n a n c i a l p r o b l e m s c o n t i n u e d for the T o w e r Officials
into the e a r l y f i f t e e n t h century. T h o u g h the pur p o s e of
the a p p r o p r i a t i o n c h a n g e d from p u b l i c u t i l i t y to some other
p r o j e c t over the y e a r s , the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s still made the
monthly payment of 150 fiorini d'oro to the Florentine trea
sury until 1415. N e w l e g i s l a t i o n in 1415, however, changed
the d i r e c t i o n of the Tow e r O f f icials in s i g n i f i c a n t ways.
This n e w l e g i s l a t i o n e n a c t e d o n 1 J u n e 1415 p r e s e n t e d
a b r i e f o u t l i n e of the h i s t o r y o f t he 150 fiorini d'oro
mo n t h l y p a y m e n t and an emphatic e x p r e s s i o n o f p u blic u t i l i t y
policy.Before 1412, the F l o r e n t i n e government assigned
this r e v e n u e p r i m a r i l y for p u b l i c u t i l i t y programs. In
1412, it a l l o c a t e d the revenue to the m e n s a (table or board)
of the P r i o r a t e as w e l l as to oth e r pu r p o s e s , and m a d e once
again in M a r c h 1415 a n ew a s s i g n m e n t of the money. S hortly
afterwards the above r e f o r m l e g i s l a t i o n of 1 June 1415
s k e t c h e d a n e w p r o g r a m for To w e r O f f i c i a l a c t i v i t y . ^
49 A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 120-121.
. 50 I b i d . , 125-128.
51 Ibid.
275
F o l l o w i n g this b r i e f h i s t o r y o f the 150 f i o r i n e d'oro
m o n t h l y p a y m e n t made by the Tower Officials to the Floren
tine t r e asury, the F l o r e n t i n e gove r n m e n t e x p r e s s e d e m p h a t
ic ally a n e w d i r e c t i o n in p u b l i c ut i l i t y policy.
F r o m the time of the a b o v e p a y m e n t until

now, the said w o r k (public u t i l i t y works)
c o u l d not be a c c o m p l i s h e d b e c a u s e of the
s h o r t a g e of revenue; as a result, there
fo l lowed, and c o n t i n u e s to follow, great
d a m a g e to the C o mune di Fir e n z e because
o f the m a n y places w h i c h are in serious
d a n g e r o f colla p s e a n d thus s h o u l d have
the n e c e s s a r y repairs. A n d concl u d i n g
c o n c e r n i n g these s p e c i f i c issues above,
as w e l l as several o t h e r matte r s , that
it is r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to p r o v i d e a p p r o
p r i a t e l y for the p u b l i c b e n e f i t and to
r e m e d y e f f e c t i v e l y s u c h issues...
the P r i o r a t e and C o u n c i l s of the F l o r e n

tine gover n m e n t prov i d e . . .
T h a t for the future a n d in p e r p e t u i t y

the a b o v e s a i d q u a n t i t y of 150 fiorini
d ' o r o is u n d e r s t o o d to be and is r e
d u c e d to the s u m of 75 fiorini d'oro,
n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the p r e v i o u s laws or
any o t h e r p r e v e n t i o n s ... 52
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 127; "E che dal tempo d e l l ' d e t t o

a s s e g n a m e n t o in quaj il d e t t o r i p a r o non si pote fare per
d i f e t t o d e l l a detta p e c u n i a , p e r la qualc o s a sono s e q u i t i , e
as p r e s e n t e seguivanno, gra n i danni al detto Comune, concio-
s i a c o s a che in pui loughi si d o v e s s e fare il r i p a r o necessario.
II q u a l e c o n s c i o s i a che n o n si p o s s a fare, subito p o t r a n n o
cadere, c o n s c i o s i a c o s a che s t i a in gran p e r i c o l o e p e r
cadere. E alia fine c o n c h i u d e n d o che sopra q u este cose e
s o p r a q u e s t e cose e sopre al q u a n t e altre cose si d o v e s s e
o p o r t u n a m a n t e p r o v e d e r e p e r la p u b l i c a utilita. E v a g l i e n d o le
cose n a r r a t e e di so p r a p e r c h e sono utili, p r o d u c e r e a d ef-
fecto, e M a g i s t r a t i e p o t e n t i Si g n o r i Priori d e l l ' A r t e ; "e
G o n f a l o n i e r di G i u s t i t i a del P o p o l o e Comunale di F i r e n z e
a v u t a e p r o v i d o n o . ; "Che p e r 1 ' a v e n i r e in p e r petuo, n o n s t a n t i
le detti leggi, overo q u a l u n q u e altre repugnantie, la d e t t a
q u a n t i t a di fiorini d'oro s 'i n t e n d a essere e sia r i d o t t a alia
s o m m a e q u a n t i t a di f iorini s e t t a n t a c i n q u e . "
276
W i t h this clear s t a tement o f purpose, the Tower O f
ficials t r a v e l l e d n ow in a n e w a nd m o r e definite d i r e c t i o n
t o w a r d p u b l i c u t i l i t y service. The rel e a s e of m o r e re v e n u e
a nd the s e c u r e d ap p r o p r i a t i o n of this revenue s u p p o r t e d
the i r r e n e w e d efforts. As their m o n t h l y p ayment to the
Florentine t r e a s u r y was r e d u c e d by half, the 75 fiorini d*
oro r e t a i n e d e a c h month in the T o w e r Official t r e a s u r y the
n e w r e f o r m law a l l o c a t e d only for p u b l i c utility s e r v i c e - -
"walls, b r i d g e s , crossings, and the like in the city a nd

P *T
con t a d o o f Florence, along the A r n o River, and e l s e w h e r e . " 00
A l o n g w i t h a renewed d i r e c t i o n as an office of p u b l i c
utility service and a release o f m o r e revenue, addi t i o n a l
statutory provisions gr a n t e d the To w e r Officials a broader
range of a u t h o r i t y and a c t i v i t y . 54 T h e s e provisions cor
r e s p o n d e d to the w i d e r role the T o w e r Officials were e x
p e c t e d to p l a y in the field of p u b l i c utility. These p r o
visions a n d r e l a t e d issues of j u r i s d i c t i o n will be d i s c u s s e d
m ore fully later.
P u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y e n t e r e d a n e w stage of d e v e l
opment d u r i n g the early f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y and ran p a r a l l e l
to oth e r c u l t u r a l changes d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r taking p l a c e
d u r i n g the same period. This n e w stage o f develo p m e n t fou n d
expression in a wide appro a c h to p l a n n i n g and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 128.
I b i d . ; The wide range o f a c t i v i t y of the To w e r O f

ficials is d i s c u s s e d in the s u c c e e d i n g chapters 6-9.
Ill
p o l i c y and a b r o a d e r scale of p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e reorganization. This n ew appro a c h in p u b l i c
u t i l i t y p o l i c y e m e r g e d c learly in the entries r e f e r r i n g to
travel and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n b e t w e e n P i s a and Florence during
the f i f t e e n t h and early s i x t e e n t h centuries. The r e f o r m
law o f 1415 laid m u c h o f the g r o u n d w o r k for this n e w a p
p r o a c h and later activity. It was one signal of an i m p o r
tant change in direction.
W i t h a r e l a t i v e l y long p e r i o d of peace and stability,
r e n e w e d e c o n o m i c activity, and cultural i n n o v a t i o n in the
arts a nd ot h e r f i e l d s , Florence b e c a m e again a g e n e r a t o r
of i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h o u t the fi f t e e n t h century a nd well in
to the s i x t e e n t h century. N e w c onceptual and p r a c t i c a l
appr o a c h e s in the arts, sciences, engineering, and a d m i n i s
t r a t i o n descr i b e the c r e a t i v i t y and di v e r s i t y of this p e r i o d
of F l o r e n t i n e history. Urb a n p l a n n i n g and p u b l i c u t i l i t y
p o l i c y w e r e one form o f e x p r e s s i o n of this general cul
tural development.
One r e sult of a n e w approach in u r b a n p l a n n i n g and
p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y was a changing relationship between
s e t t l e m e n t and m o v e m e n t patterns. Just as a n e w sense of
p r o p o r t i o n and b a l a n c e in a r c h i t e c t u r e was a distinctive
and c r e a t i v e d e sign feature o f Re n a i s s a n c e Florence as a
city o f settlement, so i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p and e x c h a n g e on a
r egi o n a l scale d u r i n g this p e r i o d c h a r a c t e r i z e d F l o r e n t i n e
u r b a n p l a n n i n g and p o l i c y as a city o f movement.
278
C H A P T E R 6: I N T E R U R B A N T R A N S PORTATION:
FLORENCE, SIENA, VOLTERRA, PISTOIA, PISA
D u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n turies Florence
was the r e g i o n a l e m b a r k a t i o n a nd d e s t i n a t i o n p o i n t for e c o n
omic and g o v e r n m e n t a l goods and services. Flor e n c e ' s cen t r a l
location in T u s c a n y alo n g the A r n o River a nd its m a n y e c o n
omic and p o l i t i c a l roles as a m e t r o p o l i t a n c e nter e m p h a s i z e d
the i m p o r t a n c e of i n t e r u r b a n m o v e m e n t p a t terns. This chapter
considers the h e i g h t e n e d i m p o r t a n c e F l o r e n t i n e of f i c i a l s p l a c e d
on a m o r e e f f e c t i v e a nd a r e a w i d e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y a n d the
e x p a n d e d role of the Tow e r O f f i c i a l s in i m p l e m e n t i n g such a
policy. The Tower O f f i c i a l records gave t e s t i m o n y to the
changes t a k i n g place.
A n e n c l o s e d space b o u n d e d by a wall w i t h l imited access
gates h a s . o f t e n b e e n the symbol of the p r e m o d e r n city.* The
emphasis of this s y mbol if m o r e on s e t t l e m e n t than m o v e m e n t
paterns. This symbol also r e p r e s e n t s m a n y allusions to
Note particularly: Astengo, "Town P l a n n i n g , " pp. 194-

199, i l l u s t r a t i o n s on pp. 198 and 202, and plates pp. 1 3 0 - 1 3 3 and
144; Francovich, " C i t t a da Immagine s i m b o l i c a , " pp. 303-315,
e spe c i a l l y pp. 310-315: Bacon, D e s i g n of C i t i e s , pp. 93-130;
Leonardo Benevolo, La Citta i t a l i a n a nel R m a s c i m e n t o (Milan:
Ediziono II Polifilo, 1969), pp. 56-61, Tables 6-7; M a r i o Morini,
A t l a n t e di S t oria dell 'Urbanistica dalla P r e i s t o r i a a l l ' I n i z i o
del Secolo XX (Milan: Ulrico H o e p l i Editore, 1963) , p p . 198-231;
H el e n Rosenau, The Ideal City in Its A r c h i t e c t u r a l E v o l u t i o n
(Boston: B o s t o n Book Art Shop, 1959), pp. J2-S6; S a m u e l Y.
Edgerton, J r . , The R e n a i s s a n c e Di s c o v e r y o f Linear P e r s p e c t i v e
(New York: Basic Books, 1975).
279
the city as a p o l i t i c a l refuge, a m i l i t a r y shelter, and a
local economic, religious and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e center. At the
same time, the focus is on the cit y as an i s o l a t e d p o i n t in
space. M o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s w i t h i n the city or b e t w e e n cities
enter the s cene in a v e r y m a r g i n a l way. Thus, the city a p
p ears a c l o s e d circle w i t h a h i g h l y limited, if any, relation
to o ther spatial centers and a w i d e r spatial c o n t e x t . 2
Y et it is m o b i l i t y p a t t e r n s that det e r m i n e l a r g e l y the
pace, rhythm, for m and e x t e n t o f the u r b a n i z a t i o n process.
The c a p a c i t y to m o v e at least in a r e l a t i v e l y s a f e and e f
f e c t i v e w a y people, goods, i n f o r m a t i o n and ideas over a w i d e
a rea f a s h i o n e d m u c h of the u r b a n i z a t i o n process s ince the

3
t e n t h century. D u r i n g t hese c e n t u r i e s of d e v e l o p m e n t of
E urope's f irst m a j o r c o m m e r c i a l and industrial cities trans
p o r t a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s w ere at the ce n t e r o f
the u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s . ^ Bridges and gateways w i t h i n an d
b e t w e e n cities, as a result, r e p r e s e n t more fully the f o r m a t i v e
elements o f the u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s than the s t a t i o n a r y
symbols of city walls an d g a t e s . 5
2
Refer particularly to A s t e n g o , Francovich, and B a c o n
in Not e 1.
i
5 Lopez, " E v o l u t i o n of L a n d T r a n s p o r t , " p p . 12-25; Plesner,
" Una R i v o l u z i o n e ," p p . 76-101; Day, "Strade e V i e , " p p . 89-99.
4
Ibid., Als o see: B r a u d e l , The M e d i t e r r a n e a n , vol. 1,
p p . 312-322.
5 See not e 1.
280
Symbols of m o v e m e n t h a v e increasing s i g n i f i c a n c e in
a p p l i c a t i o n to the F l o r e n t i n e state, since Tu s c a n y came to
resemble m o r e and m o r e an i n t e r c o n n e c t e d s y s t e m of sp a t i a l
centers. Like city streets and bridges, i n t e r u r b a n roa d s
and bridges a l o n g the m a i n avenues o f trade and traffic
p r o v i d e d the s t r u c t u r a l and develo p m e n t a l lines of the u r b a n
ization process. As F l o r e n t i n e poli c y m a k e r s g r a d u a l l y
a c h i e v e d a r e g u l a r and or d e r l y sequence in time to a d m i n i s
ter the road and riv e r systems, so they also e v e n t u a l l y a f
f i r m e d a g r e a t e r c o o r d i n a t i o n o f mo b i l i t y patt e r n s o v e r space.
Since F l o r e n c e was loc a t e d at the center of the trade
and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n n e t w o r k o f Tuscany, m u c h of F l o r e n t i n e
p o l i c y a t t e m p t e d to improve the a c c e s s i b i l i t y b e t w e e n the
p e r i p h e r y and the c e n t e r of the region. Reinforcing each
other, the m a r k e t a nd g o v e r n m e n t a l o r i e n t a t i o n of F l o r e n c e
e m p h a s i z e d the n e e d for a b r o a d e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c o m
m u n i c a t i o n system. Import of food and resources and e x port
of e c o n o m i c and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e goods and services d e p e n d e d
on a steady m o v e m e n t o f produ c t s and commodities, infor
mation, a nd p e o p l e . ^ I n t e r u r b a n exchange was the p h y s i c a l
e x p r e s s i o n of a n e w r e g i o n a l fra m e w o r k for development.
Rivers, roads, a nd bridges were the b a s i c elements in
the regi o n a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system. Rivers w e r e the r e sult
^ See the d i s c u s s i o n in chapters 4, 6, and 7.
7 A. S. F . , Libro Luna, 18-23, 106-108, 152-157, 282-

284. -----------

2S1
of n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s and part of the n a t u r a l landscape.
Bridges a nd roads w e r e the result of h u m a n choice, i n g enuity
and labor, a nd i n novatio n and planning. T h e y w e r e part of
the c u l t u r a l and u r b a n landscape. Both landscapes b e came
i n t e r r e l a t e d w h e n and where bridges e x t e n d e d roadways across
rivers a nd roads follo w e d the river v a l l e y s to trade out-

O
lets. This i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p a d v a n c e d w i t h the b u i l d i n g of
a c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m of carrier lines a nd s t r u c t u r a l links
in m o s t areas of the regional state. W i t h Flore n c e the
focus, this c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m found e x p r e s s i o n in at least
three m a j o r dimensions.
One d i m e n s i o n was the bridges and access streets w i t h i n
F lore n c e w h i c h u n i t e d both sides o f the A r n o River g i v i n g a
c oher e n t d e s i g n to the interior m o v e m e n t o f the w h o l e city.
This i n t e r i o r m o v e m e n t joined a larger e x t e r i o r Mflo w " p a t
tern le a d i n g in v a r i o u s directions f r o m Flore n c e and p l a c i n g
the city at the hub of an i n t e r u r b a n a nd regional r o a d
system. A n even larger d i m e n s i o n a p p e a r e d w h e n the trans
p o r t a t i o n routes issuing f r o m Florence r e a c h e d the first
b r i d g e s and gateways of the r e g i o n - - t h e p o r t s and trade
outlets, for example, Pisa and Livorno.*
8 A. S. F . , Libro Luna, 48-50, 108-109, 267-269, 275,

282-284.
I b i d . ; See also the d i s c u s s i o n that follows in this chap

ter and Parsons, Engineers and E n g i n e e r i n g , chapters 20 and
21, p a r t i c u l a r l y p p 7 3 4 5 - 3 4 7 and plates on p p . 359-366.
* Mallett, Florentine Galleys, p p . 14-16; Also: M.
282
M a i n a r t eries of this " f l o w or circul a t i o n s y s t e m i n
cluded: the s t r a d a Pist o i a and B o l o g n a to the north tyhich
cros s e d the pla i n s toward P i s t o i a and p a s s e d through the
m ou n t a i n s a n d fertile M u g e l l o c o u n t r y s i d e on the w a y to
Bologna; the v i a C a sentino w h i c h led t o w a r d the p r o d u c t i v e
U pper A r n o V a l l e y to the east an d s o u t h of Florence; the
strada R o m a n a w h i c h t r a v e l l e d f r o m the s o u t h e r n gate o f the
city to S i e n a and Rome; and the s t r a d a Pisana which b e g a n
at the w e s t e r n side of the city and f l a n k e d the Arn o R i v e r
on the w a y to the ports o f P i s a and L i v o r n o . ^ Other i m
p o r t a n t roads in the region u s u a l l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s e
s tem lines at some point. A l o n g w i t h the roads, there was
also the A r n o River w h i c h c a r r i e d t r a f f i c from the s e a
ports of P i s a and Livorno to the r i v e r por t Signa just w e s t
of F l o r e n c e . ^ W i t h a change in policy, adminis t r a t i v e
direction, and general h i s t o r i c a l cond i t i o n s during the
early f i f t e e n t h century a p e r i o d of i n c r e a s e d response to
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n needs be c a m e p o ssible. By mi d - c e n t u r y the
F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t r e a c h e d a n e w e r c a pability and a w i d e r
ap p roach in the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n policy.
M allett, " P i s a and Florence in the F i f t e e n t h Century: Aspects

of the P e r i o d of the First F l o r e n t i n e Domination," in F l o r e n
tine S t u d i e s , p p . 427-431.
S t r a d a r i o storico e a m m i n i s t r a t i v o della C itta e del

Comune di F i r e n z e (Florence: Spec i a l Comm i s s i o n Study, 1913).
kepetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 2, p p . 137-146.
^ Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 2, p p . 137-146; M a l l e t t ,

F l o r e n t i n e Galleys, p p . 14-16.
283
Some of the b a s i c i n g r e d i e n t s of this new e r c a p a b i l i t y and
a pproach fou n d e x p r e s s i o n in later s i x t e e n t h century reforms.
Though an i n l a n d city in an age w h e n oceans and w a t e r w a y s
were main h i g hways, F l o r e n c e was a c i t y of m o v e m e n t n o n e
theless .13
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n No r t h a nd South: Siena to Pis t o i a
An entry of 1415 f o l l o w i n g the r e f o r m law of 1 June 1415
set the tone for a p e r i o d of r e n e w e d activity in the field
of p u blic u t i l i t y policy. On 27 S e p t e m b e r 1415, the Tow e r
Officials p r e p a r e d a p r o g r a m of wor k s and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
for the d e l i b e r a t i o n a n d appr o v a l o f the Flore n t i n e g o v e r n
m e n t c o n c e r n i n g the P e s a River V a l l e y and the r o a d to S i e n a . ^
This is a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g entry for m a n y reasons.
The Flor e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t a s s e r t e d cl e a r l y the s i g n i f i c a n c e
of the access route to Sie n a thr o u g h the Pesa V a l l e y and
expressed a broad spatial perspective when viewing t r ans
p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y for the area. Both the gove r n m e n t and the

t
Tow e r O f f icials s aw this important r o a d a part of a w i d e r
s y s t e m of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and communication. Also, this e n t r y
p r o v i d e d a d e t a i l e d o u t l i n e o f the financial l i a bility for
the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m as well as a look at the l a rger
role the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s b e g a n to p l a y in the field of
1^
See the d i s c u s s i o n in ch a p t e r 4 c o n c e r n i n g the a d m i n
istrative reforms b e t w e e n 1549 and 1559.
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 128-130.
p u b l i c utility.
P r e f a c i n g the s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n s o f the a p p r o v e d l e g
islation w a s a st a t e m e n t of the issue a nd p r o b l e m in q u e s
tion. T r a v e l t h r o u g h the F l o r e n t i n e contado in the a r e a of
the m i d d l e a nd s o u t h e r n part o f the Pesa River V a l l e y h a d b e
come a v e r y r i s k y journey. In the p r e v i o u s cha p t e r the im
port a n c e o f this travel ro u t e a p p e a r e d in re f e r e n c e to the
Ponte a C e r b a i a in the P e s a Riv e r V a l l e y l ocated f arther
n or t h t o w a r d Florence. O n c e again, F l o r e n t i n e of f i c i a l s
noted unhesitatingly the i m p o r t a n c e o f the area for travel.
"Many p e r s o n s - - p i l g r a m s , f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s , as w e l l as local
p e o p l e and citizens generally--pass t h r o u g h the area at
great risk o f d a nger and drowning.
The p r o b l e m o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e the w a t e r from the riv e r
w a s h e d over the land frequently, lea v i n g the t e r r a i n w e a k

17
and s u b j e c t to slides a nd cave-ins. Since the r o a d fl a n k e d
the river t h r o u g h much of the v a l l e y , this flood p r o b l e m was
also a t r avel problem. Giv e n the n a t u r e and e x tent of the
problem, a g eneral r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m w o u l d be n e e d e d to
restore r e a s o n a b l e s a fety and a c c e s s i b i l i t y to the area.
The F l o r e n t i n e gove r n m e n t o u t l i n e d the p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h w h i c h
it v i e w e d the area and the i m p o r t a n c e it a t t r i b u t e d to the
15 A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 129, 131, 132-134.
See c h a p t e r 5, notes 19-21 for entries on Ponte a

Cerbaia in the Pesa River Valley; A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 108-
112; A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 128.
U A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 128-129.
285
p r o b l e m b e f o r e them. Then, they gave approval for a m a j o r
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n program.
F l o r e n t i n e o f f i c i a l s saw the area as an i m p o r t a n t c o n n e c
tion b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e a nd the w o r l d beyond. The r o a d run n i n g
t hr o u g h the P e s a V a l l e y they d e s c r i b e d as "that r o a d w h i c h
goes f r o m F l o r e n c e to Siena, t h e n to Rome and other p a r t s of

18
the w o r l d . " They r e c o g n i z e d e x p l i c i t l y that travel and
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n routes v t e r e gateways and bridges of e c o n o m i c
and cultu r a l e x c h a n g e w i t h the w o r l d b e y o n d F l o r e n c e s b o r
ders. This was n ot a n e w p o s i t i o n for Florence. During
the first h a l f o f the f o u r t e e n t h century Flore n c e h a d b e
come an i n t e r n a t i o n a l industrial, financial and c o m m e r c i a l
center, b ut the crisis of the 1340's c h e c k e d this development.
However, d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h ce n t u r y Florence b e c a m e again
a c e nter of e c o n o m i c e x c h a n g e a nd cultural innovation.
The n e w a p p r o a c h and the b r o a d p e r s p e c t i v e b e i n g a p p l i e d in
the field of p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y and the o r g a n i z a t i o n of
movement patterns on the road to Siena i n d icated p a r t l y the
n e w role F l o r e n c e was to p l a y in the early m o d e r n period.
For the rem o v a l of the d a n g e r of travel in the P e s a River
V a l l e y the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t a s s e r t e d its r e s p o nsibility.
T h e i r " g r e a tness, honor, and r enown" as w e l l as p u b l i c safety
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 128.
Brucker, R e n a i s s a n c e F l o r e n c e , p p . 79-88; G o l d thwaite,

Pr i v a t e Wealth, I n t r o d u c t i o n and chapter 1.
286
and u t i l i t y r e q u i r e d them to take steps w h i c h w o u l d "avoid
and r e m e d y " the dangers p e o p l e faced w h e n trave l l i n g in this
a r e a . 20 To a c c o m p l i s h this they took the f o l lowing steps.
The F l o r e n t i n e gover n m e n t chose an area n o r t h of the
Chianti hills o u t s i d e Siena for a b r i d g e and roadwork p r o
gram. The b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m was to b e g i n n e a r the town of
Tavernelle. T he "most suitable, apt, and adequate site" the
T o w e r O f f icials w e r e to select for the b u i l d i n g of a n ew
b r i d g e w i t h "piers, edifices, found a t i o n s , and anything else
n e e d e d to r e sist the force of the r i v e r . T h i s was the
d e s i g n for a b r i d g e of c o n s i d e r a b l e sc a l e a nd durability.
Besides b e i n g bu i l t to resist the impetus of the river c u r
rent, the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t a f f i r m e d a s e c o n d reason for
a b r i d g e of this kind: "and fu r t h e r that by a greater
steadfastness of the b r i dge w h o e v e r w a n t s to pass over the
b r i d g e at an y t i m e w i l l be able to do so freely (without
fear o f d a n g e r ) . " 22
S u p e r v i s i o n and aut hority f or,the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m
from start to f i n i s h the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t p l a c e d in the
hands o f the T o w e r Officials and, u n l i k e earlier, did not
e s t a b l i s h s e p a r a t e commissions to d i r e c t the program. The
T o w e r O f f icials w e r e r e s p o nsible for the e m ployment of the
2n
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 128. For other references to the
Pesa Riv e r V a l l e y d u ring this p e r i o d see: A. S. F., Libro
L u n a , 101-102, 108-112.
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 128.
22 I b i d . , 129.
287
contractor-builders a nd the workers. T h e y w e r e also g i v e n the
au t h o r i t y to r e q u i r e the financial resources n e e d e d to c o m
p l e t e the b u i l d i n g program. Y/ithout a ny a d d i t i o n a l l e g i s
lation, the T o w e r Of f i c i a l s could exact, in this case, the
revenues n e e d e d to c o m p l e t e the program. Howev e r , it was
e x p e c t e d that t h e y w o u l d be guided by the i r c o n s c i e n c e . ^ 3
A n o u t l i n e o f the financial li a b i l i t y for the r e c o n s t r u c
tion p r o g r a m d e t a i l e d a graphic p icture o f the extent a n d
i m portance o f the w o r k to be done and o f the c r i t e r i a e m
p l o y e d in d e t e r m i n i n g the cost-benefit a n a l y s i s of Flor e n
tine p u b l i c u t i l i t y policy. The Flor e n t i n e government assumed
p art of the financial liability. The g o v e r n m e n t treasury
p a i d to the T o w e r O f f icials 100 fiorini d ' o r o for the p u r
p o s e of the w o r k o n the n e w bridge on the P e s a River.
Since no time l i m i t was a t t a c h e d to the p a y m e n t , it a ppears
that this p a y m e n t w as to be made only once.
A s e c o n d p a r t o f the liability the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t
a s s i g n e d to t en o f the m o s t important c o muni (larger towns)
not only in the P e s a River V a lley but also in the Elsa R i v e r
V a l l e y a sho r t d i s t a n c e to the west. E a c h o f the ten l i s t e d
comuni they a s s e s s e d individually a p a r t i c u l a r levy for the
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n program. A ssessments r a n g e d f r o m 3 to 2 5
^3 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 108-112; A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 129.
24 a . S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 129; See also r e v e n u e and r e v i e w

p r o c e d u r e s for r o a d and b r idge w o r k in o t h e r parts of the
state: A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 131-132.
288
f i o r i n i d'oro each m o n t h for four months. Some of the larger
towns a nd m o s t i m p ortant communities of the a r e a i n c l u d e d on
the list were: Colle di Val di Elsa, S an G i mignano, Pog-

25
g ibonsi, B a r b e r i n o di Val di Elsa, a nd S a n Casciano. The
w i d e u s e a nd benefit o f the b r i d g e c a r r i e d a w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f the fin a n c i a l l i a b i l i t y for the bridge.
In addition, all the p o p o l i and c o m u n i (the s maller
villages a nd communities) w i t h i n the b o r d e r s o f the above
l a r g e r c o muni or towns and f r o m the P e s a Ri v e r to the b o r
ders of the F l o r e n t i n e state al o n g the r o a d to S i e n a also
p a i d a tax d e t e r m i n e d b y the Tower Offi c i a l s . Howe v e r ,
t h e r e was a legal floor and ce i l i n g set on this tax to be
l e v i e d on each p o polo or c o m u n e - - n o t less than 1 and not
m o r e t h a n 4 fiorini d'oro. The tax also a p p l i e d to i n nkeepers
a n d f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s . " o n the r o a d alo n g the r i v e r up to the
borders of the s tate," since innkeepers a nd v i s i t o r s the law
c o n s i d e r e d among ... e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f the p u b l i c u t i l i t y p r o
gram. The law also i m p o s e d part of the financial lia b i l i t y
o n the debtors of the F l o r e n t i n e govern m e n t . Debtors cou l d
b e r e q u i r e d to p ay all that was o w e d or to w o r k p e r s o n a l l y
to p a y o ff the d e b t . ^
In r e g a r d to g eneral a u t h o r i t y to d i r e c t the w o r k to c o m
pletion, the Tower Off i c i a l s cou l d draft f r o m the i r o wn t r e a
s u r y a nd the above sources w h a t they n e e d e d a c c o r d i n g to the
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 129.
26 I b i d . , 129-130.
289
guidelines o f the legislation. The r e t t o r i electors or g o v
ernors) of the city a nd contado of F l o r e n c e "at the simple
request" of the T o w e r Officials w e r e to i m p l e m e n t the d e
cisions and p o l i c y d e c l a r e d by their o f f i c e . 2? S ubject to
the g uidelines o f the legislation, their p r o f e s s i o n a l j u d g
ment, and the i r c o n s c i e n c e , the T o w e r Of f i c i a l s exercised
such a b r e a d t h of a u t h o r i t y they c o u l d ca r r y t h r o u g h to c o m
p l e t i o n the b r i d g e b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m in the P e s a Ri v e r V a l l e y
n e a r Tavernelle.
As one o f the lon g e s t and most d e t a i l e d of the entries
c o n c e r n i n g the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p u b l i c u t i l i t y policy,
this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m o f f e r e d a c l e a r v i e w o f the d i r
e c t i o n t a k e n a nd the a c t i v i t y b e g u n by the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n
ment by w a y o f the o f f i c e o f the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s after the
r e f o r m o f 1415. This n e w d i r e c t i o n and p r o c e s s o f r e n e w e d
a c t i v i t y c o n t i n u e d and rea c h e d a h i g h p o i n t about m i d - c e n t u r y

7 ft
a nd will be d i s c u s s e d ag a i n in the n e x t p a r t o f this chapter.
Some addit i o n a l examp l e s here w i l l ,i n d i c a t e , though, main
features of a n e w a p p r o a c h and of a more interrelated view
of m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h century.
In 1441, the T o w e r Officials d e s c r i b e d the n e e d for w o r k
on two key roads o f the c i t y--the s t r a d a P i s a n a a nd the s t r a d a
Romana. The roads r an through s u b u r b a n areas of Florence.
27 Q u a d e r n o , 130.
22 See the d i s c u s s i o n of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n routes b e t w e e n

F lor e n c e and Pisa in the next se c t i o n o f this chapter.
On the s t r a d a P i s a n a the T o w e r O f f icials p r o p o s e d repairs as
far as L egnaia abo u t three miles to the w e s t of the city.
On the strada R o m a n a they s u g g e s t e d r o a d w o r k as far as San
Gaggio about a h a l f - m i l e to the s o u t h o f the c i t y . 29
A l t h o u g h the distances c o v e r e d in this entry are not
v e r y extensive, t h e s e areas are p a r t o f the he a v y traffic
zone a r ound Florence. More i m p o rtantly, there is in this
entry an item l i s t e d n e a r the end r e q u i r i n g the s u p e r i n
tendents of the T o w e r O f f icials to do a s t u d y to determine
w h i c h p o p o l i w e r e o b l i g a t e d to m a i n t a i n the above as well
as other roads a n d w h i c h w e r e m e e t i n g t h e i r obligation. Af
ter m a k i n g the review, the Tower O f f i c i a l s w e r e to list the
n e c e s s a r y repairs and expenses of the repairs s c h e d u l e d in
their district. This r e view was an e a r l y reference to a probl
w h i c h was to o c c u r again.
T r a f f i c a r o u n d Florence was more i n t e n s e than elsewhere.
If p o p o l i did n ot m a i n t a i n the tract of r o a d running through
their boun d a r i e s a nd districts, then gaps w o u l d appear in the
m a i n t e n a n c e of the road system. It appears f r o m what is
st a t e d in the 1441 entry that the r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e s y stem
h a d p r o b l e m s n e a r to as well as far f r o m Florence. As later
entries i n d i c a t e d even m o r e clearly, the Florentine gove r n m e n t
b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y co n c e r n e d about the m a i n access routes
and central t r a f f i c zone around the city. This led, in turn,
to n e w re g u l a t i o n s and stric t e r a p p l i c a t i o n of older p r o c e d
ures, such as the o b l i g a t i o n of the p o p o l i to support and to
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 141-143.
m a i n t a i n the r o a d s y s t e m w i t h i n their b o u n d a r i e s . ^
S u p p o r t for the 1441 road p r o g r a m came n o t only from
the p o p o l i but also from those in debt to the Tow e r Officials.
Contributions to p u b l i c u t i l i t y programs c a m e also from the
O pe r a di Santa M a r i a del Fiore. The O p e r a w as a q u a s i-public
i n s t i t u t i o n that h e l d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the c a t h e d r a l in
F l o r e n c e as its name indicates and for ot h e r p u b l i c building
a ctivities a s s i g n e d it by Flore n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t . * ^ These
r evenue sources, however, p r o v e d insufficient. Shortly a f t e r
wards the Tow e r Officials ask e d for a d d i t i o n a l financing for
the r o a d r e pair program. They made this r e q u e s t the following
y e a r in 1442, a nd the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t a p p r o v e d the re-

32
quest in order to bri n g the w o r k to completion. The main
sources of the addit i o n a l revenue were the s a m e - - t h e debtors
of the T o w e r Officials and the Opera di S a n t a M a r i a del Fiore.
O ne o t h e r item of the 1441 entry i n t r o d u c e d a part of the
road a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m w h i c h was b e c o m i n g d i stinctly
more important. New legal p rovisions d i r e c t e d w a g o n and cart
drivers as well as m u l eteers to deliver the i r loads of stone
for r o a d w o r k to the sites of the w o r k and n ot to leave the
See ch a p t e r 8.
^ Villani, C r o n i c a , V, p . 244; also: E u g e n i o Battisti,

Filippo B r u n e l l e s c h i (Milan: E l ecta Editrice, 1 9 7 6 ) , p p . 13-21,
114-123; See also: A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 147-149.
32
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 142-143.
292
stones in the city. However, the y w e r e not to be c h a r g e d
any toll for p a s s i n g t h r o u g h the cit y gate, and w e r e to use
the Porta San Frediano on the s o u t h w e s t e r n side o f the city

33
f ro m w h i c h the strada P i s a n a issued. The role o f w h e e l e d
traffic in p u b l i c util i t y p o l i c y s o o n tapped m o r e a t t e n t i o n
than just a b r i e f statement.
In 1444 a v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g entry p o r t r a y e d b o t h the
g rowing a c t i v i t y of the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s and the g r o w i n g t r a f f i c
around Florence. The T o w e r O f f i c i a l s n u m b e r e d nin e b r i d g e s
in n e e d of v a r y i n g degrees of r e p a i r and r e b u i l d i n g a n d e n
tered c o s t - e s t i m a t e s for the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k in a s e p a
rate c o l u m n d i r e c t l y across f r o m e a c h bridge. The l o w e s t
estimate they r a t e d at 50 and the h i g h e s t at 400 f i o r i n i
d'oro. Bridges n a m e d in the list r a n g e d from the S i e v e R i v e r
in the M u g e l l o co u n t r y s i d e n o r t h o f Florence to the G r e v e
River just w e s t of the city. The e x tensive g e o g r a p h i c and
p r o g r a m m a t i c scope of the r e v i e w w a s m ore i n d i c a t i o n o f the
n ew outlook that was i n f o r m i n g p u b l i c u t i l i t y a n d t r a n s p o r
tation p o l i c y . 34
E q u a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g is the analysis of and p r o p o s e d
response to the c o nditions o f the bridges. The T o w e r O f f i c i a l s
m a i n t a i n e d that carts and w a g o n s w e r e caus i n g damage to the
bridges and roads w i t h i n the F l o r e n t i n e state. S ince it was
33 A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 142-143.
34 I b i d . , 147-149.
293
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t to k e e p the
roads an d b r i d g e s in a v i a b l e cond i t i o n , the Tower Off i c i a l s
we r e to p r o v i d e m a i n t e n a n c e e a r l y e n o u g h in o rder to le s s o n
the e f f e c t s of d a m a g e - - " i f r e p a i r s o ccur bef o r e d a m a g e takes
hold, t h e n the damage w i l l n o t be four times as g r e a t . 1,33
An attempt to m a i n t a i n s u c h a w i d e p r o g r a m of p u b l i c u t i l i t y
s e r vices w o u l d take time and w o u l d n e e d a fairly s t e a d y
source o f revenue.
To a c h i e v e this k i n d o f p r o g r a m the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t
le v i e d a tax on the carts and w a g o n s in a b r o a d zone ar o u n d
Florence. E a c h cart and w a g o n w i t h i n 15 miles of F l o r e n c e
p a i d 1 f i o r i n i d oro tax e a c h y e a r for the nex t five y e a r s
payable to the t r e a s u r y of the T o w e r Officials a c c o r d i n g to
the c o n d i t i o n s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e i r office. The T o w e r O f
ficials c o n v e r t e d this r e v e n u e o n l y to the p u r p o s e of m a i n
taining the v i a b i l i t y of the roads and bridges w i t h i n the
F l o r e n t i n e state. W h e n r e v e n u e d r a w n from this tax fell
short o f expenses, the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t e x t e n d e d the
radius of the tax area to 22 m i l e s a r o u n d the city o f Florence.
At the e n d of the first f ive y e a r p e r i o d in 1449, the F l o r e n
tine g o v e r n m e n t r e e n a c t e d this law for another five years

9 f i
subj e c t to the same c o n v e r s i o n provisions.
F o l l o w i n g the s e c o n d f i v e - y e a r legislation, problems
33 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 147.
36 Ibid.
294
w i t h the c o l l e c t i o n of the tax p r o m p t e d m o r e l e g i s l a t i o n to
d e t e r m i n e w h o was a c t u a l l y subject to the tax and to ou t l i n e
terms of p a y m e n t for p o o r people a nd debtors. In 1452, a
separate t a x fell on all carts and w a g o n s e n t e r i n g Florence.
Each cart a n d w a g o n e n t e r i n g F l o r e n c e p a i d a 2 soldi tax
for each entry. All r e v e n u e p r o c e e d i n g f r o m this tax s u p
p o r t e d r o a d a nd b r i d g e repairs w i t h i n 15 mil e s of F l o r e n c e . ^
Once more, l e g i s l a t i o n p l a c e d an im p o r t a n t s h a r e of the f i n a n
cial l i a b i l i t y for the m a i n t e n a n c e o f the r o a d and bridge
s y s t e m on its use by w h e e l e d traffic. B esides the w e a r from
such use, a later e n t r y of 1450 r a i s e d o t h e r re a s o n s to e x
p l a i n the c o n d i t i o n o f some of the access r o u t e s o f the t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n system. It also p r o j e c t e d the spa t i a l f r a m e w o r k
w i t h i n w h i c h the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t v i e w e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
n e e d s . 38
One of the m a i n roads leading f r o m F l o r e n c e t r a v e l l e d
across the p l ains n o r t h to Pistoia. In an ent r y of 1450, the
Florentine government d i s c u s s e d the v i a b i l i t y of this m a i n
access r o u t e n o r t h to Pistoia. At the c e nter o f this d i s c u s
sion o n v i a b i l i t y was a g a i n the role of the p o p o l i a nd c o m u n i in
maintaining the r o a d system.
F l o w i n g by P i s t o i a and across the p l a i n s s o u t h to the
Arno R i v e r is the O m b r o n e River, a nd p a r a l l e l i n g the Ombrone
River p a r t of the w a y across the p l a i n s is the m a i n r o a d to
37
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 168.
38 I b i d . , 147-148.
Pistoia. This r o a d was a key l i n k b e t w e e n F l o rence, northern
Italy, and Europe. This spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p the F l o r e n t i n e
g o vernment r e c o g n i z e d s i mply and clearly w h e n d i s c u s s i n g the
c o n d i t i o n of the r o a d to Pistoia. "And this is the s t r a d a
maestra (the m a i n road) w h i c h goes to Pistoia, a nd t h e n to

39
Lombardy and Genoa." Like the reference to the m a i n road
south to Siena and Rome, the p e r c e p t i o n of the n o r t h e r n route
in r e l a t i o n to trade outlets and the w o r l d b e y o n d F l o r e n c e
was part of the u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h infor m e d the p o l i c y and
p l a n n i n g of the m o v e m e n t patte r n s of an u r b a n society. Early
m o d e r n Florentines did not v i e w spatial areas in i s o l a t i o n
from each other, but i n c l u d e d t h e m in a p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h
id e n t i f i e d the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p and c o o r d i n a t i o n of s patial
units and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n routes.
In a si m i l a r way, the d i s c u s s i o n of the c o n d i t i o n s of the
r o a d to Pistoia d i d not focus on one isolated cause. "The road
has become d a m a g e d b e c a u s e the ditches and channels a l o n g the
road have not b e e n m a i n t a i n e d to allow the w a t e r to d r a i n off
w i t h o u t w a s h i n g over the r o a d . " ^ 1 This m a i n t e n a n c e r o l e was
the c u s t o m of the past, b ut more recently the w o r k h a d b e e n
neglected. N e g l e c t o c c u r r e d b ecause the Comune di Bacc a r e t o ,
i
39 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 147; Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 4,
p. 401.
A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 267, 272, 285; Also, see note 19.

41
A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 147.
296
r e s p o n s i b l e to m a i n t a i n this s t r e t c h of road in the pas t , was
no l o n g e r able to do so n o w b e c a u s e the p o p u l a t i o n h a d d i m i n
ished.^2 As d i s cussed above, the role of the p o poli a nd comuni
in m a i n t a i n i n g the road s y s t e m was an essential c o n c e r n of the
F l o r e n t i n e government. In a d d i t i o n to the decline d u e to the
lack o f m a i n t e n a n c e and gen e r a l w e a t h e r and usage c o n d i t i o n s ,
the F l o r e n t i n e government i d e n t i f i e d again the role o f the
carts a n d wagons in d a m a g i n g the r o a d w a y . ^ Given t h e s e m a n y
and v a r i e d conditions, the o f f i c i a l p o l i c y emplo y e d d i v e r s e
measures to r e medy the situation.
F r o m the time of the e n a c t m e n t of this law on 29 F e b r u a r y
1450 till the end of the f o l l o w i n g A u g u s t the p o p o l i a n d comuni
in the area along the Ombrone R i v e r a nd the road to P i s t o i a
b e g a n to r e b u i l d all the drains and channels along the roadside.
The l e g i s l a t i o n m a n d a t e d s p e c i f i c m e a s u r e m e n t s for t h e s e r o a d
side drains: three b r a c c i a w i d e at the top, two at the bottom,
and two and a h a l f high. The n a r r o w i n g of the dit c h t o w a r d
the b o t t o m was to help c hannel the f l o w of the water, and the
earth dug from these road s i d e d r ains was to fill and to support
the n e a r b y roadway. If the local communities f a iled to a c c o m
p l i s h this w o r k in the said time, then the Tower O f f i c i a l s ex
a c t e d a t ax from all lands and fields in the area a nd inves t e d
42
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 147; Also see: A. S. F . , M i s c e l
lanea M e d i c e a , 224; Herlihy, M e d i e v a l and Renais s a n c e P i s t o i a ,
p. 33.
43
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 147.
297
the r e v e n u e for the c o m p l e t i o n o f the r oad p r o g r a m . 44
In addition, the l e g i s l a t i o n d e m a n d e d that e a c h cart a n d
w a g o n f r o m the area or any cart or w a g o n t r a v e l l i n g to P i s t o i a
haul f our loads of gravel to the r o a d w o r k sites. It was
a dded that n o t h i n g short of a full c a r t l o a d or w a g o n l o a d w a s
to be h a u l e d each t i m e . 4 ^ By t h e s e m e a s u r e s and w i t h the s u p
port of local officials, r e s t o r a t i o n of the road to P i s t o i a
for y e a r - r o u n d use began.
T h r o u g h o u t these as w e l l as o t h e r entries, the F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t e x p r e s s e d a b a s i c c o n c e r n to c o n s t r u c t a v i a b l e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m on a w i d e r s cale than before. B o t h the
p o l i c y o f the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t and the a c t i v i t y of the
Tower Officials outlined a more c o o r d i n a t e d a p p r o a c h tha n in
F l o r e n c e ' s pas t to i n t e r u r b a n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n needs. Within
this c h a n g i n g framework, the s m a l l e s t as well as the l a r g e s t
co m m u n i t i e s and g o v e r n m e n t units p l a y e d key parts.
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n East and West: F l o r e n c e to Pisa
D u r i n g the 1440s the m a i n r o u t e of the e a s t - w e s t c o r r i d o r
r e c e i v e d m u c h attention. The st r a d a P i s a n a and the Arn o R i v e r
were the central carry i n g lines o f trade and traffic in the
T u s c a n region. It was essential for the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t

t
to m a i n t a i n the v i a b i l i t y o f the access routes to the first
gateways of the regional s t a t e - - t h e seaports, Pisa and Livorno.
AA
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 147.
45 Ibid., 148.
298
M u c h of t he l e g i s l a t i o n r e g a r d i n g w h e e l e d t r a f f i c r e f e r r e d
to above i n c l u d e d the i n t e n s e l y u s e d tra f f i c zone b e t w e e n
Flor e n c e a nd Sig n a along the s t r a d a Pisana. B e y o n d S i g n a to
the west, Montelupo, Empoli, S an M i n i a t o near the E l s a River,
and C a s c i n a w e r e m a j o r sites o n the w a y to P i s a l o c a t e d on the
left b a n k o f the A r n o River a l o n g the s t r a d a P i s a n a . 4 6 This
e n tire e a s t - w e s t c o r r i d o r was a vital link in the i n t e r u r b a n
e x c h a n g e o f the r e g i o n a l state.
As d e s c r i b e d in the 1441 en t r y c i t e d earlier, both the
s t r a d a P i s a n a and s t rada R o m a n a a l o n g the tract w h i c h ran
t h r o u g h the suburbs of F l o r e n c e w as in n e e d of r e p a i r . 47 A
m a j o r c o n c e r n t h e n was a r e v i e w to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h local c o m
m u n i t i e s w e r e a n d were not m a i n t a i n i n g the r o a d s y s t e m in
th e i r areas. This was p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t at a time a nd
in an a r e a w h e r e w h e e l e d t r a f f i c was m u c h in use, p a r t i c u l a r l y
b e t w e e n S i g n a and Florence. Another ref e r e n c e m a d e in this
e nt r y i n d i c a t e d the sequ e n c e o f the w o r k to be done first the
st r a d a P i s a n a and then the s t r a d a R o m a n a and the d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f the f i n a n c i a l l i a bility f or the work.
R e v e n u e for the r o a d r e p a i r p r o g r a m d e r i v e d f r o m two
sources--the c o l l e c t i o n of debts w h i c h e n t e r e d the t r e a s u r y
o f the T o w e r Officials and a p a y m e n t m a d e by the t r e a s u r y o f
the O p e r a di S a n t a M a r i a del Fiore. Each t r e a s u r y made a
46 Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 1, pp. 139-145.
4^ S ee n o t e 30.
299
p a y m e n t of 100 fiorini d' o r o for the r e p a i r program. However,
it was s o o n clear that the actual costs o f the road w o r k e x
c e e d e d the estimates first made. By the end of 1441 e a c h
t r e a s u r y m a d e a s e c o n d p a y m e n t o f the same amount. In 1442,
one y e a r later, a t h i r d s u b s i d y p e r m i t t e d the c o m p l e t i o n of
the w o r k . 4 ** Costs s i m p l y far e x c e e d e d expectations. T he
amount o f w o r k i n v o l v e d w as greater than t hought at the start
of the program.
T he F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t c h a n n e l e d this third s u b s i d y of
50 f i o r i n i d oro once a g a i n e x c l u s i v e l y to the road prog r a m .
Given the sequence of w o r k s c h e d u l e d in 1441, most of this
e xpense h a d o c c u r r e d a l o n g the strada Pisana. A c c o r d i n g to
the d e s c r i p t i o n of this entry, the w o r k alo n g the s t r a d a
P i sana was "nearly c o m p l e t e d , " and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , w o r k along
the s t r a d a R o m a n a w o u l d r e c e i v e more a t t e n t i o n in the future.
A l t h o u g h b o t h roads w e r e v i e w e d w i t h a sense of importance,
the s t r a d a P i sana o u t s i d e the Porta F r e d i a n a car r i e d the
h e a v i e r tr a f f i c and g a i n e d so m e t h i n g o f a p r i o r i t y . 49
B esides the i n c r e a s e d s p e n d i n g in the areas along these
two roads, an i n t e r e s t i n g c o m m e n t a p p e a r e d in the i n t r o d u c t o r y
of this entry. It seems that the d e c i s i o n to go a h e a d w i t h
4 A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 142-144.
49 Ibid., 143.
300
the approval o f the s e c o n d and third requests f or m o r e revenue
was p a r t l y the result of a study done o f the w o r k program. Two
well k n o w n citiz e n s of Flore n c e c o n t r i b u t e d to the r e p o r t - -
Lorenzo di Gino Capponi and A d o v a r d o di L o d o v i c o Acciaioli.
They made the report w h i l e they s e r v e d as m e m b e r s of the
l egislative councils of the F l orentine g o v e r n m e n t . 5 In the
legisl a t i o n of 1442, the F l orentine g o v e r n m e n t a c k n o w l e d g e d
their report as one of the reasons for the a p p r o v a l of the
third s u b s i d y . 5 * Though little m o r e is. said b e y o n d the a c
kn o w l e d g e m e n t of the report, it is a p p a r e n t that p u b l i c u tility
issues w e r e m a t t e r s of c o n s i d e r e d d e l i b e r a t i o n b y the highest
officials of the F lorentine state. This bri e f m e n t i o n of
specific i n d i v iduals w ho took part in p u b l i c u t i l i t y policy
discussions r e c e i v e d a fuller d e s c r i p t i o n in a later entry
disc u s s i n g t r avel along the strada Pisana.
A n entry o f 3 June 1445 p r o v i d e d b o t h a d e t a i l e d account
of the role o f leading citizens o f F l o r e n c e in the m a k i n g of
p u blic u t i l i t y p o l i c y a nd of the s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t r i b u t e d to
co
the e a s t-west c o r r i d o r b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e and Pisa. The
specific to p i c of a lengthy d i s c u s s i o n in this ent r y focused
on the r e b u i l d i n g of the Elsa River b r i d g e along the strada
Pisana. The T o w e r Officials p r e s e n t e d to the F l o r e n t i n e
g o vernment e a r l i e r plans u s e d in b u i l d i n g the b r i d g e and an
50 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 143-144.
51 Ibid.
52 Ibid., 149-151.
301
ou t l i n e o f w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d since to e n d a n g e r the f o u n d ations
of the bridge.
D u ring the p r e v i o u s w i n t e r the o v e r f l o w o f the Elsa River
d a m a g e d the f o u n d a t i o n of the bridge, f illing some of the
b r idge supports w i t h s a n d and causing the arches to sag and
b e n d dangerously. A l o n g w i t h the use of a w o o d e n m o d e l o f the
bridge, the Tow e r O f f i c i a l s o r g a n i z e d a d e s i g n a nd te c h n i c a l
d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the b r i d g e g i v e n b e f o r e
the Priorate a nd the C o u n c i l s of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t
to h e l p "in m a k i n g a m a t u r e l y c o n s i d e r e d d e c i s i o n about w h a t
needs to be d o n e . " 53 In this way, the s e r v i n g o f f i c i a l s were
able to r e v i e w the p l a n s their pred e c e s s o r s f o l l o w e d and to
p e r c e i v e more fully the c u r r e n t c o n dition o f the bridge.
Besides the t e c hnical a n d s p e c i f i c focus on the b r i d g e itself,
d i s c u s s i o n e n c o m p a s s e d the w i d e r context to w h i c h the Elsa
River bridge p r o g r a m w a s related.
Wit h o u t the b r i d g e over the Elsa River, Florentine o f
ficials r e a l i z e d that th e r e w o u l d be "the gre a t e r r i s k to
travellers and m e r c h a n t s , and their m e r c h a n d i s e , as w e l l as
disgr a c e for our g o v e r n m e n t . " 54 Also, "there w o u l d o c c u r the
greatest d a mage since this is the p r i ncipal r o a d of our c i t y . " ^ 5
The g o v e r n m e n t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m m a t c h e d the emph a s i s
p l a c e d on the n e e d to m a i n t a i n the v i a b i l i t y of the s t r a d a
^ 3 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 149.
54 I b i d . , 150.
55 Ibid., 149.
P i s a n a a n d the m a i n e a s t - w e s t access route.
A f t e r h a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d m o r e reports a nd t e stimony, the
F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t v o t e d appro v a l of a p r o g r a m o f repairs
and rebuilding. Past a p p r o p r i a t i o n for the b u i l d i n g o f the
b r i d g e a l r e a d y j u m p e d to the large s u m of 1500 fiorini d o r o . 5^
Now additional revenue for the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m m e t ap
proval.
At the end of the entry, there was a list that included
the names of the o f f i c i a l s w h o p l a y e d a leading role in the
discussions of the E l s a Riv e r b r i d g e p r o g r a m and who w e r e
responsible for the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the a p p r o v e d program.
Some l e sser and b e t t e r k n o w n citizens of Florence became p a r
ticipants in the r e v i e w a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g pr o c e s s of p u b l i c
u t i l i t y policy. Some o f the names incl u d e d on the list were:
Nero di Filippo, a s e c o n d - h a n d dealer, B e r n a r d o di G h e r a d o
Gherardi, Luca di M a s o deg l i Albizzi, Neri di Gino Capponi,
and A l a m a n n i D. Jacobi de Salviati. Some of these na m e s w e r e

C *7
well k n o w n in F l o r e n t i n e b a n k i n g and p o l i t i c a l circles.
Specific provisions o f the contract d r a w n up for the
b r i d g e w o r k gave some i n d i c a t i o n of h o w the i m p l e m e n t i n g
process worked. The F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t a w a r d e d the cont r a c t
for the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the b r i d g e to D o m e n i c o di M atteo,
" fr o m F l o r e n c e and an i n h a b i t a n t of P i s a . 88 He was to r e
b u i l d the b r i d g e a c c o r d i n g to the model a p p r o v e d e a r l i e r and
56 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 44-47, 106.
57 Ibid., 150.
58 I b i d . , 150.
303
on d i s p l a y w i t h the T o w e r Officials. A c c o r d i n g to a b r i e f
comment in this entry, A n t o n i o M a n e t t i supposedly built the
model, but n o t h i n g m o r e is said about the d e s i g n e r o f the
model. Consequently, it is not c e r t a i n if this A n t o n i o
Manetti is the s a m e p e r s o n who was the b i o g r a p h e r o f B r u n e l
leschi a nd a w e l l known humanist in R e n a i s s a n c e Florence. It
is not e n t i r e l y g r o u n d l e s s to c o n s i d e r that the A n t o n i o M a n e t t
of this ent r y a n d the h u m a n i s t - b i o g r a p h e r are one a n d the
same, b ut e v i d e n c e f r o m this entry is not s u f f i c i e n t to
all o w a n y t h i n g m o r e than an i m a g i n i n g o f this n o t e n t i r e l y
u n l i k e l y possibi l i t y . *
Ot h e r p r o v i s i o n s o f the contr a c t e s t a b l i s h e d a time limit
and a g u a r a n t e e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the w o r k accomp l i s h e d .
The o p e r a t i n g p l a n c a l l e d for a four to six m o n t h w o r k
s c h e d u l e at a cost of 385 fiorini d'oro. Pa y m e n t w o u l d be
ma d e a c c o r d i n g to the rate of p r o g r e s s i o n of the work, except
for an i nitial 50 fiorini d'oro p a i d as a p l e d g e o f contract.
Also, D o m e n i c o di M a t t e o h a d to " g u a r a n t e e " his work. Accord
ing to the c o n t r a c t terms, any sagging, bending, m o v i n g of the
br i d g e s t r u c t u r e or parts, or w h a t e v e r else m ay o c c u r b e c a u s e
eg
For a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of M a n e t t i see: C a t h e r i n e B.
Avery, e d . , The N e w Cen t u r y Italian R e n a i s s a n c e E n c y c l o p e d i a
(New York: A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1972), p. 587: See also:
H e y d e n r e i c h and Lotz, A r c h i t e c t u r e in I t a l y , pp. 4 and 39;
H o w a r d Saalman, I n t r o d u c t i o n to The Life of B r u n e l l e s c h i by
A n t o n i o di T u c c i o M a n e t t i (University Park: Pennsylvania
State U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970), pp. 3-32.
304
o f a d e fect in its b u i l d i n g made the b u i l d e r f i n a n c i a l l y l i a
ble c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h the cost of the defect. Furthermore,
the b u i l d e r was to be a v a ilable to make any n e e d e d changes or
repairs c o n c e r n i n g the b r i d g e w h e t h e r or n o t they w e r e the
result of any defect a t t r i b u t a b l e to the b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s . 60
A l o n g w i t h the re f e r e n c e to w h e e l e d t r a f f i c around
Florence, the above entry adds c o n s i d e r a b l e to an u n d e r s t a n d
ing of some of the guide l i n e s of F l o r e n t i n e policy. The
F l o r e n t i n e gover n m e n t and the Tower O f f i c i a l s c l e a r l y r e c o g
n i z e d that bridges and access routes o u t s i d e F l o r e n c e as well
as inside Florence w e r e p a r t o f a larger p a t t e r n o f trade and
traffic. W h e t h e r d i s c u s s i n g the immediate a r e a a r o u n d Florence
or m a i n points along the e a s t-west corri d o r to Pisa, the
Florentine government p e r c e i v e d m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s on a wide
scale and in a c o o r d i n a t e d w a y t hroughout the f i f t e e n t h century.
This sense of scale and c o o r d i n a t i o n a l s o i n f o r m e d a p l a n
to b u i l d a canal b e t w e e n Pisa and Florence in 1458. Cosimo de
Medici (1398-1464) was one of a c o m m i s s i o n of s ix officials formed
to d i rect the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the P i s a - F l o r e n c e canal. Though
not implemented, this p l a n does indicate the r e g i o n a l scale which
was part o f the m e n t a l i t y of the time. Eventually a waterway
rou t e c o n n e c t e d Florence, Pisa, and Livorno b y sm a l l e r scale
canal p r o j e c t s . 61 D u r i n g the s i x teenth c e n t u r y Tow e r Officials
66 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 150-151.
61 Repetti, D i z io n a r i o , vol. 1, p p . 144-146; M a l l e t t

F l o r e n t i n e G a l l e y s , p~ 1 6 , and "Pisa and F l o r e n c e , " pp. 429-431;
Parsons, Engineers and E n g i n e e r i n g , ch a p t e r 21.
305
records co n t i n u e d to p o r t r a y a s i m i l a r b r o a d a p p r o a c h to
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n policy.
Travel along the p r o v i n c i a l but m u c h u s e d route to the
so u thwest b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e and V o l t e r r a also g a i n e d a t t e n t i o n
from the F l orentine g overnment. V o l t e r r a was an important
l o c a t i o n on the w a y to t he M a r e m m a w h e r e herds p a s t u r e d d u r i n g
the winter. It was also a k n o w n c e nter for salt and m i n
eral production. The p r o v i n c i a l road from V o l t e r r a to F l o r e n c e
p a s s e d t hrough the Elsa a n d Pesa River Valleys, a nd n e a r l y all
the tra f f i c on this r o a d w as by m u l e t r a i n r a ther than w h e e l e d
traffic. The key links in the route w e r e the bri d g e s across
the E l s a and Pesa R i v e r s . ^
In 1504 the F l o r e n t i n e government levied a t ox on the
owners of oxen w i t h i n two miles o f e i t h e r side of the Florence-
V o l t e r r a road in the tract of the Pesa River V a l l e y . 63 The
r evenu e m a i n t a i n e d the r o a d and b ridges of the area. Like
carts and wagons, oxen a n d mules h a u l i n g loads add e d c o n
si d e r a b l y to the w e a r a nd d a mage o f the roads and bridges.
In 1515, the b r idge along the P e s a River near Florence, the
b r i d g e at M o n t e l u p o along the w a y to Pisa, and ot h e r b r idge
locations t o pped the lists of stru c t u r e s in n e e d of r e p a i r again.
Tax asses s m e n t lists on t he i n v o l v e d districts follo w e d the r e
p a i r lists. The b u dget p r o p o s e d for the p r o j e c t e d repair
^ See e arlier notes for refe r e n c e s to the E l s a and Pesa

River Valleys.
^ A. S. F . , Libro Luna, 267.
306
p r o g r a m c l i m b e d to 120 fiorini d ' o r o . ^ A later entry, h o w
ever, p r e s e n t e d a very d e t a i l e d e x a m p l e w h i c h a f f e c t e d v i r
tually the e n t i r e route b e t w e e n V o l t e r r a and Florence.
"To p r o v i d e for the p u b l i c u se a n d c o n v e n i e n c e a nd to
av o i d damage b y k e e p i n g in r e p a i r the roads and b r i d g e s , "
Fl o r e n t i n e of f i c i a l s l e vied a t ax in 1528 on all landowners
w i t h i n a two-m i l e zone above and b e l o w the p r o v i n c i a l road
b e g i n n i n g from the Pesa River b r i d g e n e a r F l o r e n c e and c o n
t i n u i n g to the borders of V o l t e r r a . ^ In addition, they laid
a full tax on e a c h p a i r of o x e n w i t h i n this area and a h a l f
tax on each ox. One ot h e r tax l e v i e d a p p l i e d to C a s telfioren-
tino, a major stopover for h a u l e r s a nd t r a v e l l e r s b e t w e e n
V o l t e r r a and Florence. The g o v e r n m e n t a s s i g n e d all re v e n u e
from these as s e s s m e n t s to m a i n t a i n the roads and b ridges of
this b u s y p r o v i n c i a l road. The w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d l i a b i l i t y
p l a c e d on p e o p l e and owners a l o n g this route i n d i c a t e d the
b r o a d p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h w h i c h this issue was a p p r o a c h e d . ^
A last ent r y c o n s i d e r e d h e r e b r i n g s for w a r d most c lear ly
the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the a p p r o a c h and g u i d e l i n e s w h i c h o u t
li n e d F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n p l a n n i n g and p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y since
the f i f t e e n t h century. In an i n t r o d u c t o r y s t a t e m e n t to an
entry of 2 June 1525 the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t summarized
key eleme n t s in their t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a nd p u b l i c u t i l i t y
A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 268; See also: 272, 273, 275.
65 I b i d . , 268.
66 Ibid.
307
u t i l i t y p o l i c y a nd the f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g features o f their
planning.
H a v i n g l i s t e n e d to the t e s t i m o n y
of the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s and m a n y
o th e r h o n e s t c i t i z e n s h o w it is
n e c e s s a r y a nd u s e f u l for the p u b l i c
as well as p r i v a t e citizens and
p e r s o n s that m a n y b r i d g e s in m a n y
p l aces o f our sta t e be r e p a i r e d
and re b u i l t a n d that w h a t e v e r work
is n e c e s s a r y be done on our p u b l i c
roads; and this is to be a c c o m
p l i s h e d in o r d e r that the f r e
q u e n t e d and b u s y p l a c e s and routes
are n ot i m p a i r e d by this traffic,
and thus w h a t is done at a lesser
e x p e n s e does n o t t h e n have to be
done at a g r e a t e r expense. . .
the P r i o r a t e a nd Councils provide. . .67
The s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n s w h i c h f o l l o w e d im p l e m e n t e s this
p o l i c y on a wide scale.
Three k ey b r i d g e s w e r e in n e e d of r e p a i r - - t h e b r idge at
San M i n i a t o along the s t r a d a Pisana, the b r i d g e at Incisa in
the U p p e r Arno Va l l e y , and the b r i d g e at S an Piero a Sieve in
the M u g e l l o c o u n t r y s i d e n o r t h of Florence. A broad distribution
o f fi n a n c i a l l i a b i l i t y p a r a l l e l e d this w i d e g e o g r a p h i c scale.
^ A. S. F., Libro L u n a , 282 ; "Have n d o inteso i M a g i s t r a t i

e e c e llenti signori p er ric o r d o delli u f f i c i a l i d e l l a Torre e
di mol t i altri c i t t a d i n i come sa r e b b e n e c e s s a r i o e utile al
p u b l i c o e al p r i v a t o di ra s e t t a r e e di ri f a r di mol t i ponti
in vari luoghi del n o s t r o d o m i n i o o q u a l c u n o so trova far ne
o dove si fisse di b i s o g n o accio le strade p u b b l i c h e si pos-
sino a fare e che i luoghi f r e q u entati n o n restino guasti et
q u ello che si puo far c on m i n o r e spe s a n o n si h a b b i a di poi
a f fare con m a g g i o r assai e m a x i m e n t e ne luoghi i n f r a s c r i t t i .
Pertante, p r o v i d o n o et o r d i n o r o n o ."
308
For w o r k a l o n g the s t r a d a P i s a n a a n d at San M i n i a t o the
g o v e r n m e n t c h a r g e d a tax on n e a r l y all m e r c h a n d i s e shipped
f r o m Pisa to Florence and from F l o r e n c e to Pisa. In addition,
r e v e n u e d r a w n from fines c o l l e c t e d at San M i n i a t o a p p l i e d
also to the r e b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m there. The g o v e r n m e n t also
t a x e d the s u r r o u n d i n g distr i c t or di s t r i c t s of the bri d g e s
at Incisa and San Piero a Sieve for the r e b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m . ^
As the above a nd o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s demonstrate, Florentine
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y r e f l e c t e d a n e w
f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g a p p r o a c h to p l a n n i n g and a w i d e scale o f a p
p l i c a t i o n of p o l i c y on an a r e a w i d e basis d u r i n g the e a r l y
m o d e r n period. The n a t u r e of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n n e e d s and the
t ime and o r g a n i z a t i o n r e q u i r e d to b u i l d s tructures like
bridg e s , the e c o n o m i c costs and ben e f i t s , and the indiv i d u a l
and social c o n v e n i e n c e and w e l f a r e , all i n f l u e n c e d F l o r e n t i n e
policy-makers to p r o j e c t ahead into the future at least some
w h a t to m e e t the p l a n n i n g o b j e c t i v e s of their time and to
d e v e l o p a v i a b l e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p o l i c y and system. Newer plan
n i n g and p o l i c y conce p t s and a p p r o a c h e s became established
d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h ce n t u r y and set the f r a m e w o r k for later
changes in the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ^9 The s t rada P i s a n a in the
e a s t - w e s t c o r r i d o r remained, howev e r , thro u g h o u t the s i x t e e n t h
century what it was in the f i f t e e n t h ce n t u r y for early m o d e r n
F l o r e n t i n e s - - M the p r i n c i p a l r o a d o f our city."
68 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 282.
See the d i s c u s s i o n in chap t e r s 2 and 4 c o n c e r n i n g early

m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e history.
309
C H A P T E R 7: I NTERURBAN T R A N S P O R T A T I O N : FLORENCE,
AREZZO, B O L O G N A
B e t w e e n the early f i f t e e n t h a n d early sixteenth c e n
turies F l o r e n t i n e p o l i c y e x p r e s s e d a w i d e r approach to p u b l i c
u t i l i t y p o l i c y not only in the area b e t w e e n Florence a n d
Pisa b u t also in the m o u n t a i n and v a l l e y districts b e t w e e n
F lorence, Arezzo and Bologna. A n e w tone, more i ntense ac
tivity, a nd perhaps the b e g i n n i n g o f a more reg u l a r r e v i e w
s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r i z e d this n e w approach. As in other areas and
times, this re n e w e d activity v a r i e d in effectiveness a nd i n
tensity. Limits and r e s t r a i n t s a p p e a r e d again by 1530. It
would be ano t h e r gene r a t i o n b e f o r e a n e w e r approach w a s at
t e m p t e d and organized. Still, the reforms of 1549 and a f t e r
ga i n e d m u c h from the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f the previous century
w h i c h e s t a b l i s h e d the b a s i c c o n c e p t s a nd p o l i c y of a w i d e r
approach. To a c o n s iderable extent, the innovations o f the
se c o n d h a l f of the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y formalized some o f the
m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c pra c t i c e s a nd achievements of the p r i o r
century.
The m a i n topic of this chapter is the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of
F l o r e n t i n e p u b l i c u tility p o l i c y in the following two a r e a s --
Florence to A r e z z o and F l o r e n c e to Bologna. D i s c u s s i o n o f the
Flore n c e to A r e z z o area focuses m o s t l y on the f i f t e e n t h c e n
tury a nd the A m b r a River, the Pon t e Arig n a n o and the Po n t e
310
Incisa, and the C a s tell o San Giovanni in the U p p e r Arno
Valley. References to the area of F l o rence and B o l o g n a
r elate m o s t l y to the s i x t e e n t h century, p a r t i c u l a r l y the
1520's, and the d i s t r i c t and c ountryside o f the M u g e l l o on
the way to Bologna.
Div e r s i t y is a m a i n g e o g r a p h i c a l feature o f T u s c a n y . *
Topographical differences f r o m area to a rea w i t h i n Tuscany
e x e r c i s e d an i n f l u e n c e on travel and tran s p o r t a t i o n . One
p a r t i c u l a r s h a p e this inf l u e n c e took ma y be s e e n in a b rief
c omp a r i s o n and c o n t r a s t of the two areas o u t l i n e d by
Florence, P i s toia, and Pisa and by Florence, A r e z z o , and
Bologna.
F l o r e n c e is l o c a t e d b e t w e e n the U p p e r Arno V a l l e y b e
ginning at A r e z z o a n d the L ower Arn o V a l l e y e n d i n g at Pisa
a long the L i g u r i a n seacoast. As the Arn o River j o u r n e y s
to w a r d the s e a it makes a sharp turn w e s t w a r d l e a v i n g the
u p p e r v a l l e y a n d e n t e r i n g the lower valley. For the rest of
the length o f the A r n o River, there is no c o m p a r a b l e b e n d in
the river to this one w h i c h occurs about nine m i l e s east of
Florence. Other features o f the l a ndscape join to m a k e this
area east of F l o r e n c e a critical zone for p u b l i c u t i l i t y
* Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 1, p p . 113, 137-141; vol. 2,

p. 149; vol. 4, p p . 327, 401, 636; E n c y c l o p e d i a I t a l i a n a ,
vol. 34, " T o s c a n o , " 79-105. See e s p e c i a l l y the e x c e l l e n t
map b e t w e e n 78 an d 79.
policy.2
W i t h the A p e n n i n e w a t e r s h e d a b a c kdrop, other rivers
of the a r e a flow down into the A r n o at or n e a r this sharp
bend. In addition, the e a s t e r n a r e a b e y o n d the city wa l l s
was a m a j o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n route c o n n e c t i n g Florence to the

3
Upper A r n o V a l l e y and the r o a d to Bologna. Consequently,
d u ring b a d w e a t h e r the e a s t e r n side of the city b e came e s
pecially vulnerable to floods and the e a s t e r n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
routes s u b j e c t to interruption. For the above reasons as
well as the f e r tility and r e s o u r c e s o f the Upper A r n o V alle y,
F l o r e n t i n e p o l i c y f o c u s e d on flo o d c o n t r o l techniques a nd
b r idge b u i l d i n g in this area.**
R o a d travel w e s t a nd east o f F l o r e n c e also p r e s e n t s a
dist i n c t contrast. Travelling west f r o m Florence to P i s t o i a
or to P i s a the roa d w a y moves across m o s t l y plains. The r o a d
w ay e a s t w a r d from Florence climbs t h r o u g h the fruitful and
mountainous c o u n t r y s i d e o f the M u g e l l o and then thr o u g h
the' Futa Pass in the A p e n n i n e s t o w a r d B o l o g n a and the plains
of L o m b a r d y . ^ As implied above, the m o u n t a i n s to the east
?
Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 1, p p . 137-141; E n c i c -
l opedia I t a l i a n a , vol. 19, " I t a l i a , " 693-1051, and vol. 34,
" T o s c a n o , " 79-105. Note p a r t i c u l a r l y the p h y s i c a l map
b e t w e e n 708 and 709 in vol. 19 and the m a p in vol. 34 m e n
tioned in the p r e c e d i n g citation; Parsons, Engineers a nd
E n g i n e e r i n g , p p . 323-325.
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 159; H e r l i h y , M e d i e v a l and
R e n a i s s a n c e P i s t o i a , p p . 17-29.
^ A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 21-22, 37-38, 41-44 and o t h e r

entries c i t e d later.
^ See note 1.
312
and n o r t h o f F l o r e n c e rose sharply from the p l a i n s creating
a steep watershed. Rivers drain i n g the w a t e r s h e d f l u c t u a t e d
f rom easily m o v i n g streams to torrents w h e n h e a v y rains fell
or s n o w m e l t e d too quickly. W h e n such f l o o d i n g occured,
roads as w e l l as lands w e r e damaged.^
This c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n plains and m o u n t a i n s h a d a
p a r a l l e l c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the modes of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e m p h a
s i z e d in e a c h area. As d i s c u s s e d earlier, w h e e l e d t r a f f i c
(carts a nd wagons) i n c r e a s e d along tracts o f the s t r a d a
P i s a n a d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h centuries. Along
the s t r a d a Bologna, p e d e s t r i a n traffic was the o r d i n a r y mea n s
o f travel a n d transp o r t a t i o n . People w alked, or m a y b e rode,
and animals carried.^ W i t h very lim i t e d t r a c t i o n power,
w h e e l e d t r a f f i c fa r e d much less w e l l going u p h i l l w i t h a
l oad on w e t a n d m u d d y t e r r a i n than it did on the p l a i n s of
the Lower A r n o Valley.
These l a n d s c a p e d ifferences f r o m area to area r e q u i r e d
ad j u s t m e n t s in the general public, u t i l i t y p o l i c y of F l o r e n c e .
^ F o t a d i s c u s s i o n of the effects of r a i n f a l l a nd the

steep w a t e r s h e d on the Arno River see: Parsons, E n g i n e e r s
and E n g i n e e r i n g , p p . 324-325.
The m u l e was the m a i n pack animal o f the p e r i o d for

h a u l i n g o v e r l a n d and became i n c r easingly im p o r t a n t as trade
i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c enturies; See:
B raudel, The M e d i t e r r a n e a n , pp. 284-285; Parsons, En g i n e e r s
and E n g i n e e r i n g , p p . 303-312 and illustr a t i o n s on p p . 313, 318,
31 d'. The i l l u s t r a t i o n s on p. 313 (Fig. 107) shows a t r a v e l e r
r i ding in a chair h a r n a s s e d to a mule's back.
8
See the d i s c u s s i o n that follows.
313
The steep d r o p of the A p e nnines and the e l b o w - b e n d t u r n w e s t
w a r d of the A r n o Riv e r out of the u p p e r v a l l e y r e s u l t e d in a
particularly s erious p r o b l e m of f l o o d i n g in the e a s t e r n area
o f the city a nd countryside. Since flooding bro u g h t econo m i c
as w e l l as p h y s i c a l p r o blems, the F l o r e n t i n e p o l i c y m a k e r s
c o n s i d e r e d the issue all the more u r g e n t and immediate for
the c o u n t r y s i d e and the city. R u i n e d crops, d a m a g e d roads,
broken mills, a nd i n t e r r u p t e d trade a f f e c t e d dire c t l y the
agricultural, industrial, and c o m m e r c i a l exchange p a t t e r n s
of the c i t y a n d countryside.
R e c o g n i z i n g the p h y s i c a l and e c o n o m i c v u l n e r a b i l i t y of
the city d ue to such o c c u r r e n c e s , the Florentine government
d i r e c t e d p o l i c y t o w a r d two general objectives simult a n e o u s l y :
first, to p r e v e n t f l o o d i n g as m u c h as p o s s i b l e w h e r e v e r
p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h river control techn i q u e s and r e g u l a t o r y l e g
i s l a t i o n on r i v e r use and, second, to keep open the access
routes to k e y t r a d e centers, such as, B o l o g n a at the edge of

9
the L o m b a r d p l a i n and A r e z z o in the U p p e r Arno Valley.
F l o r e n t i n e c a p a c i t y to achieve these o b jectives v aried, how
ever, f r o m o ne p e r i o d to another. Though policymakers ex
p r e s s e d a n e w tone and a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r o a c h in the
f o r m a t i o n of p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h c e n
tury, c o n s t r a i n t s w e r e evident once more, however, during
g
This p o l i c y is s e e n in the v a r i o u s entries d i s c u s s e d
in the p r e c e d i n g two chapters as well as in this chapter.
314
the crisis yea r s 1527-31 and the years immediately follow
ing. A n era o f wid e r activ i t y began a g a i n w i t h the r e
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f public a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t a r t i n g in 1549.
Entries f r o m Tower Official r ecords for the a r e a o u t
li n e d by Florence, Arezzo, and Bo l o g n a r e p r e s e n t e d the
ge n e r a l obje c t i v e s and capacities of F l o r e n t i n e cultural
change. These entries detailed also the p a r t i c u l a r ap
p l i c a t i o n of F lorentine p o l i c y in a g e o g r a p h i c a l l y distinct
area o f the regional state. A review o f some of these e n
tries b r ings for w a r d specific reference to a n e w formul a t i o n
of p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y and to the m e a n s e m p l o y e d to implement
this policy.
F l o r e n c e to A r e z z o
A n arno flood in the later f o u r t e e n t h c entury d e m o n
s t r a t e d some of the m a j o r obstacles in the w a y of the e s t a b
l i s h m e n t o f an effective flood control system. It also
s h o w e d the p o t e n t i a l d a mage to p r o d u c t i o n and trade a flood
c o u l d cause.
As s t ated above, to the east of F l o r e n c e about nine
miles the Arno River bends sharply w e s t w a r d out of the
U p p e r A r n o V a l l e y and t o ward the city. This turn takes
^ For a d i s c u s s i o n of broad c hanges i n f l u e n c i n g urban

d e v e l o p m e n t in the sixteenth century see: Braudel, The
M e d i t e r r a n e a n , p p . 324-352.
315
p l a c e b e t w e e n the P o n t e a s i e v e and R o vezzano in an area
w h e r e a nu m b e r of m ills w e r e located. In 1381, the Arno
River floo d e d and c a u s e d m a j o r damage to pr o p e r t y , mills,
and access routes on the e a s t e r n side of the city. The Tower
O f ficials su b m i t t e d a rep o r t e s t i m a t i n g the cost of p u b l i c
works and repairs. The c o s t - e s t i m a t e was a n o t e a b l e s u m of
M 5,000 fiorini d'oro or t h e r e a b o u t s .
The Tower Officials s t a t e d that the A rno R iver at
Rovezzano, the mil l of the A b b e y of V a l l o m b r o s a , a n d the
m ills of the San Salvi area (the e a s t e r n side of the city)
h a d b e e n dama g e d d u r i n g the p a s t y e a r by the A r n o floods.
In addition, the A r n o R i v e r a p p e a r e d m o r e and m o r e inclined
to cha n g e its course t o w a r d the d i r e c t i o n of P orta G i u s t i t i a
and P o r t a Croce (the e a s t e r n gates) o f Florence. The r e p o r t
continued:
If this is n o t p r o p e r l y r e g u l a t e d and
p r o v i d e d for, w i t h o u t doubt the Arno
wil l was h over and r u i n w i t h the a b u n
dance of w a t e r it is c a r r y i n g Porta
Giustitia, P orta Croce, the w alls of the
c ity there, and f u r t h e r the entire p l a i n
o f San Salvi . . . the Tower Officials
are a c c u r a t e l y i n f o r m e d of these matters,
since they h a v e gone p e r s o n a l l y to the
various sites w i t h advisors, e x p e r i e n c e d
b uilders, and e x p e r t s , and found what
needs to be done c o n c e r n i n g the p e s c a i a
and the mills in or n e a r to the Arn o . . .
that is, a c e r t a i n r e a r r a n g e m e n t and r e
p o s i t i o n i n g so that the Arno does not take
a not h e r course, but w i t h ingenuity and
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 62.
316
skill the river is m a d e to stay in
its o l d and c u s t o m a r y c o u r s e . *2
There was, however, a h i g h cost a t t a c h e d to the r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n program. At the same time, there w e r e e v e n h i g h e r
costs i m p l i e d if n o t h i n g or n ot e n ough were done.
G i v e n the cost e s t imate, the Tow e r Officials p r o t e s t e d
that Mas is k n o w n and d e m o n s t r a t e d to the Priori, gon-
falonieri, a nd all the c i t i z e n s o f Florence, the reven u e s
of the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s . . . are g r e a t l y d i m i n i s h e d 1 and
that the i r office c o u l d n ot a c c o m p l i s h the r e s t o r a t i o n w o r k
w i t h t h e i r p r e s e n t revenue. N or c o u l d they p r o c e e d on m a n y
other n e c e s s a r y w o r k s in the city a nd contado of F l o r e n c e
w h i c h b e g u n a long t i m e ago, they cannot be c o n t i n u e d n o r
br o u g h t to c o m p l e t i o n b e c a u s e of the decline o f r e v e n u e . ^
The Tower O f f icials p e t i t i o n e d for a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n or
12 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 63. "E se a q u esto n o n si r i p a r a

e accio n o n si p r o v e d e e l a s c i a s s e s i cosi t r a s c o r r e r e il
detto fiume, s e n z a d u b b i o esso fiume d Arno b a g n e r a e guas-
tera p e r la tanta a b b o n d a n z a d A c q u a le dette Porte del l a
Gi u s t i t i a e d e l l a Croce, e le m u r a d e l l a citta e a n c o r a
tutta il p i a n o di San t a Salvi. E che issi u f f i c i a l i vog-
liendo del l e p r e d e t t o cose esser p i u cert a m e n t e in f o r n a t i
andarono p e r s o n a l m e n t e alle dette par t e col co n s i g l o i e
ra g i o n a m e n t o di molti p r a t i c h i e d esperti m a e s t r i e t r ova rono,
senza p i u ind u g i a r e al tut t o e s sere di bisogno e n e c e s s a r i o
fare e far fare intorno alle p e s c a i e delle detta m u l i n a in
esso fiume, overo u na o p p o s i t i o n e , accio cha il detto fiume
d A r n o n o n pigli alt r a via, ma con ingiegno e s o t t i g l i e n z a
e a r t i f i c i o de maestri, esso fiume d Arno sia c o s t r e t t o far
la v i a p e r lo suo a n t i c o e u s a t o c o r s o .
1^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 61.
317
r e a l l o c a t i o n of r evenue sources. The F lorentine g o v e r n m e n t
v o t e d a 3,000 fiorini d oro a l l o t m e n t for the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
program. T h e y t r a n s f e r r e d this r e v e n u e from two-t h i r d s of the
m o n e y p a i d eve r y four m o nths to the "guar d i a del f u o c o " - - t h e
fire guard.
In addition, Florentine officials gra n t e d the T o w e r O f
ficials the a u t h o r i t y to levy a p r o p e r t y tax to raise r e v e n u e
for the p a r t i c u l a r w o r k to be accompl i s h e d . The c r i t e r i a em-^
p l o y e d to e s t a b l i s h tax l i a b i l i t y s k e t c h e d a nother part of the
picture of early m o d e r n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The tax levy a p p l i e d
to any a nd each parcel of l a n d and p r o p e r t y in the a r e a w h i c h
w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e any u t i l i t y or e s c a p e any d a nger b ecause of
the p u b l i c works program. T he Tow e r Officials d e c i d e d who
was a c t u a l l y subject to the t a x and l e v i e d the tax m o r e t h a n
once i f it was thought n e cessary.
Thus, by a r e a l l o c a t i o n of revenues and a special tax
levy the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t m e t the expense for the
R o v e z z a n o - A r n o River p u b l i c u t i l i t y program. The p u r p o s e of
the n e w p r o g r a m was to spare the e a s t e r n access routes and city
gates, w a lls, and p l ains g r e a t e r damage. Flore n t i n e o f f i c i a l s
c o n s i d e r e d the e x p e n diture a p r u d e n t investment, and g r a n t e d
all the revenues to the Tow e r Offi c i a l s , including the tax
levy, o n l y for the p u r p o s e o f the w o r k s t ated in the p r o v i s i o n
a p p r o v i n g their above requests.
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 64.
15 Ibid.
318
W h i l e the four t e e n t h c e n t u r y was coming to a c l o s e the
effects of p l ague and e c o n o m i c d i s l o c a t i o n had not f u l l y d i s
appeared. The Tower Of f i c i a l s c o n t i n u e d to find the i r ability
to i m p l e m e n t a p u blic u t i l i t y p r o g r a m d u ring the later four
t e e n t h ce n t u r y limited by a short a g e of revenue s i m i l a r to the
w a y a shortage of staff l i m i t e d their capacity in the m i d
f o u r t e e n t h century. Later entries in d i c a t e d that c o n s i d e r a b l e
limitations co n t i n u e d to r e s t r i c t p u b l i c u t i l i t y p r o g r a m s to
the e nd o f the century. This a p p e a r e d .also in an a r e a as im
p o r t a n t as the Upper Arno Valley.
To the s o u theast of F l o r e n c e the A r n o River runs down
t h r o u g h the Upper A r n o Valley. The city of A r e z z o st r a d d l e s
the hi l l s b e t w e e n this v a l l e y a nd the V a l d i c h i a n a to the south
of it. A r e z z o generally m a r k e d the b o u n d a r y of the F l o r e n t i n e
state to the southeast and o v e r l o o k e d these two p r o d u c t i v e
valleys.^ From the s t r e t c h of lands in the Upp e r A r n o V a l l e y
and the Vald i c h i a n a , the F l o r e n t i n e s d r e w an i m p ortant part of
their f o o d supply and na t u r a l respurces. The rivers a nd roads
w h i c h fed into the Upper Arno V a l l e y from the s u r r o u n d i n g hills
w e r e key elements in the g e o g r a p h y and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f the
entire valley. F lorentine p o l i c y d i r e c t e d the c o n s t r u c t i o n
and m a i n t e n a n c e of bridges and access routes t h r o u g h o u t the

i
v a l l e y . 17
Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , vol. 1, p. 113.

17
x Ibid., vol. 1, p p . 144-147; See also the r e f e r e n c e to
Ponti A r i g n a n o and Incisa, the A m b r a River, and C a s t e l l o San
Giov a n n i that are cited in the text..
319
One area of p a r t i c u l a r interest was the A m b r a Ri v e r which
f l o w e d into the Arno River n o r t h of A r e z z o . ^ The C o mune di
Leo n a st o o d on the right b a n k of the Ambra at the p o i n t where
the A r n o and Ambra Rivers m e t and prov i d e d the east to west
c r o s s o v e r point for the r o a d w h i c h led from A r e z z o to Florence.
The site and situation of the Comune di Leona gave the area a
p a r t i c u l a r importance in the valley. Two key b r i d g e s in the
n o r t h e r n part of the v a l l e y w e r e also a maj o r c o n c e r n - - t h e
Ponte Arignano, the n o r t h e r n m o s t bridge of the v a l l e y a nd the
c l o s e s t to Florence, and the Ponte Incisa, about t en miles

19
sou t h of the Ponte Arignano.
T o w e r Official records of initiatives b e g u n in this area
of the Upp e r Arno V a l l e y d e m o n s t r a t e d a gradual c h a n g e taking
place in p u blic uti l i t y p o l i c y and programs b e t w e e n the late
f o u r t e e n t h century and the m i d - f i f t e e n t h century. D u r i n g the
1380s, the Tower Officials u r g e d the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t to
b u i l d a bridge along the A m b r a River at Leona. Bes i d e s the
bridge, the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t promo t e d also r o a d b u i l d i n g
b e y o n d Leona and a small b r i d g e pr o j e c t n e arby the road. Once
again, revenue was a major issue. A very direct s t a t e m e n t c o n
c e r n i n g revenue s u m m a r i z e d p o i n t e d l y the issue it raised. "And
the a b o v e s a i d works and s t r u c t u r e s cannot be done w i t h o u t money.
18
Repetti, Dizionario, vol. 1, p p . 79-80.
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 76.
20 Ibid., 77.
320
A p a r t i a l answer, t hough, e m e r g e d from the fact that the
C o mune di Leona had f o r m e r l y b e l o n g e d to the contado of A r e z z o
but was n o w part of the con t a d o of Florence. Thus, the c ustoms
d u t y of L e o n a co l l e c t e d by F l o r e n c e could n o w be a s s i g n e d
to the costs of the above works. All the customs duty
of Leo n a M for the next two y e a r s " the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t
spent for the p urpose of the p u b l i c ut i l i t y p r o g r a m . ^
This two-y e a r customs a l l o c ation, however, was not suf
f i c i e n t to meet expenses. The Tow e r Officials made two ad-

72
d i t i o n a l requests for an e x t e n s i o n o f the customs a llocation. ^
The first request was for a t w o - y e a r ex t e n s i o n and the s e c o n d
r e q u e s t for a o n e - y e a r extension. Reasons giv e n for b o t h r e
quests w e r e the same. The r e v e n u e s p r o d u c e d by the customs
recei p t s fell short o f p a y i n g for the cost of c o m p l e t i n g the
program. To finish w a t was s t a r t e d and not to lose what
was a l r e a d y invested, the F l o r e n t i n e g o vernment appro v e d
b o t h extensions. Since no f u r t h e r extensions are r e c orded,
it appears the last o n e - y e a r e x t e n s i o n al l o w e d for the p r o
g r a m o f works to be completed. A financial gain and not only
the a v o idance of a fi n a n c i a l loss m a y be seen in the c o m
p l e t i o n o f the A m b r a R i v e r - L e o n a b r i d g e and road program.
In a concrete and s p e c i f i c way, this ent r y d e m o n s t r a t e d
the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the general econo m i c d i f f i c u l t y
of the p e r i o d and the p u b l i c u t i l i t y program. As trade s l o w e d
21
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 77.
22 I b i d . , 80-87.
321
and the c ustoms r evenue d r o p p e d in the C o m u n e di Leona, reve
nue fell s h o r t of m e e t i n g the costs to m a i n t a i n the riv e r and
r oad system. At the same time, this d r o p in p u b l i c u t i l i t y
s e r v i c e a g g r a v a t e d the econo m i c d ifficulty. Bridges, roads,
and rivers w e r e the c a r r i e r lines o f e c o n o m i c e x c h a n g e and
the u r b a n i z a t i o n process. Their d e c l i n e slowed economic
e x c h a n g e just as a f a l l i n g economy r e s t r i c t e d u r b a n and p u b l i c
u t i l i t y development. The more f a v o r a b l e the r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n services and a r e a n e e d s the more
l i kel y c u l t u r a l and e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t c o u l d take place

2 %
again.
By the ear l y f i f t e e n t h century signs a p p e a r e d of a
change in a p p r o a c h and tone in the f i e l d o f p u b l i c u t i l i t y
service. The b u i l d i n g a n e w of the Pon t e A r i g n a n o d u r i n g the
1420s i l l u s t r a t e d the changes t a k i n g p l a c e . 24 This important
bridge on the Arno River about f i f t e e n m i l e s east o f F l o r e n c e
was the first gateway of the Up p e r A r n o Valley. Since no one
i m m ediate ca u s e is s p e c i f i e d for the c o n d i t i o n o f the
bridge, d a m a g e a p p a r e n t l y o c c u r r e d t h r o u g h the g e n e r a l use
of the bridge, the w e a r i n g effect o f the ri v e r current, and
the n e g l e c t o f m a i n t e n a n c e over time. The d e s c r i p t i o n of
the state o f the b r idge m a d e it c l e a r that the d a mage was
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 80-87.
24 Ibid., 132.
25 I b i d . , 133.
322
very serious. The T o w e r O f f icials d e s c r i b e d the b r i d g e
near coll a p s e and its f o u n d a t i o n in serious danger. Also,
they a s s e r t e d the i m p o r t a n c e of the b r i d g e by r e f erence
to h ow freq u e n t l y it w as used. " N e i t h e r local as well as
many other p e o p l e w e r e n o w able to u se it w ho were a c c u s t o m e d
to pass over the bridge.
Wi t h s u c h a well u s e d b r i d g e in such b a d condition, the
F lor e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t r e s p o n d e d in a v e r y p o s i t i v e way. "It
belongs to the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , h o n o r and r e n o w n of the F l o r e n
tine g o v e r n m e n t to s e c u r e and to p r o v i d e a salutary remedy

27
for so event f u l and d a n g e r o u s c h a n c e o c c u r r e n c e s . " The
"salutary re m e d y " c a l l e d for a c o m p l e t e r e b u i l d i n g of the
b r i d g e and the a l l o c a t i o n o f the n e c e s s a r y m o n e y to r e a c h the
e s t a b l i s h e d objective.
B esides a more d e f i n i t e tone the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t
p r e s e n t e d a p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s c r i p t i v e a ccount of the type and
p u r p o s e o f the bridge to be rebuilt. Foundation, columns, and
the entire structure o f the b r i d g e w e r e to be c o n s t r u c t e d in
such a w ay as to resist b e t t e r the fo r c e of the riv e r c urrent
and the w e a r o f time. The b r i d g e was to be able to st a n d
w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l supports. To b r i n g this about, the Tower
Officials w e r e to r e q u i r e w o r k e r s and to employ b u i l d i n g c o n
tractors as needed.
Revenues came b a s i c a l l y f r o m two sources. The City of
2^
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 133.
27 Ibid.; Brucker, Renaissance Florence, p p . 81-83.
323
Florence a b s o r b e d some of the e x p e n s e and "each and every
p o p o l i and comuni whi c h w o u l d b e n e f i t from these w o r k s " p a i d
a u t i l i t y tax to be levied by t he Tow e r Officials on a pers o n ' s
labor a n d / o r p r o p e r t y . 28 The l a w set a ceiling and a floor,
however, on the tax any p o p o l o or c o mune could be d e c l a r e d to
pay i n d i v i d u a l l y and a total s u m for h ow m u c h they could be
tax e d collectively. All of this was done not only for the
"honor and r e n o w n " of F lorence b u t also for the " c o n v e n i e n c e
a nd c omfort of w h o e v e r w i shes to cross over the b r idge d u ring
the winter, or any other time o f t he year, and so they can do

29
this w i t h o u t dange r . " A l o n g w i t h the concept of p u b l i c
u t i l i t y a nd convenience, g o v e r n m e n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and r e p
u t a t i o n also r e m a i n e d g uide l i n e s of F lorentine policy.
This g e n e r a l tone and c o n t i n u e d co n c e r n for the U p p e r
A r n o V a l l e y c an be found again in a 1443 reference to
Castello San Giovanni located a b o u t m i d w a y in the v a l l e y along
the m a i n r o a d from Arezzo. F l o o d i n g c a u s e d serious damage
t o 'the lands and the Castello S a n Giovanni along this important
route to Florence. Even g r e a t e r d a m a g e c o u l d occur if the
Arno River w e r e to leave its o l d c o urse and again w a s h over

7 1
the n e a r b y lands and roads. To avo i d such an occurrence,
the F l o r e n t i n e government o r d e r e d a p r e v e n t i o n p r o g r a m b a s e d
?8
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 133.
29 I b i d . , 132.
30 I b i d . , 146.
324
on a w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the financial b u r d e n to s u p p o r t it.
The a p p r o v e d l e g i s l a t i o n divi d e d financial l i a b i l i t y along
five m a j o r lines. First, all p r o p e r t y - o w n e r s in C a s t e l l o San
Giovanni p a i d up to 200 fiorini d'oro for the above u t i l i t y
program. Secondly, all m i l l revenue for one y e a r from Cas
tello San Giovanni w e n t to the w o r k program. Thirdly, the law
d i s t r i c t e d a tax and b e n e f i t area. The f o l l o w i n g tax criteria
applied to any land- or p o r p e r t y - o w n e r w i t h i n one m i l e of C a s
tello San Giovanni: the quality of the danger each land- or
p r o p e r t y - o w n e r w o u l d e n c o u n t e r if the u t i l i t y p r o g r a m w e r e not
a c c o m p l i s h e d d e t e r m i n e d the q u a ntity of the tax paid. "Good
judgment" an d "hon e s t c o n s c i e n c e " were to guide the T o w e r O f
ficials in d e t e r m i n i n g the tax assessment. Fourthly, the Tower
Officials impo s e d a " c o m a n d a t e " or labor r e q u i s i t i o n on all the
"popoli" and "Comuni" o f the U pper Arno V a l l e y w h o w e r e subject
to the estimo tax. The tax rate d e t e r m i n e d the n u m b e r of the
workers. A tax rate o f less than 20 soldi m e a n t the r equirement
of one w o r k e r and a tax rate of 20 soldi or mor e m e a n t the r e
qui r e m e n t of two w o r k e r s . Lastly, the law fixed an asses s m e n t

32
of 100 fiorini d oro o n the wine tax of C a s t e l l o San Giovanni.
This w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the liability b u r d e n i n d i c a t e d
once a gain the F l o r e n t i n e government's v i e w of the impor t a n c e of
the area. It e x e m p l i f i e d the general b e n e f i t d e r i v e d f rom the
use of the m a i n r oad an d the r e gulation of the river. The scale
of a c t ivity in this are a d e s c r i b e d by a later entry s i g n i f i e d
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 146.
325
that this v i e w c o n t i n u e d into the s i x t e e n t h century.
W h e n in the 1520s gre a t e r d a m a g e o c c u r r e d in the same area,
the T o w e r O f f icials won an even b r o a d e r a u t h o r i t y to o r g a n i z e
a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m . 33 Floods alo n g the Arno R i v e r br o u g h t
"the m o s t serious damage and ruin to the m a i n road, m a n y lands
a nd m u c h p r o p e r t y . 1,34 Also, the C a s t e l l o San Giovanni n e e d e d
m uch rebuilding. The Tower O f f i c i a l s h e l d the au t h o r i t y to
form s e p a r a t e a nd special c o m m i s s i o n s to orga n i z e the r e c o n
s t r u c t i o n effort.
One c o m m i s s i o n included p r o v e d i t o r i (superintendents),
a despositatio (a t r e asurer or t r u s t e e ) , and m i n i s t r i (ad
visors) s e l e c t e d by the Tow e r Officials. This c o m m i s s i o n was
responsible for the river and r o a d repairs. The Tower O f
ficials f o rmed a second c o m m i s s i o n o f "buoni m aestri et archi-
tettori" to study and to report on the n e e d e d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f the wal l s a n d on any oth e r d a m a g e d parts of Castello San
G i o v a n n i . 35
The o r g a n i z a t i o n of separate c o m m i s s i o n s to dele g a t e the
w o r k l o a d gives some idea of the extent o f the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
needed. Also, it suggests the i m p o r t a n c e atta c h e d to this
program. This m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f in the s p e c i f i c use of terms
to d e s c r i b e m e m b e r s h i p of the commission. Generally, the records
did not e m p l o y a detailed d e s c r i p t i o n of the seats of a com-

33
A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 282.
34 Ibid.
35 Ibid.
326
m i s s i o n unless it was tho u g h t the p r o g r a m o f wor k s called
for it.
In a d d i t i o n to the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the above c o m m issions,
the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the l i a b i l i t y b u r d e n b l u e p r i n t e d the scope
of the a c t i v i t y to be implemented. The g o v e r n m e n t l e v i e d the
tax b u r d e n in the f o l l o w i n g way: an a d d i t i o n a l tax p l a c e d
on the p e o p l e of the P o d e s t e r i a di San G i o v a n n i w h o w e r e closest
to the w o r k s under r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; all the fines d u r i n g the
n e x t thr e e years throughout the V i c a r i a t o di San G i o v a n n i
a s s i g n e d to the costs of the wor k s p r o g r a m ; and, finally, a
o n e - t i m e tax put on land recoverable for c u l t i v a t i o n due to
the p u b l i c wor k s program. Specialized commissions a n d the
b r o a d t ax levy a n n o u n c e d a r e c o v e r y p o l i c y as s o o n as p o s
sible f r o m the s e t b a c k to this i m p o r t a n t area.
Access to the p r o d u c t i v e Upp e r Arno V a l l e y d e p e n d e d to
a g r e a t extent on the r e g u l a t i o n o f the flow of the A r n o River.
To m a i n t a i n the r e g u l a r flow of the riv e r a nd to s e cure the
use of the "st r a d a m a e s t r a " w h i c h fla n k e d it t h r o u g h the v a lley

37
f o r m e d a c o n t i n u i n g o b j e c t i v e o f F l o r e n t i n e policy. This
o b j e c t i v e was consistent with the b r o a d e r a p p r o a c h b e i n g ap-
A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 282.
37
The Upper A r n o V a l l e y was a m a j o r food s u p p l y area for
Florence, and the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t d i r e c t e d its p o l i c y
t o w a r d the p r o t e c t i o n of this area on a c o n t i n u i n g basis. For a
d i s c u s s i o n o f the kinds of a g r i c u l t u r e w h i c h w e r e p r a c t i c e d in
the hills and on the plains o f the area see: H e r l i h y , "Santa
M a r i a Impruneta: A Rural Com m u n e in the Late M i d d l e A g e s , " in
F l o r e n t i n e Studies, p p . 242-276.
327
p l i e d in the f ield of p u b l i c u t i l i t y generally. The Upper
Ar n o V a l l e y b e t w e e n A r e z z o and Flore n c e was one exam p l e of the
a p p l i c a t i o n o f this n e w e r approach. Another is the district
b e t w e e n B o l o g n a and Florence.
F l o rence to B o l o g n a
One o f the m a i n rivers of the A p e n n i n e d i s t r i c t an d the
Mugello countryside northeast of Florence is the Sieve River.
F o l l o w i n g a c o u r s e d own through the m o u n t a i n range, the Sieve
River, l i k e the A r n o River, bends s h a r p l y to the w e s t on a
p a t h w h i c h leads d i r e c t l y to Florence. It joins the Arno
River eas t of F l o r e n c e nea r to the p o i n t w h e r e the Arn o leaves
the u p p e r v a l l e y t u r n i n g w e s t w a r d to w a r d F l o r e n c e and e v e n
tually the sea as a l r e a d y described. G i v e n the Sieve R i v e r s
course, it is d i r e c t l y related to the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n routes
to B o l o g n a and the M u g e l l o countryside.
A n e a r l i e r f i f t e e n t h century r e f e r e n c e in the T ower O f
ficial r e c o r d s p r o v i d e d a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n to the Mugello
c o u n t r y s i d e an d the Sieve River as wel l as to q u e s t i o n s con
cerning a d m i n i s t r a t i v e procedures dur i n g this period. For
the o b v i o u s b e n e f i t and utility of the C o m m u n e , " the Tower
Officials sent one of their office to s u p e r v i s e the c o m p l e t i o n
of the P o n t e di San Piero a Sieve and to r e v i e w the n e e d for

*7 Q
repair or r e b u i l d i n g of other bridges in the area. Following
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 131.
328
the review, the T o w e r Officials d e l i b e r a t e d over the s u b m i t t e d
report. Then, they d r e w up a " s e r v i c e a b l e " p r o g r a m for r e
pairs and r e b u i l d i n g s h o u l d there be a n e e d for one. Except
for the list i n g o f some of the brid g e s for review, for example,
the Ponti del B orgo a San Lorenze and Sagginale, the report
included few o t h e r specifics. Nevertheless, some i n t e r e s t i n g
features a p p e a r e d c o n c e r n i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e d u r e and
policy implemen t a t i o n .
F rom w h a t is s a i d in the re p o r t a d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process
can be outlined. This procedure f o l l o w e d three steps: an o n
site r e v i e w by a m e m b e r or app o i n t e e of the Tower Officials;
a report b a s e d on the o n - s i t e r e v i e w p r e s e n t e d to the Tower
Officials for t h e i r d e l i beration; finally, a d e c i s i o n mad e by
the Tower O f f i c i a l s to implement one p r o p o s a l or anot h e r . ^
Since most records disc u s s a single w o r k or activity to be
a c c o m p l i s h e d or rev i e w e d , it is i n t e r e s t i n g also that more
than one w o r k was c o n s i d e r e d in this instance. H a v i n g this
muc h i n c l u d e d in the r e p o r t raises q u e s t i o n s about w h a t is not
included, for example, the gradual i n t r o d u c t i o n of a regu l a r
review system.
To w h a t ex t e n t a d e f i n e d p r o c e d u r e became e s t a b l i s h e d
is not easy to d etermine. Later entries in the six t e e n t h
century, though, do f o r ecast some s i g n i f i c a n t changes in p r o
cedure and policy. S ince these records fall into a shor t e r
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 131.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.
329
time frame and ref e r to the same general area, they o f f e r an
o p p o r t u n i t y for a s s e s s i n g procedures and c o n t i n u i t y in p o l i c y
on a spec i f i c as well as a general basis. B e t w e e n 1522 and
1532 various entries s u g g e s t e d a di f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h was in
the process o f b e c o m i n g m o r e e s t a b lished and a b r o a d e r v i e w
was b e i n g t a k e n c o n c e r n i n g p u b l i c ut i l i t y p r o g r a m s and re-
tional transportation.Most of these entries h a v e d i rect
re f e r e n c e to the c o u n t r y s i d e no r t h e a s t of F l o r e n c e along
the w a y to Bologna.
In r e g a r d to a r e v i e w system, hints of it s u r f a c e d in
an ent r y that o u t l i n e d a j u r i s d ictional c o n t r o v e r s y b e t w e e n
the Tower O f f i c i a l s and local communities. In one o f the
items of the o u t l i n e the To w e r Officials s t a t e d it was their
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to see that the roads were w e l l mainta i n e d .
To carry out this r e s p o n s i b i l i t y they d e l e g a t e d " d e p e n d a b l e
and trai n e d " citizens to r e view the state o f the roads. This
r e v i e w b e g a n in S e p t e m b e r and ended b e fore December. The
r e v i e w also t r i e d to de t e r m i n e if the various d i s tricts and
c ommunities o f the state m a i n t a i n e d the u p k e e p of the roads
w i t h i n their b o u n d a r i e s . 42 t w o m a in points appear in this
entry: the a t t e m p t to es t a b l i s h a m o r e r e g u l a r s y s t e m of
p u b l i c u t i l i t y r e v i e w and the emergence of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and
jurisdictional issues in a n ew regional framework.
41 See also the d i s c u s s i o n in chapter 4 c o n c e r n i n g r e

v i e w systems e s t a b l i s h e d after the 1549-1559 r e f o r m period.
4^ A. S. F. , Libro Luna, 2b0.
330
En t r i e s o f the 1520s d e a l i n g w i t h s p e c i f i c p u b l i c u t i l
ity p r o g r a m s p o i n t e d also to a b r o a d e r and m o r e re g u l a r a p
proach than in the past. A r e v i e w of these p a r t i c u l a r in
itiatives adds a significant part to the p i c t u r e of F l o r e n t i n e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n policy. A n entry o f 1522 c a lled a t t e n t i o n to
the M u g e l l o c o u n t r y s i d e and the Sieve R i v e r . 43 The b r i d g e
along the Sieve R i v e r at San P i e r o and a b r i d g e a l o n g the
road to B o l o g n a w e r e in disrepair. Since the area was b u s y
w i t h traffic, F l o r e n t i n e o f f i c i a l s h u r r i e d to correct the
situation before it b e came worse. They s t a t e d that " w h a t is
done n o w at a l e s s e r expense does not have to be done later

44
at a g r e a t e r e x p e n s e . " To a l l o w the b ridges to r e m a i n u n
a t t e n d e d w o u l d o n l y m a k e for a b i g g e r p r o b l e m later. Again,
Florentine t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y was b o t h
a n t i c i p a t o r y a nd p r e v e n t i v e to an im p o r t a n t degree in its
a p p r o a c h to u r b a n issues.
The a d o p t e d s o l u t i o n to the p r o b l e m was the r e a r r a n g e m e n t
of the two bri d g e s so that the w a t e r w o u l d flow m o r e e a s i l y
un d e r them. However, the Tower Officials said n o t h i n g m o r e
about h o w this was to be a c c o m p l i s h e d or h o w long it w o u l d
take. A statement on expenses p l a c e d the tax b u rden on the
whole Vicariato di M u g e l l o equal to the s um of 300 fi o r i n i
d'oro. O n c e again, the w i d e s p r e a d use o f the bridges m e a n t
43
A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 281-282.
44 Ibid.
331
a wide responsibility for the m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s . 45 Though
limited geographically to a r e l a t i v e l y small a rea a n d only
two bridges, the a p p r o a c h e x p r e s s e d this entry d e f i n e d a
f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g o r i e n t a t i o n to p u b l i c u t i l i t y policy.
Florentine officials e x p r e s s e d even m o r e e x p l i c i t l y in s u b
s e q u e n t entries a looking-ahead dimension of their urban
policy.
In 1525 F l o r e n t i n e o f f i c i a l s identified more fully the
d i r e c t i o n and d i m e n s i o n of this n e w approach. As d i s c u s s e d
earlier, this 1525 e n t r y s k e t c h e d a g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y that
a t t e m p t e d to e s t a b l i s h a m ore c o o r d i n a t e d a p p r o a c h to the
transportation needs of the time. The T o w e r O f f i c i a l s col
lected evidence from numerous sources to d e t e r m i n e the c o n
d i t i o n of roads an d b r i d g e s in m any areas of the s t a t e and
to assess a l t e r n a t i v e s available for s o l v i n g the p r o b l e m s
found. W ith a look to the future, the F l o r e n t i n e government
s t a t e d in the i n t r o d u c t i o n to this entry that an i n v e s t m e n t
in an a d e quate t r a n s p o r t a t i o n n e t w o r k n o w was in e f f e c t an
investment in future savings: "What one m a y do at a lesser
cost does not then n e e d to be done at a g r e a t e r c o s t . " By
these i n t r o d u c t o r y steps the g o v e r n m e n t m o v e d to t r a n s l a t e
ad m i n i s t r a t i v e , f inancial, and social needs into a coher e n t
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n policy.
W h a t follows this i n t r o d u c t i o n was a p r o g r a m of works
4 ^ A. S. F . , L ibro L u n a , 281-282.
332
ex p a n d i n g from the s t r a d a P i s a n a w e s t of the city to Ponte a
San Piero a Sieve n e a r the s t r a d a B o l o g n a east o f the city.
Also listed was the Ponte I n c i s a l ocated b e t w e e n the Ponte
A r i g n a n o a nd the Pon t e a L e o n a in the Upper A r n o V a l l e y . ^
The latter three b r i d g e s w e r e k ey links c o n n e c t i n g the U p p e r
Arno V a lley and F l o r e n c e in an i n t e g r a t e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and
co m m u n i c a t i o n system. This p r o g r a m of works d e s i g n e d an
approach b a s e d on a gen e r a l r eview, an attempt to a n t i c i p a t e
or lesson p o t e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t y , a nd a c o o r d i n a t e d sense of
spatial r e lationships. Again, the financial l i a b i l i t y for
each of the p r o p o s e d initiatives the appro v e d l e g i s l a t i o n
di s t r i b u t e d w i d e l y a c c o r d i n g to the level o f u se o f the p u b
lic utilities. For the w o r k o n the Sieve River, for example,
the following d i s tricts s h o u l d e r e d the cost: the V i c a r i a t o
di Firenzuola, the legha d e l l a Scarperia, and the legha di
San Piero a S i e v e . ^ The w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the financial
liability r e c o g n i z e d the w i d e use o f the roads and bridges
and also lesse n e d s o m e w h a t the b u r d e n of the cost for each
district. Later e ntries r e a f f i r m e d the above p o l i c y and
practices.
Once more r e f e r r i n g to the Sieve River and the M ugello
district a 1531 en t r y c o n t i n u e d to reflect the b r o a d p o l i c y
46
A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 282-283. See also n o t e 68,
c hapter 6.
^ A. S. F., Libro Luna, 282-283.
o u t l i n e d in the p r e v i o u s entries.Part o f the b r i d g e at
San Piero a Sieve h a d a l r e a d y fallen and the rest of the
b r idge n e e d e d r e b u i l d i n g again. Given the rela t i v e l y short
interval since the e a r l i e r w o r k done on the bridge, the f r e
quent use of the b r i d g e a n d the w e a r of the current of the
Sieve m a d e n e c e s s a r y a r e n e w e d effort to m a i n t a i n the b r i d g e
Flor e n t i n e officials c o n s i d e r e d that any delay in r e b u i l d i n g
w o u l d bri n g only f u r t h e r i n jury to the area and the city of
Florence. They c a l l e d for an immediate respo n s e to the p r o b
lem. Simu l t a n e o u s w i t h the ear l y rebuilding, there was also
an attempt made to d i s t r i b u t e the cost b u r d e n with as
little h a r d s h i p as p o s s i b l e to those who have to b e a r the

.,49
expense." 4^
Since Flore n c e h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n und e r siege d u ring the
w a r years 1527-31 and p l a g u e aga i n was p r e s e n t in the land,
any a d ditional tax c a r r i e d a p a r t i c u l a r l y severe burden.
There was also the c h ance that not enough revenue w o u l d be
raised.^9 The w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for
the costs of the w o r k a c k n o w l e d g e d this possibility. The
F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t t a x e d the entire V i c a r i a t o di M u g e l l o
and the V i c a r i a t o di F i r e n z u o l a for the sup p o r t of the cost
of rebuilding a bridge useful for all in the area. Because
o f the w a r and p l a g u e a nd the r e s ulting p o p u l a t i o n loss,
48
A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 295-296.
49 Ibid.
Pardi, " D i s t e n g o , " pp. 186-191; Repetti, Dizionario,

vol. 2, pp. 211-219.
334
t h e r e was the chance that the u s u a l l a n d and prop e r t y tax m ay
fall short of the r e q u i r e d expenses a nd that those w ho were
re s p o n s i b l e for the tax w o u l d be m o r e h e a v i l y tried than
usual. To meet this c i rcumstance, an a d ditional tax fell on
each p a i r of oxen in the V i c a r i a t o di Mugello. Those who
o w n e d a p a i r of oxen w e r e s u p p o s e d l y in a r elatively b e tter
p o s i t i o n to bear the tax burden. In addition, Florentine
officials c o n s i d e r e d animals, such as, oxen, to add a g reat er
w e a r p r o p o r t i o n a l l y to the b r i d g e w h e n c r o s s i n g than people,
e s p e c i a l l y if the animals w e r e h a u l i n g or c a r t i n g . 51
Similar comments and p r o v i s i o n s a p p l i e d to the d a m a g e d
r o a d that led into the Casentino area. The Arno River o v e r
f l o w e d its banks and flo o d e d the roadway. With winter ap
proaching, there was serious d a nger to the p u blic and "no
small risk to travellers and p e o p l e o f the c o u n t r y s i d e " if the

ro
r o a d and bridges in the area w e r e n o t repaired. The g o v e r n
m e n t p l a c e d a tax on the V i c a r i a t o di Ca s e n t i n o and the local
communities. The local commun i t i e s w e r e responsible for the
r e p a i r costs on that part of the r o a d w h i c h went t o ward the
P o n t e s i e v e outside F l o r e n c e . ^3
However, the w a r and p l ague y e a r s h a d taken a serious
toll and the expenses for p u b l i c u t i l i t y h a d become in-

i
c r e a s i n g l y h a r d to meet. In an e n t r y o f 1532, the Tow e r Of-
51 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 282.
52 Ibid., 296.
53 Ibid.
335
ficials r e q u e s t e d m o r e m o n e y to complete the p r o g r a m b e g u n
a y e a r earlier at Ponte di San Piero a Sieve. They c l a i m e d
simply that the m o n e y r a i s e d a c c ording to the 1531 p r o v i s i o n
was not e n o u g h a n d fell short of expenses. To complete the
program, the F l o r e n t i n e gover n m e n t voted an a d d i t i o n a l tax
levy on the V i c a r i a t i di S c a r p e r i a and F i r e n z u o l a and the
o t h e r places and p e r s o n s i n c l u d e d in the e a r l i e r tax a s s e s s
ment.^ The d i f f i c u l t y o f m e e t i n g p u blic u t i l i t y expenses
was one of the signs of the t r o u b l e of the w a r years and
p l a g u e b e t w e e n 1527-31. It was not until the 1540s and after
that some of the s e p r o b l e m s abated.
Since the f i f t e e n t h ce n t u r y an a n t i c i p a t o r y thought
p r o c e s s b e c a m e an i m p o r t a n t element of F l o r e n t i n e t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n and u r b a n policy. The above comments reflected
this s i g n i f i c a n t y e t l i m i t e d anti c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h in the
f i e l d of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and p u blic uti l i t y policy. It is .
also found in the fie l d o f u r b a n p o l i c y in r e l a t i o n to j u r i s
di c t i o n a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues.
^ A. S. F . , Libro Luna, 298.
336
C H A P T E R 8: J U R I S D I C T I O N A N D U R B A N SPACE
U r b a n i z a t i o n r a i s e d the i m p o r t a n c e and i m m e d i a c y of
j u r i s d i c t i o n a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e issues for the early
m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e state. The r e s p o n s e of the F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t to these issues generated eventually a t r ansi
tion f r o m a m o r e f r a g m e n t e d to a m o r e c o o r d i n a t e d a d m i n i s
t r a t i o n of u r b a n affairs. This c h a p t e r d i s cusses p a r t of
the h i s t o r y of this t r a n s i t i o n and the role of key g o v e r n
ment departments in the field of u r b a n a ffairs d u r i n g this
per i o d , for example, the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s , the Parte, the
C i nque and the Nove.^
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of a m o r e c o m p l e x u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t on
a local and regio n a l scale r a i s e d q u e s t i o n s and issues in
at least three m a i n fields of u r b a n a f f a i r s : the r e l a t i o n
ship b e t w e e n city and s u b u r b a n areas as w e l l as the e x e r
cise o f the a u t h o r i t y and p o w e r of emi n e n t domain; the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of a u t hority and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e t w e e n local
and ce n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t a l units; thirdly, the d i s t r i b u t i o n
of a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e t w e e n the m a j o r d e p a r t
ments of the central g o v e r n m e n t of the F l o r e n t i n e state.
R e s o l u t i o n of these issues s h a p e d to a c o n s i d e r a b l e degree
ear l y m o d e r n Flore n t i n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of u r b a n affairs.
1 See the d i s c u s s i o n in c hapter 3 c o n c e r n i n g the

Cinque, Otto, and Nove and also notes 51 a nd 52 of the
same chapter.
337
Th o u g h l i m i t e d in some way s , the d i s c u s s i o n here of the
above b a s i c issues sketches n e v e r t h e l e s s an important
d i m e n s i o n of Flor e n t i n e u r b a n history.
As an o r i e n t a t i o n or gui d e for r e a d i n g the a d m i n i s t r a
tive m ap o f the F l o r e n t i n e state, j u r i s d i c t i o n m ay be c o n
s i d e r e d d i s t r i b u t e d along two m a i n li n e s - - b y area and by
activity. B e g i n n i n g w i t h the most local and m o v i n g towards
the l a r g e r g o v e r n m e n t a l units, the four divisions o f the
F l o r e n t i n e st a t e w e r e - - t h e popoli and comuni, the comunita,
the p o d e s t e r i a , and the c a p i t a n a t o or vicariato. These
local .governmental units v a r i e d in size, economic c o n d i
tion, constitutional r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the F l o r e n t i n e g o v
ernment, a nd in oth e r ways w h i c h m a d e the d i s t r i b u t i o n of
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and f i n ancial r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and burdens
a com p l e x question. Moreover, clear lines were not always
dra w n b e t w e e n the g o v e r n m e n t depart m e n t s w h i c h w e r e to
a d m i n i s t e r the p u b l i c u t i l i t y services in local a r e a s . 2
G e n e r a l l y w i t h i n the above d i visions, one p o l i t i c a l
b o u n d a r y or a n o t h e r o u t l i n e d each part or segment o f the
F l o r e n t i n e state. The l a r g e r po l i t i c a l boun d a r i e s encom
p a s s e d the smaller, but aga i n there w e r e m a n y d i f f e r e n c e s
f r o m one a r e a to another in size, we a l t h , and p o p u l a t i o n
of the v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l units. Yet w i t h i n this four tier
2 T he f o l l o w i n g refe r e n c e s include m a t e r i a l c o n c e r n i n g
the issue o f j u r i s d i c t i o n and are c i t e d in the text; A. S.
F., Nove, 3235; A. S. F . , Nove, 3596, A. S. F., A u d i t o r e
R i f o r m a g i o n i , 118.
338
s t r ucture the popoli and comuni w e r e the local units of
g o vernment most directly and c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the m a i n t e
nance of a v i able tran s p o r t a t i o n system. W h e t h e r popolo,
podestria, or vicariato, however, the local governmental
units w e r e r esponsible for a m o v e m e n t s y s t e m w h i c h went
b e y o n d their boundaries and required, as a result, a wider
appro a c h on a regional scale r a t h e r t h a n a more limited
segmental approach.
B e f o r e 1549, each local c o m m u n i t y or district was
re s p o n s i b l e for the road w h i c h ran t h r o u g h its community
from b o r d e r to border as r e c o r d e d in the libro delle
strade. This approach p l a c e d the m a i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of
road w o r k on the local p o poli or c o muni most often. The
Tower O f f icials also o r g a n i z e d r o a d r e p a i r and build i n g
p r o g r a m a c t i v i t y on a c o m m u n i t y to c o m m u n i t y basis. In
other w o rds, Florentine officials p e r c i e v e d the roads and
bridges as p a r t of a c o o r d i n a t e d m o v e m e n t system, but they
still f r e q u e n t l y a p proached the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of public
u tility p r o g r a m s on a s e g mental basis. The central g o v e r n
ment r e v i e w e d and regulated, but the local gover n m e n t imple
mented. W h e n finishing a road p r o g r a m in one area, the
Tower Of f i c i a l s would m o v e to o r g a n i z e w o r k in the next
popoli o r comuni and so on. Gradually, the Florentine
g o v e r n m e n t or g a n i z e d a road p r o g r a m to m a i n t a i n the entire
length of a road on a c o o r d i n a t e d route rather that a s e g
ment of it. This occur r e d regularly, however, only after
339
the 1549 r e f o r m s . 3
Al.so f o l lowing the d e c a d e of g o v e r n m e n t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n
b e t w e e n 1549 and 1559, there d e v e l o p e d e v entually a clearer
d e f i n i t i o n of the role of the Parte (including the River
Officials) and of the N o v e c o n c e r n i n g the r e spective j u r i s
d iction of each in the p u b l i c ut i l i t y field.^ These two
offices did m u c h to c e n t r a l i z e g o vernment activity in the
regional state. However, the br o a d d e f i n i t i o n of a u t hority
given to each office b r o u g h t them into juri s d i c t i o n a l d i s
pute b e fore v e r y long a f t e r they w e r e instituted. The
r e s o l u t i o n of this d i s p u t e def i n e d the role of each a c c o r d
ing to a separ a t e j u r i s d i c t i o n d i s t i n g u i s h e d more by area
than b y activity.
All of the above el e m e n t s , w h e t h e r or g a n i z e d by area
or by activity, c o n t r i b u t e d to juri s d i c t i o n a l issues and
con f u s i o n w h i c h r e f l e c t e d the i n c r e a s i n g u r b a n i z a t i o n of
the early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e regional state. Gradually,
a dministrative r e f o r m and the r e s o l u t i o n of some of these
issues led to a more c o o r d i n a t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of u r b a n
affairs. This process o f r e d e f i n i t i o n and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n
b e g a n in the fifteenth c e n t u r y w i t h the increased activity
o f the Tower Officials a nd re a c h e d a n e w phase of special-
^ A. S. F., Libro Luna, 18-20, 23; A. S. F., Quaderno,

98-100, 123-126, 141, 159.
4 See the d i s c u s s i o n that follows later in this

chapter.
340
ization in the late s i x t e e n t h and early se v e n t e e n t h
centuries w i t h the c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the roles of the Parte
and the Nov e in the f ield of p u b l i c util i t y service.
14th and 15th Century J u r i s d i c t i o n : The T ower O f f icials
J u r i s d i c t i o n o f the T o w e r O f f icials appl i e d b o t h i n
side and outside Florence. O t h e r g o v e r n m e n t depart m e n t s
be c a m e i n v o l v e d in p u b l i c u t i l i t y activity, for example,
the Otto di Pratica and the C o n s o l i del Mare, but this
was a s p e c i a l rather than the m a i n activity of these
offices.5 However, p u b l i c u t i l i t y service was gen e r a l l y
w i t h i n the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the T o w e r Officials. During
the f i f t e e n t h century n e w l e g i s l a t i o n b r o a d e n e d the j u r
i s d i c t i o n o f the T ower Officials.
E x a m p l e ^ from the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s records d u r i n g this
p e r i o d d e m o n s t r a t e d h o w this j u r i s d i c t i o n a p p l i e d on the
local level. Beca u s e of v a r i o u s c onstraints operating
d u r i n g the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y a l r e a d y m entioned, the roa d
s y s t e m s u f f e r e d fro m neglect. Just a few m iles o u t s i d e
F l o r e n c e along the r oad i s s u i n g f r o m the P orta San N i c c o l o
and p a s s i n g through the subu r b s to the south of the city
on the w a y to the U p p e r Arn o V a l l e y and Arezzo, there was
a gap in the road m a i n t e n a n c e system. Betw e e n F l o r e n c e a n d
the P o n t i c e l l o (small bridge) a R i corboli the road n e e d e d
^ A. S. F . , N o v e , 3235, 150; A. S. F. A u d i t o r e
R i f o r m a g i o n i , 118, 48-68; M a l l e t t , F lorentine Galleys,
p p . 13-14, 21-23.
341
repair. This tract o f r o a d s o u t h o f the city, however,
l a c k e d a s s i g n m e n t to any local c o m m u n i t y for m a i n t e n a n c e .
In 1360 the F lorentine g o v e r n m e n t a d o p t e d a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
and f i n a n c i a l l i a bility p r o g r a m to r e m e d y this s i t u a t i o n
a c c o r d i n g to the f o l lowing m e a s u r e s .^
S i n c e no local c o m m u n i t y h a d i m m ediate and direct
responsibility for this s t r e t c h o f road, the g o v e r n m e n t
r e g i s t e r e d the expenses to the p r o p e r t y owners along the
roadway. If there were no p r o p e r t y owners al o n g p a r t
of the r o a d w a y or if the r e v e n u e from the p r o p e r t y tax
was insufficient, then the city of F l o r e n c e p a i d the
expenses for the work. G e n e r a l l y , howev e r , the F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t p a i d only for the side of the road alo n g the
riv e r w h e r e no one ow n e d p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , and the p r o p e r t y
owners p a i d for the landward- side o f the r o a d w h e r e they
h e l d p r o perty. Also, the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s exercised a u t h o r
ity to re q u i r e p a y m e n t f r o m the l andowners b e t w e e n F l o r e n c e
and P o n t i c e l l o a R i c orboli f or the' r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e pro-
gram. In this instance, the l e g i s l a t i o n formed a t e m p o
r a r y " t a x c o m m u n i t y " to fill the gap in the road m a i n t e
n a n c e s y s t e m outside Florence.
t Gaps in the local r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e s y s t e m w e r e not
i s o l a t e d to one instance in the n e t w o r k of local communities.
6 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 18-20
7 I b i d . , 19-20.
342
A m o r e w i d e s p r e a d p r o b l e m w as evident in the 1362 r e p o r t
presented to the F l o r e n t i n e gover n m e n t by the T o w e r
Officials. In this i n s tance, the Tow e r Of f i c i a l s reported
"that m a n y and various p l a c e s of the F l o r e n t i n e c o n t a d o
have p u b l i c roads w h i c h are in such b ad c o n d i t i o n that
they are dangerous to t r a v e l . " The statement cont i n u e d :
A n d the Tower Off i c i a l s are not able to p r o

v i d e m a i n t e n a n c e and r e p a i r for these roads,
m o s t l y b e c a u s e there is no d i s t r i b u t i o n of
this r e s p o n s i b i l i t y m a d e in the past amo n g
the v arious comuni, p i v i e r i , popoli,
e luoghi of the c o n t a d o to w h i c h any r e l i
ance can be given; this is so because the
a u t h e n t i c Libro [delle strade] is not fou n d
w r i t t e n in such a w a y as to assume a p r o p e r
p u b l i c form, and the d i s t r i b u t i o n includes
serious and m a n y errors in the v a r i e t y and
d i s a g r e e m e n t of the p l a c e s a s s i g n e d to the
comuni, pivieri, p o p o l i , and other places
o f the contado of F l o r e n c e . 8
The g o v e r n m e n t did not p r o p o s e any immediate s o l u t i o n or
a c t i o n s e c t i o n of legi s l a t i o n , but did r e c o m m e n d a g eneral
r e v i e w and r e f o r m of the problem. Alternative approaches
to the r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e s y s t e m were not easy to v i s u a l i z e ,
and the part by part and local area by local a r e a a p p r o a c h
8 A. S. F . , Libro L u n a , 18-20. "E a r i p a r a r e e a

p r o v v e d e r e a quelle n o n si p u o der detti U f ficiali,
m a s i m a m e n t e c o n c i o s i a c o s a che n o n si possa avere a l c u n a
d i s t r i b u z i o n e p er adietro f a t t a tra detti Comuni, P ivieri
Popoli, e luoghi del detto co n t a d o alia quale si p o s s a
dare a l c u n a fede c o n c i o s i a c o s a che nel Libro a u t e n t i c o
n o n si trovi in tal m o d o scr i t t i chessi po s s a p i g l i a r e
in fo r m a publica. E che in e s s a di s t r i b u z i o n e g r ande e
iversi errori si trovano c o m m e s s i per le v a r i e t a e
d i s c o r d i e de luoghi a s s e g n a t i a Comuni, Privi e r i Popoli
e l u oghi del detto c o n t a d o . "
343
to r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e c o n t i n u e d w e l l into the fi f t e e n t h
century.
In addit i o n to the r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e system, entries
b e t w e e n the latter part of the f o u r t e e n t h ce n t u r y and the
ear l y p a r t of the fi f t e e n t h c e n t u r y also feature some of
the m a i n c h a r acteristics of F l o r e n t i n e public u t i l i t y
p o l i c y t o w a r d questions of e m i n e n t domain, authority, and
r e l a t i o n s b etween city and suburbs. Three p a r t i c u l a r e n
tries b e t w e e n 1371 and 1406 p r o v i d e a view, though
limited, that help to d i s c e r n m a j o r elements of F l o r e n t i n e
policy in these areas. The area o f immediate c o n c e r n in
this first entry of 1371 was the e a s t e r n side of the city
and the lands just o utside the e a s t e r n gate of Porta
Guistitia,9
In r e g a r d to eminent domain, the City of Florence
s o ught to buy properties in one of the districts of the
e a s t e r n qu a r t e r of the city in o r d e r to b u i l d a street in
the area. Florentine officials took a census of p r o p e r t y
rights and partial o w n e r s h i p of p r o p e r t y in the area. They
c o m p e l l e d the sale of the p r o p e r t y to the city to m a k e way
for a p u b l i c street and the p a y m e n t of c o m p e n s a t i o n for the
p r o p e r t y w o u l d be m a d e a c c o r d i n g to the terms of the 1371
legislation. The Tower Off i c i a l s w e r e responsible for the
A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 41-44; Pampaloni, Firenze al Tempo

di Dante, p p . 125-130, 165-167.
344
p u r c h a s e o f the p r o p e r t y for the city at the price e s t a b
l i shed in the l e g i s l a t i o n a nd for the impl e m e n t a t i o n of
the s t r e e t b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m . 1 The Flor e n t i n e g o vernment
de f i n e d s p e c i f i c a l l y the rights of p r o p e r t y owners insofar
as c o m p e n s a t i o n was c o n c e r n e d while at the same time
af f i r m i n g the right of the city to r e q u i r e the sale of
p r o p e r t y n e e d e d for the b u i l d i n g o f a p u b l i c street.
In the s e c o n d par t of the 1371 ent r y attention sh i f t e d
to the a r e a o u t s i d e the city walls. A l o n g the Arno River
outside the e a s t e r n gate o f the city, Por t a Guistitia, the
F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t s u p p o r t e d at its own expense the b u i l d
ing of a w a l l to p r o t e c t against f l o o d i n g in the zone c a l l e d
la Piagentina. This wall, however, was not yet complete,
and the T o w e r O f f icials ask e d for addi t i o n a l revenue to
f i nish its c o n struction. In respo n s e to this request the
F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t took the f o l l o w i n g position: namely,
that b e f o r e the wall was bui l t the lands and p r operties of
the area h a d b e e n se r i o u s l y da m a g e d bec a u s e of storms and
floods a nd that n o w the wall was b e i n g built the s i t u a t i o n
h ad b e e n m u c h i m p r o v e d for the residents of the area. Thus,
the r e s idents of the area are liable to pay for the i m p r o v e
ment. The F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t s t a t e d that it was "just
and r e a s o n a b l e " an ap p r o p r i a t e p a y m e n t be made to the city
for the i m p r o v e m e n t this p u b l i c u t i l i t y service brought to
10 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 42-43.
345
the residents of the P i a g e n t i n a area. T heir d i s t r i b u t i o n
of financial l i a b l i l i t y h i g h l i g h t e d the c r i t e r i a e m p l o y e d
in ass e s s i n g the v a l u e of the im p r o v e m e n t to r e s i d e n t s and
l andowners of the a r e a . H
The T o w e r Officials a s s e s s e d on e a c h p r o p e r t y adjacent
to or in the n e a r b y a rea of the wal l w h i c h w o u l d be a f f e c t e d
by f l o oding a tax in p r o p o r t i o n to the b e n e f i t r e c e i v e d by
the b u i l d i n g of the p r o t e c t i v e wall or breaker. G u idelines
w h i c h the T o w e r Of f i c i a l s a p p l i e d in m a k i n g s u c h judgments
about the b e n e f i t r e c e i v e d u n d e r these c i r c u m s t a n c e s in
cluded.: h o w m u c h land w h i c h ha d b een p r e v i o u s l y lost c ould
be r e a q u i r e d b e c a u s e of the b u i l d i n g of the w a l l and ho w
m u c h damage w o u l d be sp a r e d to the other lands w h i c h in the
pa s t w ere s u b j e c t to f l o o d i n g problems. In addition, the
Tower Off i c i a l s wer e r e s p o n s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e the p r e c i s e
b oundaries b e t w e e n those lands b e l o n g i n g to the City of
Florence and those b e l o n g i n g to p r i v a t e indivduals. The
boundaries o f these lands h a d become c o n f u s e d o v e r the
years b e c a u s e of p r e v i o u s f l o oding in the a r e a a long the
vi a P i a g e n t i n a . 12 The F lorentine g o v e r n m e n t g r a n t e d the
Tower O f f i c i a l s full j u r i s d i c t i o n over this p u b l i c util i t y
program.
A. S. F . , O u a d e r n o , 42-43.
1^ Ibid., 43-44; Pampaloni, Fire n z e al T e m p o di Dante,

p p . 125-130, 165-167.
A l o n g s i d e the wal l to be completed, the T o w e r O f f i c i a l s
were to b u i l d also a road. They were to c l a i m for the City
of Florence enough l and to b u i l d a s i x t e e n b r a c c i a (about 32
feet) w i d e roa d as far as the w a l l extended, and wer e also
a u t h o r i z e d to c l a i m as m u c h l and as n e e d e d in the future to
complete the works p r o g r a m . If such lands wer e w o r t h m o r e
tha n w h a t w o u l d be due to the Florentine government in p a y
ment for the wall and r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n , then a p p r o p r i a t e
c o m p e n s a t i o n w o u l d be m a d e to the owners; if not, the lands
w o u l d be a c q u i r e d w i t h o u t c o m p e n s a t i o n as a f o r m of p a y m e n t
for the p u b l i c u t i l i t y s e r v i c e r e n d e r e d by the F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t . 13 Inside or j u s t outs i d e the city w alls in the
subur b s , the Flore n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t v i e w e d p u b l i c u t i l i t y
programs an a d d i t i o n an d i m p r o v e m e n t in the c u l t u r a l land
scape which benefitted everyone in the area and for w h i c h
the b e n e f i c i a r i e s w e r e f i n a n c i a l l y liable.
Two renewal p r o g r a m s inside the City of F l o r e n c e a l s o
e m p h a s i z e d some of the sam e c r i t e r i a and g u idelines
e m p l o y e d by the F l o r e n t i n e government. In 1404 a r e n e w a l
p r o g r a m a l o n g one o f the m a i n t r a f f i c routes o f the city
e x p r e s s e d a c o n t i n u i n g ideal o f Flor e n t i n e u r b a n p l a n n i n g . 1 ^
13 A. S. F., O u a d e r n o , 43-44.
1^ Ibid., 120; O t t o k a r , "Criteri di O r d i n e , " p p . 1 0 1 - 1 0 6

P a m p a l o n i , Firenze al T e m p o di Dante, p p . 12-14, 50-51, 92-
95, 125-130, 137-138.
347
To enhance Mthe respect and b e a u t y of the City of Florence,
the T o w e r Off i c i a l s w ere to r e m o v e buildings located in a
n a r r o w p a s s a g e w a y w hich ju t t e d into the vi a L a r g a - - a m a i n
traffic route o f the city. The i m p r o v e m e n t of the a p p e a r
ance of the cit y as well as the u t i l i t y of a be t t e r f l o w
of t r a f f i c r e m a i n e d a m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of F l o r e n t i n e
p o l i c y t h r o u g h the f i f teenth and s i x t e e n t h centuries. As
the c i t y s c a p e of Florence c h a n g e d f r o m a late m e d i e v a l to
an e arly m o d e r n look, the above c r i t e r i a continued to p l a y
a m a j o r role in Flore n t i n e p u b l i c u t i l i t y policy.
A t h i r d e n t r y of 1406 d e s c r i b e d a proposal to r e d e
sign p a r t of the piazza ar o u n d the Palace of the Priors.
Once more, the Tower Officials p u r c h a s e d , tore down, an d
removed property in the area to a l l o w for an e x t e n s i o n of
the p i a z z a and the build i n g of a p u b l i c street a l o n g s i d e
the n e w s e c t i o n of the piazza. The Florentine g o v e r n m e n t
d e c l a r e d this a r e a a pu b l i c str e e t in p e r p e t u i t y and p r o
v i d e d c o m p e n s a t i o n to p r o p e r t y owners w h o s e houses w e r e
removed.^ Again, the p r o p e r t i e s r e m a i n i n g w h i c h bene-
fi t t e d b e c a u s e of the b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m w ere subject to an
improvement tax.
T h e s e three entries and the e a r l i e r ones m e n t i o n e d
A. S. F., Q u a d e r n c , 122.
16 I b i d . , 123.
348
i n t r o d u c e d some of the j u r s i d i c t i o n a l and spatial o r g a n i z a
tional p r o b l e m s wh i c h remai n e d b e f o r e the Florentine g o v e r n
ment d u r i n g the f i f teen th century. Later entries, as w e l l
as t h e s e ea r l i e r ones, i n d i c a t e d that the Florentine g o v e r n
m ent r e s p o n d e d to this si t u a t i o n b y c o n t i n u i n g to d i s t r i b u t e
jurisdictional r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and fi n a n c i a l liability for
p u b l i c u t i l i t y programs a c c o r d i n g to m a i n t e n a n c e and b e n e f i t
a r e a s - - f o r example, as s i g n i n g p a r t of the road system
to a p a r t i c u l a r m a i n t e n a n c e area and each improvement p r o
g r a m to a s p e c i f i c b ene fit area.l? This p r o v i d e d the
Florentine g overnment w i t h b o t h a fixed and flexible s y s t e m
of p o l i c y implementation. The m a i n t e n a n c e area d i s t r i b u t i o n
s y s t e m p a r a l l e l e d the fixed p o l i t i c a l boundaries of the
local un i t s of government w h e r e a s the be n e f i t area d i s t r i b u
tion e x p a n d e d or cont r a c t e d to the extent of the i m p r o v e
ment m a d e in the cultural l a n d s c a p e and ur b a n en v i r o n m e n t
by e a c h p u b l i c uti l i t y program.
Be s i d e s questions of area j u r i s d i c t i o n and r e s p o n s i
bility, t r a c k i n g the activity of the T o w e r Officials as
well as oth e r government de p a r t m e n t s h a d also become a m a j o r
issue f or the F lorentine government. Later in the f o u r
teenth c e n t u r y Florentine of f i c i a l s tri e d to regulate m o r e
c losely the activ i t y of the Tower O f f icials in the f i e l d of
17
See also the d i s c u s s i o n in the previous c hapter c o n
c erning the U p p e r Arno Valley, V o l t e r r a , and the M u g e l l o
c o u n tryside; A. S. F., Libro Luna, 282, 285-286, 292-293.
349
p u blic ut i l i t y s e r v i c e due to reports of abusive p r a c t i c e s
of their office. The Florentine gover n m e n t ai m e d for m o r e
than one o b j e c t i v e in this regard. W h i l e aiming to e s t a b
lish a clear d i s t r i b u t i o n of local r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for p u b l i c
utility programs, such as, the r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e system, the
F lorentine g o v e r n m e n t also sought to p r o t e c t local c o m m u n
ities from abusive practices by central g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t
ments whi c h h ad j u r i s d i c t i o n over them for the above as well
as for tax and o t h e r reasons. W h e n these a busive p r a c t i c e s
occurred, they h u r t the local communities and the F l o r e n t i n e
g o vernment f i n a n c i a l l y as well as politically.
To p revent s u c h abuses and to regul a t e a c t i v i t y more
closely, in 138 7 the Florentine gove r n m e n t d e m a n d e d that the
Tower Officials r e c o r d all p u b l i c u t i l i t y w o r k p e r f o r m e d by
their office in a Libro dello S c r i v a n o - ^ a r e g i s t r y of p r o
g ram activity. The n ew law stated e x p l i c i t l y that this in
cluded each and eve r y activity w i t h i n the j u r i s d i c t i o n of
the Tower Of f i c i a l s w h e t h e r or not the t r e a s u r e r of their
own office or the F l o r e n t i n e government h ad invested
directly in f i n a n c i n g the program. Also, the law r e q u i r e d
the Tower O f f icials to keep their r e g i s t r y of acti v i t y
separate from all other accounts or registries, open to
review at any time, and readable and u p - t o - d a t e .
In 1394 and 1395 two additional entries l i sted the
A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 82-84.
350
a tte m p t s of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t to r e g u l a t e a busive
practices by g o v e r n m e n t agencies, i n c l u d i n g the Tower
O ffi cials, and to p r o t e c t the rights of local c o m m u n i
ties. Unless a p p r o v e d by the F l o r e n t i n e government,
c o l l e c t e d lawfully, a n d e n t e r e d o f f i c i a l l y a nd p r o p e r l y
in the a p p r o p r i a t e a c c o u n t ledgers of the c entral and local
g o v e rnments, the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t s t a t e d that local
co m m u n i t i e s were not su b j e c t to any taxes for a wide range
of activ i t i e s and p u r p o s e s , i n c l u d i n g r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e and
b u i l d i n g expenses. Also, government agencies or their
envoys c o u l d not r e q u i r e reports f r o m the local communities
on ex p e n s e items, s u c h as, road m a i n t e n a n c e a nd tax a s s e s s
ments, unless a u t h o r i z e d by the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t for
a s p e c i f i c and lawful r e a s o n to do s o . ^
E v e n tig h t e r r e s t r i c t i o n s w e r e p l a c e d on the Tower
Officials as well as oth e r g o v e r n m e n t offices by the terms
of an entry of 1395.21 An introductory statement forecasted
the m a i n p u r p o s e of this pie c e of legi s l a t i o n , namely, "to
r e d u c e u seless expenses" in the bud g e t s of g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t
ments. 22 jn r e g a r d to the Tower O f f icials it p r o h i b i t e d any
19 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 82-84; A. S. F . , M i s c e l l a n e a
R e p u b l i c a , 102, 1-7.
29 A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 98-99.
21 I b i d . , 100.
22 Ibid.
351
f u r t h e r h i r i n g of ca p o m a e s t r i (master b u i l d e r s ) , but the
law d id not affect those c a p o m a e s t r i already presently
e m p l o y e d by the Tower Officials. A s e c o n d r e g u l a t i o n was
e q u a l l y important. The T o w e r O f f i c i a l s w e r e d i s a l l o w e d
f r o m s e n d i n g or d e l e g a t i n g e i ther d i r e c t l y or indir e c t l y
a n y o n e f r o m or in the^name of the i r o f f i c e to do any road
w o r k in the c ontado or d i s t r e t t o of F l o r e n c e unless p a i d
by the F l o r e n t i n e or local government. In this way, the
c e n t r a l or local g o vernment c o u l d ac c o u n t m o r e c l o s e l y for
the a c t i v i t y and expenses of the T o w e r Officials, and also
b e t t e r r e g u l a t e and maybe p r e v e n t the abuses r e f e r r e d to
in the 1394 l e g i s l a t i o n . 23
As alr e a d y discussed, the l e g i s l a t i o n o f 1396 p l a y e d
a k e y role in s h a p i n g the f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h the Tower
O f f i c i a l s were to function as an o f f i c e of p u blic u t i l i t y
service. On 7 June 1396 the law r e q u i r e d the treas u r y of
the T o w e r Officials to make a p a y m e n t of 150 fiorini d'oro
to the t r e a s u r y of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t each m o n t h b e
fore m e e t i n g any other fi n a n c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s . This legis
l a t i o n s e rved also two p u r p o s e s at the same time. It
c h e c k e d the expenses of the To w e r O f f i c i a l s while dr a w i n g
m o r e m o n e y to the central treasury. L e g i s l a t i o n of
8 D e c e m b e r 1396 ap p l i e d s t r i c t e r r e g u l a t i o n s on the p ayment
23 A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 98-99.
352
of revenue to the cen t r a l treasury b y v a r i o u s government
agencies. Thus, the p e r i o d 1394-1396 m a r k e d a high po i n t
in a d e v e l o p i n g trend t o ward i n c r e a s e d r e g u l a t i o n by the
F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t of depa r t m e n t a l activ i t y and j u r i s
diction. 24
Af t e r the F l o r e n t i n e state r e e s t a b l i s h e d its e f f e c
tiveness in this area a nd a p e r i o d o f general cultural
renewal began, the T o w e r Officials also saw an extension
and a r evival of their activity. This i m p ortant t r a n s i
t ion p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1396 and 1415 has al r e a d y been d i s
cussed. 25 it was m e n t i o n e d earlier that the role of the
Tower O f f i c i a l s d u ring those years r e f l e c t e d a p e riod of
general co n s t r a i n t s and that this p e r i o d of constraint
g r a d u a l l y e n d e d in the early f i f t e e n t h century.
By the r e f o r m law of 1415 a n e w d i r e c t i o n and a
b r o a d e r role for the T o w e r Officials g a i n e d formal r e c o g n i
tion. 26 T h e r e f o r m law re d u c e d by h a l f the m o n t h l y payment
of 150 fiorini d oro p a i d by the T o w e r Offic i a l treasury to
the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t and a l l o t t e d the m o n e y r e l e a s e d
as a result of this r e d u c t i o n to p u b l i c u t i l i t y service.
This mo n e y was to be u s e d only for w o r k p r o g r a m s appro v e d
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 98-99, 112-113.
See cha p t e r 5, the s ection e n t i t l e d "Policy and

A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Change 1 3 9 6 - 1415."
^ Ibid.; Also: A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 125-128.
353
by the Florentine govern m e n t , and was not to be used for
salaries or other purp o s e s u n l e s s expl i c i t l y licensed by
the Priorate and Councils.
Besides the release of money, the r e f o r m law p e r
m i t t e d the Tower O f f icials to send delegates or m embers
of their office o utside F l o r e n c e to t r a n s a c t the business
of their office w i t h o u t s p e c i a l license from the Flore n t i n e
government. This cou l d be d o n e as o f t e n as the Tower O f f i
cials judged n e c e s s a r y to a c c o m p l i s h the work of their
office. This p r o v i s i o n o f the law l i f t e d an earlier r e
s t r i c t i o n on Tower O f f i c i a l activity, b ut a q u a l i f i c a t i o n
was added. If delegates w e r e sent out s i d e Florence at the
e x p e n s e of the Tower O f f i c i a l s or the local communities,
t h e n an earlier r e s t r i c t i o n r e q u i r i n g a special license

27
no longer applied. In 1415 the Flor e n t i n e government
t o o k an important step to e x t e n d the range of activity and
j u r i s d i c t i o n of the Tower O f f icials n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the
qualifications and limits also established.
Earlier d i s c u s s i o n of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n policy d e s c r i b e d
the r e n e w e d activity and m o r e clearly d e f i n e d j u r i s d i c t i o n
of the Tower Officials d u r i n g the f i f teenth and sixteenth
centuries. In the b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m for the Pesa River
bridg e s , the Ponte Ar i g n a n o , the strada Pisana, and many
o t h e r examples d u ring the f i f t e e n t h and s i x teenth c e n t u r i e s ,
^ A. S. F., Q u a d e r n o , 127.
354
the Tow e r Of f i c i a l s often e x e r c i s e d direct a u t h o r i t y to
r equire from local officials the r e s ources n e e d e d for their
p r o g r a m o f a c t i v i t y and to tax local p o poli a nd comuni
w i t h i n limits e s t a b l i s h e d by l e g i s l a t i o n . 28 This d i rect
and b r o a d jurisdi c t i o n , however, still did n ot r e m o v e all
problems e n c o u n t e r e d by the Tower Officials.
D u r i n g the 1440s and 1450s, the Tower O f f i c i a l s w e r e
again r e v i e w i n g the role of the p o p o l i and c o muni in the
road m a i n t e n a n c e system. They fo u n d that areas ou t s i d e
Flore n c e along the strada Pisana a n d strada R o m a n a were
m u c h neglected. This o c c u r r e d to a large d e gree b e c a u s e
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the m a i n t e n a n c e of this s t r e t c h of
road was not c l e a r l y a s s i g n e d to one local c o m m u n i t y or

29
another. A l o n g the road to Pistoia, the c o m m u n i t y of
Ba c c a r e t o was no longer able to m a i n t a i n a tract of this
m a i n r o a d b e c a u s e their p o p u l a t i o n h ad d e c l i n e d so g r e a t l y . 30
H o w e v e r b r o a d the a u t h o r i t y and j u r i s d i c t i o n of the To w e r
Of ficials, the role of the local c o m m u n i t y was essential
for the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p u b l i c u t i l i t y policy.
On a m o r e regiona l scale, the Tower O f f icials w e r e also
active. Besides t r a n s p o r t a t i o n services they p a r t i c i p a t e d
28
See the d i s c u s s i o n in chapters 5 and 6.
^ A. S. F . , Q u a d e r n o , 142-143.
30 I b i d . , 159-160.
355
w i t h o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t offices in a t t e m p t s to re s t o r e a nd to
i n c r e a s e the c u l t i v a b l e land area of the P i s a n contado. The
b a l a n c e b e t w e e n arable and p a s t u r a g e lands a r o u n d P i s a was
a c o n t i n u i n g problem, and v arious g o v e r n m e n t o ffices w o n
the a u t h o r i t y from time to time to implement reclamation
projects and to improve the land of the area. The Sea
Consuls, the P i s a n O f fice of Rivers a nd Canals, the Tower
Officials, and o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s , all c o n t r i b u t e d to the
r e s t o r a t i o n and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m i n i t i a t e d in the
P is a n c o n t a d o d u r i n g the fi f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 21
T h e s e efforts illustrate well the d i v e r s e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f p u b l i c u t i l i t y services in the F l o r e n t i n e state. Juris
d i c t i o n d i v i d e d by area not only on the local level among
the p o p o l i and comuni but also on the r e g i o n a l level b e t w e e n
the P i s a n con t a d o and the F l o r e n t i n e c o n t a d o a nd distretto.
P i s a r e t a i n e d its own separate o f f i c e in the fie l d of p u b l i c
u t i l i t y s e r v i c e d u ring the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h centu-
r i e s - - t h e Office of Rivers and Canals. In the s i x t e e n t h
c e n t u r y Si e n a and Pis t o i a also h a d a s e p a r a t e o f f i c e for
p u b l i c u t i l i t y service s w i t h i n their d i s t r i c t jurisdic-
tions. C u r i o u s l y enough, Livorno, just sou t h of Pisa,
b e c a m e p a r t of the F lorentine con t a d o a nd s u b j e c t to the
Mallett, "Pisa and F l o r e n c e , " p p . 429-431.
22 A. S. F . , N o v e , 3596, i n t r o d u c t i o n ; A. S. F.,
A u d i t o r e R i f o r m a g i o n i , 118, 2-5.
356
direct j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the central offices of the F l o r e n
tine state.
Livorno is an o u t s t a n d i n g example of the u n e v e n n e s s
of the d i v e r s e c h a r a c t e r o f the F l o r e n t i n e state. Located
at the v e r y b o r d e r o f the state and s e p a r a t e d from the
F l o r e n t i n e c o n t a d o p h y s i c a l l y by the Pisan contado, Liv o r n o
still b e c a m e a p a r t o f the Flor e n t i n e c ontado j u r i s d i c t i o n -
ally. O t h e r areas of d i s t i n c t j u r i s d i c t i o n also d e m o n
s t rate the n o n - u n i t a r y c h a r a c t e r of the r e g i o n a l s t a t e
d u r i n g the f i f t e e n t h and six t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . 33
Even with this d i v e r s i t y there was a s u b s t a n t i a l
c o o r d i n a t i o n o f e fforts in the fif t e e n t h c e n t u r y to m a i n
tain a r e g i o n - w i d e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system. D u r i n g the s i x
teenth century the M e d i c e a n r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the g o v e r n
m e n t c o n s o l i d a t e d m u c h of this effort in the o f f i c e o f the
Parte a n d the Nove. The c l a r i f i c a t i o n of their r o l e a nd
their j u r i s d i c t i o n by area and by acti v i t y was a main issue
of the lat e r s i x t e e n t h and early s e v e n t e e n t h c enturies.
16th C e n t u r y J u r i s d i c t i o n : The Nove and the Parte
B o t h the Nove a nd Parte r e c e i v e d a w i d e jurisdiction
from previous departments i n c o r p o r a t e d to f o r m their own
offices. Sin c e the Par t e i n c o r p o r a t e d the off i c e s o f the
Tower O f f i c i a l s as w e l l as the Guelf Party, the p r e v i o u s
33 a . S. F . , N o v e , 3596, introduction; A. S. F . ,
A u d i t o r e R i f o r m a g i o n i , 118, 2-5; Guarini, Lo Stato M e d i c e o ,
p p . 62-72.
357
chapt e r s o u t l i n e d already m u c h o f the activity and a u t h o r
ity w h i c h p a s s e d to the Parte by the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of 1549,
and the role of the Parte n e e d n o t be repe a t e d here except
to m e n t i o n bri e f l y the Riv e r O f f i c i a l s , a sp e c i a l i z e d b r a n c h
of the Parte. The River O f f i c i a l s h e l d j u r i s d i c t i o n over
the rivers and roads of the F l o r e n t i n e state and were the
p u b l i c u t i l i t y service b r a n c h of the Parte Office. It was
o v e r the q u e s t i o n of p u b l i c u t i l i t y s ervice in local c o m
munities that the River Of f i c i a l s a n d the Parte found t h e m
selves in d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h the N o v e after 1559.24
This disa g r e e m e n t f o c u s e d a r o u n d the issue of j u r i s
d i c t i o n o v e r w a l l e d places and loc a l communities. As p a r t
of t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n over p u b l i c u t i l i t y service t h r o u g h
out the Flor e n t i n e state, the P a r t e h e l d the v i e w that their
authority exten d e d to include roads, bridges, walls, and
o t h e r u t i l i t y services withir local communities. On the
o t h e r s i d e o f the issue, the Nove, s u p p o r t e d the v i e w that
all p u b l i c u tility services w i t h i n local communities b e
l o n g e d to their office b e c a u s e o f their resp o n s i b i l i t y for
the g e n e r a l benefit as well as the finances of local c o m
mu n i t i e s . The Nove a d v o c a t e d that the Parte's j u r i s d i c t i o n
a p p l i e d only to the area out s i d e w a l l e d places and local
comm u n i t i e s . The r e s o l u t i o n of this issue mov e d far toward
24 Some of the m a i n issues o f the dispute b e t w e e n the

P a r t e a nd the Nove are fou n d in the following: A. S. F.,
N o v e , 3235; A. S. F . , Libro Luna, 319.
358
the gr a d u a l d e f i n i t i o n of a more co o r d i n a t e d s y s t e m of
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in the early m o dern F l orentine state and
e x e m p l i f i e d the c o m p l e x relationship b e t w e e n the ce n t r a l
gover n m e n t and local communities. V o l t e r r a and Pisa are
two i n s tances w h i c h indicate the kinds of issues a nd c o m
plexity p r e s e n t in the formation and d e f i n i t i o n of a
c o o r d i n a t e d r e g i o n a l admi n i s t r a t i o n d u r i n g the ea r l y m o d e r n
p e r i o d since b o t h places became r e l a t e d to the j u r i s d i c
tional d i f f e r n e c e s b e t w e e n the Parte and the N o v e . 35
As d i s c u s s e d earlier, the Nove i n c o r p o r a t e d the
offices o f the Otto and the Cinque in 1559.36 P r i o r to
this r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t g r a n t e d
the C i nque a n e w charter in 1551 as the result of a r e f o r m
of its office, and, subsequently, this c harter o f 1551
s e rved as the basis of much of the Nove's j u r i s d i c t i o n in
the c o n t a d o and d i s tretto of Florence after the r e f o r m of
1559.37 ^ r e v i e w of some of the articles of the 1551
charter w i l l h e l p establish the f r a mework w i t h i n w h i c h the
j u r i s d i c t i o n a l debate took place.
Like the Cinque, the Nove held the j u r i s d i c t i o n to
review a n d to approve the budgets of the local co m m u n i t i e s
7 C
See n o t e 31; A. S. F . , A u d i t o r e R i f o r m a g i o n i ,
118, 47.
36 T he reforms of 1559 are d i s c u s s e d in c h a p t e r 4.
37 a . S. F., N o v e , 3596, 1-43; A. S. F . , Auditore

R i f o r m a g i o n i , 118, 1-43.
359
of the F l o r e n t i n e state as well as to m a i n t a i n and to p r o
tect the rights and general interests of these m a n y c o m m u n i
ties, e x c e p t i n g some areas, for example, V o l t e r r a a nd Pisa.
W i t h i n this e n c o m p a s s i n g grant o f authority, the Nove h ad
s p e c i f i c a l l y e n u m e r a t e d powers to control s p e n d i n g for
p u b l i c u t i l i t y and u r b a n s e r vices, ranging from the b u i l d
ing and repairs of w a l l s , r o a d s , and b r i d g e s to the e m p l o y
m ent of teachers, p r e a c h e r s , doctors, and w a t c h guards.
These as w e l l as o t h e r d e s i g n a t e d p o wers m a d e it cle a r that
the Nove h e l d ex t e n s i v e c ontrol over local communities.
D u ring the later s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y this co n t r o l came to
include in some i m p ort ant ways those areas w h i c h w e r e
formerly o utside its i m m ediate jurisdiction. Again, like
its a u t h o r i t y in r e g a r d to u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , this
gradual e x t e n s i o n of a u t h o r i t y h a d its s o u r c e in the
Cinque c h a r t e r of 1 5 5 1 . 38
Article t h i r t y - s e v e n of this c h a r t e r r e f e r r e d to a
j u r i s d i c t i o n a l suit bro u g h t by th'e city g o v e r n m e n t of
V o l t e r r a alleg i n g that only the Otto and not the Cinque
had j u r i s d i c t i o n in V o l t e r r a a nd its s u b u r b s . 39 Even
though V o l t e r r a was one of the areas e x c e p t e d from the
direct j u r i s d i c t i o n of the Cinque, this e x c e p t i o n did
not cover all activities. A c c o r d i n g to article t h i r t y -
38 A. S. F . , N o v e , 3596, 1-43, particularly 10, 11, 13,

23, and 24.
39 I b i d . , 3 7 .
360
seven, the C i n q u e s a u t h o r i t y s t r e t c h e d over the p u b l i c
uti l i t y services w i t h i n the wal l s of V o l t e r r a a nd its
suburbs. A n o t h e r m a j o r a nd s i m i l a r issue e m e r g e d in
re gard to tax p r o b l e m s in the P i s a n contado.
A c c o r d i n g to a r t i c l e t h i r t y - e i g h t of the charter,
the Cinque e x e r c i s e d a l i m i t e d a u t h o r i t y in the P i s a n
contado since 1 5 4 1 . 40 B e f o r e that time and since, people
m o v e d in and out of the P i s a n co n t a d o so m u c h that m a k i n g
accur a t e tax a s s e s s m e n t s for the area h a d b e c o m e a problem.
Co m m u n i t y d i s p u t e d w i t h community about the a s s e s s m e n t s
made, and in d i v i d u a l s c h a l l e n g e d the levies a s s i g n e d to
t h e m by th e i r local comm u n i t i e s . One c o m p l a i n t s t a t e d
that there was p r a c t i c a l l y a dai l y need for n e w r e g u l a t i o n s
and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the tax laws and p rocedures. This
m i g r a t i o n and tax p r o b l e m e x c e e d e d the a u t h o r i t y a nd p o wers
of the t ax o f f icials o f the P i s a n contado. The F l o r e n t i n e
g o v e r n m e n t loc a t e d all tax d i s p u t e s among c o m m u n i t i e s or
b e t w e e n a c o m m u n i t y a nd an indiv i d u a l in this a r e a w i t h i n
the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the o f f i c e of the Cinque. T h o u g h P i s a
kept a separate office for p u b l i c u t i l i t y service, the
Officials of Rivers a nd Canals, a limited but i m p o r t a n t

t
part of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e h ad been t r a n s f e r r e d to the
Cinque and the c e n t r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the F l o r e n t i n e
40 A. S. F., Nove, 3596, 38.
361
g o v e r n m e n t . 41 In both situations, the areas o f Pisa and
V o l t e r r a were o utside the direct j u r i s d i c t i o n of the Cinque
and la t e r the Nove, b u t dif f e r e n t kinds of a c t i v i t y in each
p l a c e b r o u g h t the i n v o l v e m e n t of these two i m p ortant d e p a r t
ments of the central government.
However, it was in the field of p u b l i c u t i l i t y service
that the larger j u r i s d i c t i o n a l qu e s t i o n s w e r e r a i s e d b e t w e e n
the local communities a n d the de p a r t m e n t s o f the central
g o v e r n m e n t as well as b e t w e e n the d e p a r t m e n t s themselves.
B o t h the Nove and the Par t e implemented public utility
p olicy, but they d i s a g r e e d about the e x t e n t of their j u r i s
diction. A resc r i p t o f C o simo I d e s c r i b e d the p a v i n g of
the two m a i n m u n i c i p a l streets and the two p i a z z a s of the
s e a p o r t L ivorno by the N o v e in 1562. Si n c e this was a
b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m w i t h i n the b oundaries of Li v o r n o and
L iv o r n o was w i t h i n the c ontado of F l o rence, there did not
a p pear to be a p r o b l e m c o n c e r n i n g j u r i s d i c t i o n over the
area, and the approval of Cosimo I a l l o w e d the Nove to
p r o c e e d in the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y
without any c h a llenge f r o m the P a r t e . 4 ^ Later, a some
w h a t m o r e co m p l e x s i t u a t i o n dev e l o p e d at V o l terra.
B e t w e e n the late 1570s and the ear l y 1580s, there was
41 A. S. F . , Nove, 38; A. S. F . , A u d i t o r e Riformagioni,

118, 48-68.
4 ^ A. S. F . , N o v e , 3235, 10; A. S. F . , Auditore

R i f o r m a g i o n i , 118, 71-98.
362
a n e e d for m a j o r r e b u i l d i n g in and around Volterra. Walls
around the city b e g a n to cave in and give way. Officials
b l a m e d not so m u c h the age an d general d e c l i n e of the walls
but the m i n i n g an d q u a r r y i n g of the area a r o u n d the city.
The p r o g r a m of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n closed the n e a r b y q u a rries
and mines a n d r e b u i l t the w alls to a h e i g h t of ten b r a c c i a
or about twenty feet. There wer e many reasons for the r e
b u i l d i n g o f the wall. One m a i n reason i n c l u d e d the fact
that trade and t r a f f i c e s c a p e d paying tolls by p a s s i n g
through openings in the w alls rather than the c ity gates.
The Parte b e g a n the w o r k at the c o m m u n i t y s e x p e n s e . 43
Later, w a t e r and t r a f f i c problems in V o l t e r r a brought
the n e e d for a d d i t i o n a l repairs and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n programs.
V o l t e r r a was short of an a d e q u a t e public w a t e r supply since
the two m a i n fou n t a i n s of the city were no t w o r k i n g . 44 This
led to a p a r t i c u l a r l y serious p r o b l e m b e c a u s e V o l t e r r a was
a salt m i n i n g and traffic c e n t e r (for the m u l e t e a m s carrying
salt and o t h e r w a r e s to Florence. In addition, the drains
of the city f a i l e d to work, and the central piaz z a s of the
city w h e r e the salt was c o l l e c t e d and s t o r e d w a t e r l o g g e d
o f t e n . 43 But w a t e r was not the only problem. This area

i
43 A. S. F . , N o v e , 3235, 13.
44 Ibid.
45 I b i d . , 14.
363
o f the city was also the ga t h e r i n g point for the m u l e t e e r s
and their teams, and som e t i m e s more than two h u n d r e d mul e s
h e r d e d there at one time. The water, waste, and smell was
m o r e than a n u i s n a c e or mi n i m a l problem. One p r o p o s e d s o
lu t i o n called for g a t e d areas to p revent the mules from
w a n d e r i n g about the city, an enlarg e m e n t of the p i a z z a s
to handle the business o f the central city, a new drainage
s y s t e m to allow an o u t l e t for the water, and an e x p a n d e d
p u b l i c wa t e r supply to m e e t the needs of the city.
V o l t e r r a was r e s p o n s i b l e for the expense of the r e c o n s t r u c
t i o n programs. The two r e b u i l d i n g programs occurred within
the boundaries o f V o l t e r r a and the Nove s u p e r v i s e d the
a c t i v i t i e s .4 ^
These as w e l l as o t h e r examples delineate the b a s i c
areas of j u r i s d i c t i o n b e t w e e n the Nove and the P a r t e . 47
The Nove h e l d j u r i s d i c t i o n w i t h i n a w a lled place or c o m
m u n i t y wh i l e the Parte e x e r c i s e d ,their j u r i s d i c t i o n a r o u n d
and outside a w a l l e d p l a c e or community. However, this was
n o t formally r e c o g n i z e d by the N o v e and the Parte u n t i l
1617, w h e n a m e e t i n g o f o f f icials from these two o ffices
d r a f t e d and a c c e p t e d an a c c o r d on their r e s p e c t i v e juris-
dic t i o n made by both o f f i c e s and su p p o r t e d by examples
46 A. S. F . , N o v e , 3235, 14.
47 A. S. F., Libro Luna, 319; A. S. F . , Nove, 3235, 1,

8, 12, 35.
364
f rom the past. 48
A f t e r each side's case was presented, the 1617 a c c o r d
c o n c l u d e d w i t h a defin i t e s t a t e m e n t about the j u r i s d i c t i o n
o f each office. The a g r e e m e n t p r o c l a i m e d d i r e c t l y a nd
c l e a r l y that the Nove h a d full j u r i s d i c t i o n inside the
boundaries of local c o m m u n i t i e s and that the Parte h a d
j u r i s d i c t i o n outside such boundaries. Each o f f i c e a g r e e d
to a c k n o w l e d g e and to r e s p e c t the terms and p u r p o s e s of
the accord. Each office also a g r e e d to make the a c c o r d
public in order to a s s u r e that all members of the r e s p e c
tive of f i c e s as well as a n y o n e else c o n s e r n e d w o u l d be
aware o f and r e s p o n s i b l e f or a d h e r i n g to the a g r e e m e n t
r e a c h e d . 49.
J u r i s d i c t i o n a l c o n f u s i o n and disputes d id n ot end
entirely in 1617 for the r e g i o n a l state. Yet government
departments formed on the r e g i o n a l scale at m i d - c e n t u r y
w e r e m o v i n g t o ward a n e w p h a s e of a cle a r e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f roles by the end of the s i x t e e n t h century a nd the b e g i n
n i n g of the se v e n t e e n t h sentury. The early m o d e r n F l o r e n
tine s t a t e r e m a i n e d a c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n of parts to a whole,
but it d i d so in a m o r e c o o r d i n a t e d w ay as a r e s u l t o f two
c e n t u r i e s o f m a j o r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and change.
48 A. S. F., N o v e , 3235, 150ff.
49 Ibid.
365
C H A P T E R 9: U R B A N I Z A T I O N AN D THE N A T U R A L
ENVIRONMENT
Past r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the built c u l t u r a l landscape
a n d the u n b u i l t n a t u r a l l a n d s c a p e as well as the u n d e r s t a n d
ing of this r e l a t i o n s h i p b y e a r l i e r c i v i l i z a t i o n s has d r a w n
more attention recently from historians of European civil
iz a t i o n . ^ This are a of r e s e a r c h opens a wide f i e l d of q u e s
t ions and issues for e x p l o ration. Only a b r i e f j o u r n e y to a
p a r t of this f i e l d takes p l a c e here, namely, the a t t e m p t to
u n d e r s t a n d some d i m e n s i o n s o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n u r
b a n i z a t i o n and the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t du r i n g the e a r l y m o
d e r n p e r i o d or, m ore g e n e r a l l y , the ecol o g y of the era. The
m e e t i n g - p l a c e of the c u l t u r a l and natu r a l l a n d s c a p e s plays a
distinctive role in s h a p i n g the p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t or
habitat of each c i v i l i z a t i o n du r i n g dif f e r e n t p e r i o d s of h i s
tory.
The c o o r d i n a t i o n o f m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s w i t h i n and b e t w e e n
u r b a n areas was one for m of e x p r e s s i o n of the e a r l y m o d e r n
u r b a n i z a t i o n process. A n o t h e r m a y be seen in the forest and
1 R i c h a r d C. Trexler, M e a s u r e s Agai n s t W a t e r P o l l u t i o n
in F i f t e e n t h Century F l o r e n c e , " Viator: M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s -
s ance Studies 5(1974): no. 455-467 ; Lynn White, Jr., M achina' Ex
Deo: Essays in the D y n a m i s m of W e s t e r n Cult u r e ( C a m b r i d g e :
The M I T Press, 1968), p p . 1 - 1 8 1 , p a r t i c u l a r l y c h a p t e r 5, "The
H i s t o r i c a l Roots of Ou r E c o l o g i c Crisi s , " pp. 7 5-94; Herlihy,
M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e P i s t o i a , chapter 2, "The Land and
Its R e s o u r c e s , " p p . 34-54; an d "Santa M a r i a I m p r u e n t a , " in
F l o r e n t i n e S t u d i e s , p p . 242-276.
366
t i mber l e g i s l a t i o n of the latter p a r t of the s i x t e e n t h c e n
tury and the sense of u n d e r s t a n d i n g and the r e s p o n s e of the
Fl o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t t o w a r d the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the
u r b a n and na t u r a l e n v ironments. Since w o o d was the m a i n
and, for all p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , the o n l y fuel s o u r c e for
n e a r l y all h e a t i n g p u r p o s e s as well as a key b u i l d i n g m a t e r
ial for just about e v e r y t h i n g from bridges to ships to w a g
ons and houses, legislation in this area r e c o g n i z e d a vital
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the u r b a n and na t u r a l environ
ments. 2 it is this i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p and the u n d e r s t a n d i n g
w h i c h .formed the l e g i s l a t i o n a t t e m p t i n g to r e g u l a t e this
interrelationship which is the focus of d i s c u s s i o n of this
chapter.
B e g i n n i n g w i t h the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y and c o n t i n u i n g
th r o u g h the s i x t e e n t h centu r y , there is c o n s i d e r a b l e evi
dence to su g g e s t that the F l o r e n t i n e government b e c a m e in
c r e a s i n g l y aware of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of one p a r t of the
e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h a n o t h e r a nd the n e e d for some k i n d of l o n g
e r - t e r m p l a n n i n g to p r o v i d e for food, fuel, and b u i l d i n g
s upplies to s u s t a i n the City of F l o r e n c e and a c o n s i d e r
ably u r b a n i z e d regional state.3 Population growth between
the latter fifteenth c e n t u r y and the early s e v e n t e e n t h cen-
2
See entries ci t e d ea r l i e r f r o m the records o f the
T o w e r O f ficials; Also: F r e d e r i c C. Lane, V e n e t i a n Ships
and S h i p b u i l d e r s of the R e n a i s s a n c e ( B a l t i m o r e : The John
H op k i n s U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1934), c h a p t e r 12, "The T i m b e r S u p
p l i e s , " p p . 217-233.
3 See the d i s c u s s i o n that follows.
367
tury, the c h a n g i n g e c o nomic and p o l i t i c a l conditions o f the
early m o d e r n period, and the i n creased i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of
an u r b a n i z e d state, all o f these c o n t r i b u t e d to the forma
tion of a f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g p l a n n i n g p e r s p e c t i v e to m e e t n e w
needs.
L e g i s l a t i o n to p r o t e c t w ater f r o m p o l l u t i o n for h e a l t h
and indus t r i a l p u r poses, to prot e c t fish as a source of food
supply, and to c o n s e r v e forests and t i m b e r as the m a i n s o u r
ces o f fuel and b u i l d i n g needs spoke c l e a r l y of a g r o w i n g
awareness of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n one p a r t of the
natural e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h another and the interrelationship

4
b e t w e e n the city and countryside. T h o u g h e c onomics was
o ften the so u r c e and m o t i v a t i o n for n e w c o n s e r v a t i o n and
anti-pollution legislation, the c o m p l e x i t y of F l o r e n t i n e u r
ban s o c i e t y d u r i n g the early m o d e r n era also e v e n t u a l l y led
to the taking of the first steps t o w a r d a n e w e r an d fuller
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of envir o n m e n t a l relationships. It wa s more
and m o r e r e c o g n i z e d that what e n t e r e d the waters u p s t r e a m ha d
consequences downstream, that what h a p p e n e d on the m o u n t a i n s
a f f e c t e d the v a l l e y s and plains, and that w h a t influenced
the foo d and fuel supply related d i r e c t l y to the w e l f a r e of
the u r b a n environment. This c h a n g i n g p e r c e p t i o n of the re-
^ There are volumes of reports w r i t t e n by tree off i c i a l s

who l i t e r a l l y c o u n t e d the trees in t heir dis t r i c t s to d e t e r
mine if any w e r e cut illegally. The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of forest
l e g i s l a t i o n is a topic yet to be s t u d i e d b ased on t h e s e r e p
orts as well as the e n v i ronmental issues to be c onsidered.
See: A.S.F., Capitani P a r t e , Humeri Neri, sezione 5, Boschi
e Selve.
368
lationship b e t w e e n h u m a n k i n d and the n a t u r a l e nvironment
was in the process of m o v i n g slowly t o w a r d a n e w k i n d of
understanding.
One r e cent study of f i f teenth c e n t u r y Flore n t i n e w a t e r
and fish l e g i s l a t i o n describes the d e v e l o p m e n t of a fuller
r e a l i z a t i o n of ecological r e l a t i o n s h i p s t a k i n g form during
this p e r i o d . ^ Fish made up a large part of the Flor e n t i n e
diet, and the c o n s e r v a t i o n of the fish and their n atural
habitat r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y to the food s u pply of the city.
B etween 1420 and 1485 the Flore n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t p a s s e d laws
to forbid the use of poisons of var i o u s kinds to c a t c h a
haul of fish. Fishers d u m p e d toxic agents, such as, lime
and n u t shell, in m o u n t a i n streams and rivers in order to net
schools of fish. The Florentine g o v e r n m e n t e v e n t u a l l y r e a l
ized the cons e q u e n c e s of these practices. Since the p o i s o n
was u s e d u p s t r e a m f r o m Florence in the m o u n t a i n areas
usually and at the time the fish w e r e procr e a t i n g , the
practice d e s t r o y e d the older and ,y o u n g e r f i s h as well as the
eggs. The result was a decline of the fish p o p u l a t i o n and a
food p r o b l e m for the City of Florence.^
B e fore 1450, the Florentine g o v e r n m e n t d r a f t e d l e g i s l a
tion to limit p o l l u t i o n practices in some b ut not all o f the
streams and rivers of the state. However, they b e g a n to r e a l
ize that the use of p o i s o n in one w a t e r w a y cou l d travel d i s
5 Trexler, "Measures Against W a t e r P o l l u t i o n , " p p . 455-467.
6 Ibid., p p . 461-463.
369
tances far from the p l a c e of its o r i g i n a l use. A f t e r 1450,
this r e a l i z a t i o n o f the s p r e a d of p o l l u t i o n led to the a d o p
tion o f n e a r l y s t a tewide a n t i p o l l u t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n . 7 Though
the m o t i v a t i o n r e m a i n e d m o r e e c o n o m i c t h a n ecological, namely,
to s u p p l y the city of F l o r e n c e w i t h an a b u n d a n c e of fish, the
r e c o g n i t i o n by the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t o f the w i d e - s p r e a d
negative effects of p o l l u t i o n as well as a st a t e w i d e rather
than local e n f o r cement p r o c e d u r e m o v e d t h e m a little c l oser
to an e c o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p o l l u t i o n problem.
L e g i s l a t i o n o f the s i x t e e n t h centu r y , howev e r , in d i c a t e d
that the d e s t r u c t i o n of schools o f f i s h w as still an u n s o l v e d
problem. The Flore n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t f o r b a d e the use of nets
and o t h e r devices for c a t c h i n g fish w h i c h t r a p p e d the older
and y o u n g e r fish together, thereby p r e v e n t i n g the n atural
cycles of reproduction from o c c u r r i n g . * * This legislation
t h e y r e p e a t e d d u r i n g the s i x t e e n t h century, w h i c h suggests
the c o n t i n u a n c e of the problem. Even as late as 1594 l e g
is l a t i o n tried to pro t e c t the fish o f the A r n o River. At
this time, the use of nets of any sort, e s p e c i a l l y those
w h i c h w e r e so t ightly s t i t c h e d to ca t c h the y o u n g and little
fish, the g o vernment p r o h i b i t e d f r o m u s e in the Arno during
the t i m e from June 1 to A u gust 21 each year. The River
Officials e x e r c i s e d j u r i s d i c t i o n over this p r o b l e m and the
e n f o r c e m e n t of this legislation. The g o v e r n m e n t ' s continued
7 Trexler, "Measures Ag a i n s t W a t e r P o l l u t i o n , " p p . 465-467.
8 C a n t i n i , L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 2, p . 170, vol. 12, p . 316.
370
effort to p r o t e c t the f i s h of the A r n o and o ther rivers
r e f l e c t e d the attempt to i m p l e m e n t p a r t i c u l a r l y i m portant
environmental regula t i o n s d u r i n g the food sho r t a g e s of the
1590s.9
T h o u g h e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m c o n t i n u e d in the water
w ays o f the F l o r e n t i n e state d u r i n g the early m o d e r n period,
the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t did express a n e w c o n c e r n and d e v
elop a w i d e r v i e w of the e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues. Economic
c i r c u m s t a n c e s m o t i v a t e d m u c h of this c o n c e r n to m a i n t a i n
clean waterways an d an a b u n d a n c e o f fish, but this p u r p o s e
c ould n o t be f u l f i l l e d w i t h o u t als o c o n s i d e r i n g w h a t r e a l l y
c o n t r i b u t e d to the l o n g e r - t e r m p u b l i c b e n e f i t of the city
of F l o r e n c e and the r e g i o n a l state. This long-term view
of the p u b l i c b e n e f i t of s o u n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r a c t i c e s is
v e r y a p p a r e n t not only in the e x p l i c i t c o n c e r n of the F l o r e n
tine g o v e r n m e n t for the food but als o for the fuel and b u i l d
ing s u p p l y o f the city and state.

I
For e s t and timber l e g i s l a t i o n o f the sixteenthcentury
s k e t c h the r e s o u r c e and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o blems then d e v e l o p
ing as a r e s u l t of d e f o r e s t a t i o n an d grea t e r p r e s s u r e on the
natural e n v i r o n m e n t due to p o p u l a t i o n growth and c u l t u r a l
changes.The r e s p o n s e of the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t to m e e t
these p r o b l e m s was another s i g n o f the u r b a n i z a t i o n of the
e a r l y m o d e r n r e g ional state. In a g r i c u l t u r e or n o n u r b a n
9 Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 14, p p . 76-77.
1-9 Guarini, Lo Stato M e d i c e o , p p . 6-7.
371
societies p e o p l e m i g r a t e w h e n the n a t u r a l e n v i r onment is
overused, but in an u r b a n s o c i e t y cities c a nnot be moved
w h e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems occur. For an u r b a n society
to m a i n t a i n its u r b a n c i v i l i z a t i o n in these circumstances,
an a l t e r n a t i v e respo n s e to m i g r a t i o n nee d s to be found.
Since fish, trees, a nd the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t as a whole
requires t i m e to r e n e w and to r eproduce, a longer-term
p l a n n i n g p e r s p e c t i v e is one ele m e n t of a p r o d u c t i v e rela
tion s h i p b e t w e e n the u r b a n and n a t u r a l environments. Though
limited, the F l o r e n t i n e gove r n m e n t ' s at t e m p t to achieve such,
a r e l a t i o n s h i p was an e x p r e s s i o n of the n e e d for a longer-
t e r m p l a n n i n g p e r s p e c t i v e inherent in the u r b a n c h a racter of
early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e civilization.
Forest and T i m b e r Legislation: 1551-1581
L e g i s l a t i o n r e g u l a t i n g the use of forests and timber
d u r i n g the l a t t e r part of the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a pplied to

I
p r i v a t e and p u b l i c property. Some laws p r o t e c t e d private
p r o p e r t y in s p e c i f i e d areas of the state w h i l e other laws
dealt m o r e w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues on a regional scale.
B oth types o f law a p p e a r e d d u r i n g the 1550s.
In 1551 the Flor e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t p u b l i s h e d a law to
forbid the c u t t i n g by non-owners or the r o b b i n g of any t i m
b er lo c a t e d on p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y w i t h i n the radius of twenty-
two miles o f the city of Florence. Nor was any p e rson
a l l o w e d to b u y or accept w o o d for b u r n i n g or any other kind
372
of t i m b e r u n less the individual d e m o n s t r a t e d title of o w n e r
ship.*1 W i t h i n three days f r o m the time they h a d news of
any off e n s e aga i n s t this law, local o f f i c i a l s were to r e port
all offenses to the Otto di G u a r d i a in F l o r e n c e - - t h e crimi n a l
justice d e p a r t m e n t o f the M e d i c e a n Principate. Similar
provi s i o n s of the 1551 law w e r e r e i t e r a t e d in a 1562 law.
In the 1562 law, howe v e r , they added that the local off i c i a l s
of the p o p o l i and c o muni must r e peat or r e p u b l i s h this law
each year. The m a i n pu r p o s e of the 1551 l aw and its later
r e p e t i t i o n in 1562 was to p r o t e c t p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y f r o m
damage and theft, but there was no d i s c u s s i o n of e n v i r o n m e n
tal issues or p r o b l e m s as s u c h . *2 By the end of the d e c a d e
of the 1550s, h o w e v e r , l e g i s l a t i o n b e g a n to discuss explicit
ly a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e of e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e l a t i onships.
Three pieces of legislation, one in 1559, and two in
1569, t r a c e d one of the m a i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l probl e m s b e f o r e

13
the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t and the a p p r o a c h t a k e n to m e e t it.
The u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p r o b l e m ) i s put l u c i d l y in a p r e
fatory comment to the specific p r o v i s i o n s of the law of 1559.
11 Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 2, p p . 246-247.
12
Ibid., v o l . 4, p p . 420-421. For a d i s c u s s i o n of general
issues that e m e r g e d c o n c e r n i n g the p r i v a t e and p u blic u se of
forests see: Lane, V e n e t i a n Ships and S h i p b u i l d i n g , p p . 220-
224; Charles P e t i t - D u t a i l l i s a nd Georges Lefebvre / Studies
and Notes S u p p l e m e n t a r y to Stubbs' C o n s t i t u t i o n a l H i s t o r y
T H e w York: Barnes and Noble, 1968 , 1930} , ch a p t e r 13, "The
Forest," p p . 147-251, p a r t i c u l a r l y p p . 239-251,
13
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 3, p p . 328-330; v o l . 7, p . 105.
373
The m o s t i llustrious and e x c ellent lord,
the Duke o f Flore n c e and Siena, h a v i n g by
e x p e r i e n c e kno w n h o w m u c h damage there is
in the m o u n t a i n o u s regions b e c a u s e the trees
are cut and the m o u n t a i n summits are d e p r i v
ed of the c l o t h i n g w h i c h nature has given
them, a nd by b e i n g cut and w o r k e d for such a
long time before now, the rains finding n o
thing to h o l d them h a v e w a s h e d over and d e v
astated the lands, the hills of the valleys,
and the plains, and the floods h a v e b rought
infinite ruin and damage to the inhabitants;
and his m o s t il l u s t r i o u s e x c e l l e n c y w a n t i n g
for the b e n e f i t of the subjects and the c i t
izens to p r e v e n t by ap p r o p r i a t e r e m e d y such
disor d e r s , t o g e t h e r w i t h his m a g n i f i c e n t
counc i l l o r s , the fo l l o w i n g does provide,
d e l i b e r a t e , and o r d a i n . -4
This b r o a d r e a d i n g of e n v i r o n m e n t a l interrelationships led
to one p r o h i b i i t o n on c u t t i n g any trees or s a p l i n g s at or
ne a r the sum m i t s of m o u n t a i n s in a v e r y wide g e o g r a p h i c a l
area of the state. Also, the lav/ a p p l i e d to e v e r y o n e
t h r o u g h o u t the state rega r d l e s s of r a n k or p r i v i l e g e . In
addition, it o b l i g e d the local g o v e r n i n g officials w i t h i n
the areas m e n t i o n e d in the law to r e v i e w at least once d u r
ing the t e nure of their office the m o u n t a i n d i s t r i c t s of
14
Ibid., 3, 328. "L ' i l l u s t r i m o e E c c e l l e n t i s s . S i g
nore, il S i g n o r Duco di Firenze, e di Siena, h a v e n d o per is-
p e r e n t i a c o n o s c i u t o q u a n t o sia d annoso che n e l l ' A l p i , e
luoghi m o n t u o s i si taglino li arbori, e si spogli la som-
m i t a de mo n i t di quel v e s t i m e n t o che la n a t u r a gli h a dato,
e per essersi d a qualche tempo in qua addebbiati, arroncati,
e lavorate, le p i o g g e n o n trovando ri t e g n o hanno di lavato,
e devastato le terre, e i colli delle valli, e de piani, e
li Tore n n t i h a n n o m a n d a t o e fatto infinite rovine e danni
alii h a b i t a t o r i e vol e n d o S ua E c c e l l e n t i a I l l u s t r i s s i m a
p e r b e n e f i c i o de sudditi con o p p ortuno rimedio o b v i a r e a
tanto d i s o r d i n e impero Ella insieme con li suoi M a g n i f i c i
Co n s i g l i e r i n e 1 ' i n f r a s c r i t t o modo provisto, d e l i b e r a t o ,
e ordin a t o . "
374
their j u r i s d i c t i o n to d e t e r m i n e if a n y v i o l a t i o n s of the
l aw h a d occured. A l o n g w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n , the laws
of 1569 p r o m u l g a t e d the same b a s i c p u r p o s e a n d d i r e c t i o n
of the 1559 l a w . 15 .
One m o d i f i c a t i o n dealt w i t h the issue o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
for those w h o bro k e the law. A c c o r d i n g to the 1559 law,
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the la w b r e a k e r s i n c l u d e d "fa t h e r for
you n g son, u n c l e for nephew, e m p l o y e r for w o r k e r a nd s e r
vant, a nd w h e r e the v i o l a t o r is not k n o w n the local c o m m u n
ity w i t h i n w h i c h the v i o l a t i o n o c c u r e d is r e s p o n s i b l e for
the m o n e y fine. " - ^ Since the m o n e y fine w as a s u b s t antial
amount and also since m a n y p e o p l e w h o were n ot f r o m the
local co m m u n i t i e s t r a v e l l e d thr o u g h the m o u n t a i n districts
and cou l d c o mmit v i o l a t i o n s for w h i c h the local c o m m u nities
w o u l d be resp o n s i b l e , this l aw h e a p e d a h e a v y b u r d e n on the
local communities. Complaints were soon heard. New legis
lation in 1566 r e d u c e d to orie-eighth its o r i g i n a l fee the

I
fine e s t a b l i s h e d b y the 1559 law for w h i c h local co m m u n i t i e s
could b e come r e s p o n s i b l e . ^
This dealt w i t h the m o n e y side of the issue. However,
there r e m a i n e d grounds for c riticism, and b y the law of 1569
1^ Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 7, p . 96.
16 I b i d . , vol. 3, p . 328.
17 Ibid., vol. 6, p p . 20-21; Also: P e t i t - D u t a i l l i s and

Lefebvre, Studies and Notes, p p . 196-198, 199-204, 209-213.
375
1 ft
local c o m m u n i t i e s a c h i e v e d a further r e d r e s s of grievance.
The m a j o r c o m p l a i n t p r o t e s t e d that local o f f i c i a l s w e r e a p
p l y i n g fines for e v e r y shrub cut and that t h e s e cuts w e r e
not m a d e b y p e o p l e o f the local c o m m u n i t i e s b ut b y shep-^
herds, bandits, and ot h e r trave l l e r s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h the
area. As a result, the local c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e s u f f e r i n g
for ano t h e r ' s offense. The r e medy s o u g h t a l l o w e d local
co m m u n i t i e s and idividuals to appeal the fines a nd c o n d e m
n a t i o n s m a d e b y local officials in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the
Otto di G u a r d i a to the office of the Nove w h i c h h a d j u r i s
d i c t i o n o v e r the gen e r a l interests and b e n e f i t s of local
communities. Ne v e r t h e l e s s , this right to a p p e a l to the Nove
w i t h i n ten days any charge m a d e u n d e r the terms of the above
laws was a s h o r t l i v e d gain, since in 1576 a n o t h e r law p r o
h i b i t e d any p r i v a t e p e r s o n a p p ealing a v e r d i c t once rendered
b y the Otto di G u a r d i a . 19 The b r o a d scope of the 1559 and
1569 laws, the j u r i s d i c t i o n a l q u e s t i o n raised, and the

I
g r ievances of p r i v a t e persons and local c o m m u n i t i e s s i g n a l l e d
the d i v e r s e e ffects issuing f r o m the a t t e m p t to r e g u l a t e
m o r e w i d e l y the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the c u l t u r a l and n a t
ural landscapes.
Paralleling the importance and scope o f the legislation
between 1559 a nd 1569 was l e g i s l a t i o n p a s s e d in 1574 and
1 See n o t e 15 and the P e t i t - D u t a i l l i s and L e f e b v r e

ent r y in n o t e 17.
376
1 5 7 5 . 20 Since t i mber was u s e d for b u i l d i n g as w e l l as fuel
purposes, the l e g i s l a t i o n of 1574 and 1575 m a d e cl e a r the
effort to conse r v e this v a l u a b l e reso u r c e u s e d for so
many purposes.
In 1574, a g o v e r n m e n t p r o c l a m a t i o n for b a d e the d e s t r u c
tion of chest n u t trees t h r o u g h o u t the state unless a special
license w e r e obtained. The p r o c l a m a t i o n c i t e d the area
where the p r o b l e m h a d b e c o m e m o s t se v e r e - - t h e V i c a r i a t i di
San Giovanni and S c a r p e r i a in the m o u n t a i n areas to the
nor t h of F l o r e n c e . C h e s t n u t trees were a valuable re
source for m a n y reasons, i n c l u d i n g their use in b u i l d i n g
p a l isades and other w a t e r con t r o l devices to p r e v e n t flood
ing. This was only one p i e c e of l e g i s l a t i o n among various
others d i r e c t e d t o w a r d the c o n s e r v a t i o n of t i m b e r as a
precious and scarce r e s o u r c e . 22 The River O f f i c i a l s exer
cised j u r i s d i c t i o n over the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of this law and
p l a y e d generally, a s i g n i f i c a n t role in t i mber conservation.

*
A n e a r l i e r law of 1574 g r a n t e d the Ri v e r Of f i c i a l s a
b ro a d jurisdiction. 23 Included in the already m e n t i o n e d
important l e g i s l a t i o n of 1574 w h i c h de f i n e d the j u r i s d i c
tion of the River O f f icials in r e gard to the rivers of the
2 Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 8, p p . 177-178, 241-254.
21 I b i d . , vol. 8, p . 177.
22
See later entries c i t e d in the d i s c u s s i o n of wood
as a fuel source.
2 ^ Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , vol. 8, p p . 127-133.
F l o r e n t i n e S t a t e was j u r i s d i c t i o n and a u t h o r i t y over the
tress along the b anks o f the Arno and B i s e n z i o Rivers. "To
ensure an a b u n d a n c e of timber for the i n h a b i t a n t s of the
c o u n t r y s i d e , " the l e g i s l a t i o n of 1574 e l i m i n a t e d the c u t
t i n g of any trees w i t h i n one mile of e i t h e r side of the
banks of the A r n o w i t h i n a stretch of the r i v e r from five
miles east of the cit y o f Florence to a bout t w e l v e miles
w e s t of the c ity un l e s s the River O f f i c i a l s is s u e d a l i
cense for s u c h a purpose. A simi l a r p r o v i s i o n a p p l i e d to
the B i s e n z i o R i v e r b e t w e e n Florence a n d Prato, except the
d i s tance was e s t a b l i s h e d at one-half m i l e f r o m the banks
of the r i v e r . ^
Local o f f i c i a l s w e r e to conduct m o n t h l y reviews to d e
termine if an y trees w e r e cut with o u t license, and all such
licenses w e r e to be kept in a r e g istry m a i n t a i n e d by the
o ffice .of the R i v e r Officials. Eve n w h e n local officials
f ound no da m a g e to trees on their m o n t h l y review, they still
h a d to submit a w r i t t e n report of local c o n d i t i o n s every six
months to the office of the River Officials. Moreover,
even w h e n a l i c e n s e was granted to allow t r e e - c u t t i n g a
t w o - f o r - o n e rule o p e r a t e d - - f o r every tree cut two more had

25
to be p l a n t e d by the p e r s o n licensed to m a k e the cut.
2^ Cnatini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 8, p . 132.
25 a. S. F . , C a p itani P a r t e , Numeri N e r i , Rapporti degl

Alberi, 1771 (1 5 8 5 - 8 6 ) t 122. In this r e p o r t Antonio di
N i c c h o l o G h indassi, d i r e c t o r of the p o p o l o di San Piero
Gattolini, m a d e the r e q u i r e d tree survey or c o d o s t e r in his
d i s t r i c t and f i l e d a report on 26 F e b r u a r y 1585. In this
378
T hese p r o v i s i o n s of the 1574 law e m e r g e d a g a i n in the
law of 1581. Yet in 1587 the n o n - t r e e c u t t i n g zones estab
lished a long b o t h banks of the Arno an d B i s e n z i o Rivers con
t r a c t e d from a m i l e and a h a l f - m i l e to s e v e n t y and twenty-

26
f ive b r a c c i a respectively. One r e a s o n for this tremen
dous r e d u c t i o n a p p eared in the legislation. The trees were
n o t only a v a l u a b l e resou r c e but also a p r o t e c t i o n for the
lands a l o n g s i d e the river. T h e y f i r m e d the e a r t h ar o u n d
their roots and thereby p r e v e n t e d erosion. Th e l e g i s l a t i o n
a r g u e d that a w i d e c o n s e r v a t i o n b elt w a s not n e c e s s a r y to
s erve this prupose. By lifting the e a r l i e r d i s t a n c e res
t r iction, p r o p e r t y owners no w h a d the legal use of their
property more at their own d i s c r e t i o n and tried to secure
for thems e l v e s the "abu n d a n c e of w o o d " s t a t e d as one of the
objectives o f the 1574 legislation, b u t the n e e d for timber
o f t e n e x c e e d e d local and individual supplies. Legislation
a f t e r 1574 a d d r e s s e d m o r e p u r p o s e f u l l y and b r o a d l y the is
sue of "an a b u n d a n c e of w o o d " and the n e e d for a timber con
s e r v a t i o n policy.
The i n t r o d u c t i o n to the law of 29 N o v e m b e r 1575 presen-
r eport he s t a t e d he saw all the trees in his d i s t r i c t and

f o u n d the n u m b e r to be 234 for the m o n a s t e r y of Santa Fil-
isc i t a and 75 for the commune of Florence. He lists the
total n u m b e r of trees in his d i s t r i c t as 309 small and
large trees, and stated that in his d i s t r i c t no small or
large tree can be seen to be cut. See also: Cantini,
L e g i s l a z i o n e . v o l . 8, p . 132: Lane, V e n e t i a n Ships and S h i p
b u i l d e r s , p p . 221-224.
O/T
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e . v o l . 12, p . 57.
379
ted a conscious r e c o g n i t i o n of the role o f w o o d as a fuel
source.
The m o s t s e r e n e G r a n d d u k e of Tuscany, h a v i n g
c o n s i d e r e d h o w i m p o r t a n t timbers for b u r n i n g are
for h u m a n use and e n d e a v o r i n g by e v e r y o p p o r t u n e
remedy to r e n d e r s u c h as abundant as p o s s i b l e
for the c i t y o f Florence, and likew i s e to p r e
vent b o t h the o r d i n a r y damages w h i c h are m a d e
in the forests a nd s i m i l a r places full of t i m
ber as w e l l as the gr e e d of owners w h o cut the
said forests b e f o r e they are grown to ma t u r i t y ,
h e toge t h e r w i t h the m o s t m a g n i f i c e n t c o u n c i l l o r
of the F l o r e n t i n e R e p u b l i c m o v e d by the abo v e said
and o t h e r - j u s t causes deli b e r a t e and o r d a i n as
f o l l o w s .27
This far-reaching l e g i s l a t i v e e n a ctment i n c l u d e d s e v e n m a j o r
provisions. The fi r s t four dealt w i t h areas w i t h i n a wide

28
radius of Florence.
To b e g i n with, the above law r e q u i r e d that all w o o d
carriers h a u l i n g w o o d for b u r n i n g b e t w e e n the b r i d g e at the
Era River and F l o r e n c e and w i t h i n four m i l e s e i ther side of
the Arno River t r a n s p o r t their load of w o o d to F l o r e n c e and
to no other place, for example, Pisa. Secondly, a l o n g list
27
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 8, p p . 241-242. Consider-
ando il Sereniss. G r a n Duca di Tos c a n a di q u a n t a i m p o r t a n z a
sieno a l l uso h u m a n o i legnami da ardere. Et v o l e n d o sua Al-
tezza con ogni o p p o r t u n o rim e d i o r endere p i u a b o n d a n t e , che
sia p o s s i b i l e la sua c i t t a di Fiorenza, e o v v i a r e alii danni
che o r d i n a r i a m e n t e si fanno n e l l e selve e l u o g h i cop i o s i di
simili legnami come anco alia i ngordiagia e a v i d i t a del gua-
dagno, che causa, c h e li p r opri padroni tagli o n i det t e selve
innanzi, che sie n o in perfetione. Ella i nsieme c o n li m o l t o
Me g n i f i c i e C l a r i s s i m i Consiglieri n e l l a R e p u b l i c a F i o r e n t i n a
m o s s a dalle s o p r a d d e t t e e altre giuste c a g i o n i ha d e l i b e r a t o
e ordinato q u a n t o a p p r e s s o cioe.
28
For a gen e r a l l i s t i n g of the areas a r o u n d F l o r e n c e
see: Repetti, D i z i o n a r i o , v o l . 2, pp;281-283.
380
o f p o d e s t e r i e and v i c a r i a t i w i t h i n a t w e n t y mile radius of
F lorence cou l d no l o nger turn w o o d l a n d s into p a s t u r e s and
farms wi t h o u t the e x p l i c i t approval o f the Nove. Thirdly,
a p r o c l a m a t i o n o f the N o v e of 30 M a y 1571 p r o h i b i t i n g the
ke e p i n g o f goats w i t H i n a radius o f f o u r t e e n miles o f the
city remained in full e f fect in o r d e r to lesson as m u c h as
possi b l e the damage to w o o d l a n d s in the area. Fourthly,
the law read that no one was a l l o w e d to cut any k i n d of
w o o d for b u r n i n g on p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y or to buy or to accept
s uch w o o d unless the t r a n s a c t i o n was p r o p e r l y a p p r o v e d by
the owners of the property.
Focus on the fif t h a nd six t h p r o v i s i o n s encompassed
issues c l o s e r to Florence, and the s e v e n t h p r o v i s i o n p r o
v i d e d spec i f i c g u i d e l i n e s for tree conservation. The fifth
p r o v i s i o n forbade the use of w o o d to m a k e embers or coals
w i t h i n eight miles of the walls o f the city. The sixth
p r o v i s i o n made h o a r d i n g i l l e g a l . , "And, in addition, it is
p r o v i d e d that no one m a y m a i n t a i n in F l o r e n c e w a r e h o u s e s
as storage p l a c e s to k e e p or to c o r n e r the m a rket on wood-
.fo r - b u r n i n g of any k i n d to resell to others at e x t r a o r d i n a r y
prices, and th e r e b y to lead to a m o n o p o l y in damage to
the common g o o d . " ^ A c c o r d i n g to the se v e n t h p rovision,
only w h e n trees r e a c h e d m a t u r i t y cou l d t h e y be cut and
n o t e arlier to s a t i s f y the greed of tho s e w i s h i n g to m a k e
t i mber sales. In this regard, the law d i s a l l o w e d anyone
?Q
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 8, p p . 242-243.
381
in the future to cut he a v y t i mber except on nine y e a r
cycles, that is, nine years h a d to elapse b e t w e e n cuts, and
also a d o p t e d d i f ferent cycles for trees w h i c h m a t u r e d at
di f f e r e n t times. W i t h i n t w e n t y days of the p u b l i c a t i o n of
the law w o o d l a n d owners h ad to register the time and e x
tent of t h e i r last cuts. 30
In 1579 n e w le g i s l a t i o n added to the bas i c l e g i s l a t i v e
act of 15 7 5 . 3 1 s u p p l e m e n t a r y l egislation s t i p u l a t e d
that only d e a d w o o d could be cut from co m m u n i t y forest
lands for i n d i v i d u a l u se b ut not living timber, and p ut i n
to effect s t r i c t e r rest r i c t i o n s and regulations to p r o t e c t
the c u t t i n g and to p r e v e n t theft of w o o d on p r i v a t e p r o
perty. The p r o h i b i t i o n on c o r nering the m a r k e t of wood-for-
burning by using warehouses or storage facilities w i t h i n
Florence the 1579 law exten d e d to apply to any such places
w i t h i n five miles of the city. Other additions a d j u s t e d the
years o f the c u t t i n g cycles for p a rticular trees. By 1579
these l e g i s l a t i v e enactments r epresented a b r o a d p r o g r a m
for t i mber c o n s e r v a t i o n and the supply of energy needs.
B e t w e e n 1551 and 1581 a wide range of e n v i r o n m e n t a l
issues found e x p r e s s i o n in n e w legislation. The 1559 and
1575 laws w e r e the most s i g n i ficant pieces of l e g i s l a t i o n
during this period. B o t h laws outlined a co m p l e x of i s
sues w i t h i n a d e v e l o p i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g of e n v i r o n m e n t a l
30 Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , p . 244.
31 Ibid., v o l . 9, p p . 351-353.
382
re l a tionships and a t t e m p t e d to p e r c e i v e envir o n m e n t a l and
e n e r g y issues from a w i d e r viewpoint. An i n creasing a w a r e
ness of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of one part of the environment
with, another and the g r o w i n g r e a l i z a t i o n of the need for
careful l o n g e r - t e r m p l a n n i n g to p r o v i d e for the food, fuel
and b u i l d i n g needs of a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l y u r b a n i z e d regional
state w ere two elements w h i c h b e g a n to c h a r a c t e r i z e l e g i s
lation of the latter par t of the s i x t e e n t h century.
Forest and Ti m b e r Legislation: 1590-1607
During the 1590s e n v i r o n m e n t a l l e g i s l a t i o n reflected
a s o m e w h a t dif f e r e n t emphasis. E c o n o m i c problems and food
s h ortages became m o r e acute and the steps t aken to m eet these
p r o b l e m s had e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s . 32 Th o u g h the general
scope of these p r o b l e m s is not a subject of discussion here,
the c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the fol l o w i n g pieces of legislation
al l o w at least a b r i e f look at the p r o b l e m s w h i c h emerged
Food problems are d i s c u s s e d in the following: A. S. F . ,

M i s c e l l e n e a M e d i c e a , 174, 31. This e ntry consists of letters
f rom a government m i n i s t e r Ugo M a r t e l l i to the secretary of
the grandduke, Vinta, c o n c e r n i n g grain purchases; A. S. F . ,
M e d i c e o P r i n c i p a t a , 2586. H ere are c ited letters of Jacopo
F.icciardi, Flore n t i n e agent for the g rain trade between 1594
and 1610; A. S. F., Nove, 3732. These are deliberations and
records of the c o m m i t t e e of three e s t a b l i s h e d to review the
food supply needs of the community. Also: Braudel, The M e d
iterranean, vol.l, p p . 594-608. For a d i s c u s s i o n of Tuscany
in the latter part of the sixteenth c e n t u r y see especially pp.
599-602; Carlo Cipolla, "The E c o nomic D e c l i n e of I t a l y , in
Crisis a n d Change in the V e n e t i a n Econ o m y in the S i x teenth and
S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s , ed. B r i a n Pullan (London: Meth u e n
C o . , 1968), p p . 127-145, p a r t i c u l a r l y p . 131.
383
and the s o l u t i o n s e m p l o y e d to resolve them
As the w o o l indu s t r y declined in the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y
and F l o r e n c e s e c o n o m i c position relative to the l eading
Italian states a nd the rest of Europe w o r sened, new p o l i
cies tri e d to e s t a b l i s h and to p r o m o t e the silk industry.
The p r o m o t i o n . o f this industry b e came one of the le a d i n g
e co nomic o b j e c t i v e s of the M e d i c e a n principate. The d e v
elopment of the silk industry r e q u i r e d the a v a i l a b i l i t y of
raw silk p r o d u c e d by s i l k worms. The s i l k worms, in turn,
fed on m u l b e r r y trees. This led to the f o l lowing measures.
Le g i s l a t i o n in 1576 r e q u i r e d p r o p e r t y owners in the E l s a
Valley to pla n t m u l b e r r y trees on their p r o p e r t y b e c a u s e of
the "public a nd p r i v a t e utility and b e n e f i t it brings: by
p r o v i d i n g fruit for the owners and resources for the s i l k
i n d u s t r y . "23 This legislation, however, was still r e l a t i v e l y
limited in scope, but in 1590 a p r o c l a m a t i o n o u t l i n e d a
much br o a d e r p r o g r a m of planting.
By the p r o c l a m a t i o n of 13 April 1590 all p r o p e r t y
owners along the "main roads w h i c h run from Florence to Pisa
and from F l o r e n c e to Pistoia are r e q u i r e d w i t h i n e i g h t e e n
months from t o d a y . . . t o plant m u l b e r r y trees on their own
prope r t y at the side of the road in those places w h e r e there
are no other t r e e s . "24 These trees w e r e to be p l a n t e d at
regular intervals o f about twenty b r a c c i a (40 feet) wherever
22 Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 8, p . 305.
24 Ibid., v o l . 13, p . 123-128.
384
possible a long these routes. This was to be don e b e c a u s e
of the p u b l i c and p r i v a t e b e n e f i t w h i c h r e s u l t e d w h e n the
s i l k i n d u s t r y p r o s p e r e d and b e c a u s e w i t h the m u l t i p l i c a
t ion of m u l b e r r y trees there r e m a i n e d in the s t a t e a good
p ar t of the m o n e y which, w o u l d o t herwise go out on this ac
count. A l o n g w i t h this e l e m e n t of m e r c a n t i l i s t p r a c t i c e s
fo l l o w e d by the M e d i c e a n P rincipate, the p r o c l a m a t i o n f ixed
a p r i c e c e i l i n g on the sale of m u l b e r r y pla n t s in o r d e r
that the p r i c e of these pl a n t s w h i c h w i l l be p l a n t e d in
great n u m b e r s does no t jump too m u c h . 35
In a d d i t i o n to the scale and r e g u l a t i o n of the tree
planting program, the clear d e s c r i p t i o n of the j u r i s d i c t i o n
o v e r the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the p r o g r a m d i a g r a m m e d an areal
outline of a m a j o r part of the early m o d e r n r e g i o n a l state.
The office o f the Parte h a d j u r i s d i c t i o n in the c o n t a d o and
d is t r e t t o of F l o r e n c e u p to the contado of P i s t o i a a n d the
contado of Pisa; t h e r e after,

the office of the R i v e r Of-
I
ficials of P i s t o i a and the Canal Officials of P i s a h e l d
j u r i s d i c t i o n w i t h i n the b o u n d a r i e s of t heir r e s p e c t i v e areas.
J u r i s d i c t i o n over v i o l a t i o n s of the p r o c l a m a t i o n b e l o n g e d
to the R i v e r Of f i c i a l s of F l o r e n c e and the River O f f i c i a l s
of P i s t o i a a c c o r d i n g to the borders of their r e s p e c t i v e
districts. Later legislation in 1594 and 1607 r e e m p h a s i z e d
the terms d e s c r i b e d in the 1590 law and b uilt u p o n them, but
385
36
the b a s i c d i r e c t i o n of p o l i c y c o n t i n u e d a l o n g the same path.
Once again, this l e g i s l a t i o n of 1590 d e m o n s t r a t e d the c r i t
ical role trees p l a y e d in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the n a t
ural and u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s and the w i d e a p p r o a c h t a k e n in
r e g a r d to e c o n o m i c and e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues,
A second economic issue w h i c h e m e r g e d in the 1590s led
not to the p l a n t i n g but to the t e m p o r a r y c u t t i n g of trees
and shrubs. One o f the objec t i v e s of the ear l i e r forest and
timber l e g i s l a t i o n of 1559 a nd 1569 was to c o n s e r v e the trees
and thus the soil o f the m o u n t a i n s , hillsides, and valleys.
This soil c o n s e r v a t i o n and the c o n s e q u e n t growth in v e g e t a
tion p r o m o t e d the p a s t u r i n g of a nimals w h i c h were p a r t of
the food s u p p l y o f F l o r e n t i n e society. However, the m o u n
tains a nd h i l l s i d e s in some areas h ad b e c o m e so o v e r g r o w n
w i t h trees and shrubs that it was no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e to p a s
ture in these areas. By a law of 5 January 1592 the g o v e r n
ment listed specific areas of the m o u n t a i n districts and a l
lowed fo r e s t e r s and lumberers to t h i n o u t these areas s u f
fi c i e n t l y in o r d e r to a l l o w pastu r a g e . At the same time,
the l a w d e l i n e a t e d the b o u n d a r i e s of these pockets and mea-

37
dow areas carefully. As the s i x t e e n t h century n e a r e d its
end, the F l o r e n t i n e food s u p p l y fell s h o r t o f the demand,
and the t e m p o r a r y r e l a x a t i o n of the r e s t r i c t i o n s on timber
36 _
See n o t e 33. Also: Cantini, L e g islazione, v o l . 14,
p p . 85-86, 340-343.
37
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 13, p p . 395-400; Lane,
V e n e t i a n Ships and S h i p b u i l d i n g , p p . 219-221.
386
c u t t i n g r e f lected this chang i n g balance.
However, the lift i n g of r e s t r i c t i o n s , e ven temporarily,
d i d not apply g e n e r a l l y beyond f ood supply needs. In 1594,
the g overnment c i t e d iron foundries for c u t t i n g and using
w o o d for their i n d ustry in v i o l a t i o n of the 1559 dnd 1569

38
laws. N o n - o b s e r v a n c e of these laws h a d b een frequent in
s ome iron industry distr i c t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y aro u n d Pistoia.
A later p r o c l a m a t i o n of 1597 w h i c h p r o h i b i t e d the cutting
of oak and c h e s t n u t trees, u s e d for so m a n y b u i l d i n g p u r
poses, m a d e c lear that v i o l a t i o n s w e r e not l i m i t e d to any
one i n d ustry or area. Once again the g o v e r n m e n t endeavored
to stop the c u t t i n g of trees bef o r e they r e a c h e d m a t u r i t y
and w i t h o u t special license from the R iver Officials. They
l i k e w i s e p r o h i b i t e d i ndividuals or c o m m u n i t i e s to continue
to thin out" forest areas or to t urn t h e m to p a s t u r e or

39
cultivation without the approval o f the Nove.
A similar p r o h i b i t i o n on the c u t t i n g of elm trees in
1601 issued by the P art e e s t a b l i s h e d c l e a r l y that the p r o b
l e m of n o n - o b s e r v a n c e of the c o n s e r v a t i o n laws h a d not been
solved. The d i r e c t i v e is s u e d by the P a r t e a s s e r t e d that
c o n t i n u e d n o n - o b s e r v a n c e of c o n s e r v a t i o n p r a c t i c e s would
l ead to a "most g reat s c a rcity" of a v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c e and
c i t e d the w a g o n and c oa ch makers p a r t i c u l a r l y for their use
38
Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 14, p . 78.
39
Ibid., v o l . 14, p p . 215-220; Lane, V e n e t i a n Ships and
S h i p b u i l d e r s , p . 221.
387
of the e lm t r e e s . 40 Since it was admitted that the earlier
l e g i s l a t i o n was not effective in p r e s e r v i n g the e l m trees
ge n e r a l l y or those spe c i a l l y assigned to g o v e r n m e n t rather
than p r i v a t e use, it is not suprising to find the
1601 p r o h i b i t i o n r e p e a t e d in 1607 and the p e n a l t y for non-
o b s e r v a n c e r a i s e d . 41
Though environmental legislation was of t e n not o b s e r
v e d n o r m o t i v a t e d by a general ecological p e r s p e c t i v e ,
F l o r e n t i n e p o l i c y m a k e r s m o v e d gr a d u a l l y toward a f u ller u n
d e r s t a n d i n g o f the en v i r o n m e n t a l relationship bettveen the
cultural and nat u r a l landscapes. As n e w needs developed,
e a r l i e r b a l a n c e s b e t w e e n the urban and na t u r a l e n v i ronments
also changed. It was the recognition, at least parti a l l y ,
that these changes w e r e occuring w h i c h allowed a p e r s p e c
tive o f a somew h a t l o n g e r - t e r m p l a n n i n g p o l i c y to emerge
and some first steps toward a wi d e r approach in u n d e r s t a n d
ing the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of u r b a n i z a t i o n and e v i r o n m e n t a l
balan c e s to be taken.
^ Cantini, L e g i s l a z i o n e , v o l . 14, p p . 270-277.
41 Ibid., v o l . 14, p p . 330-332.
/
388
C H A P T E R 10: FLORENCE: P A T T E R N S A ND D I R E C T I O N S
OF EARLY M O D E R N U R B A N I Z A T I O N A N D URB A N P L A N N I N G
This essay b e g a n w i t h an e x p l o r a t i o n o f F l o r e n t i n e p o l i c y
r e s p o n s e to areawide u r b a n issues o f the early m o d e r n p e r i o d
and w i t h a basic q u e s t i o n a b o u t F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n policy: were
early m o d e r n Florentine p o l i c y m a k e r s c a s e - b y - c a s e problem-
solvers o r l o n g - t e r m p l a n n e r s ? The response to the above q u e s
tion a nd the main theme of this e s s a y ex p r e s s e d in the i n t r o
d u c t i o n was that early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e p o l i c y m a k e r s became
l i m i t e d plann e r s be c a u s e t h e y h a d to be l a r g e - s c a l e problem-
solvers. These last pages o f the ess a y support this basic theme
fu r t h e r a nd attempt to p l a c e the speci f i c u r b a n issues d i s c u s s e d
in the p r e c e d i n g chapters in a w i d e r historical a nd conc e p t u a l
framework.
The R e n a i s s a n c e and e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d p r e s e n t e d a n e w
historical context for u r b a n development. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t
of r e g i o n a l states in Italy a nd n a t i o n - s t a t e s in w e s t e r n
E u rope d e f i n e d a n e w p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t e x t that a f
fe cted d i r e c t l y the early m o d e r n u r b a n i z a t i o n process. Larger
scale p o l i t i c a l units could in f l u e n c e more e f f e c t i v e l y m o v e
m e n t a nd s e ttlement p a t t e r n s over a w i d e r a nd m o r e o r g a n i z e d
spatial a r e a through e c o n o m i c and p u b l i c u t i l i t y p o l i c y than
in the m e d i e v a l period. A l o n g w i t h r enewed p o p u l a t i o n growth
b e t w e e n the m i d - f i f t e e n t h a n d late six t e e n t h cent u r i e s , the
change in scale of p o l itical a nd econo m i c a c t i v i t y also m e a n t
389
a greater c o n s u m p t i o n o f energy an d a g r e a t e r impact on the
natural e n v i ronment. N e w internal m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s and a
c hanging b a l a n c e in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e c o n o m y and e n
vironment were major i nflu e n c e s o n the d i r e c t i o n o f the early
m o d e r n u r b a n i z a t i o n process.
A n o t h e r m a j o r d i m e n s i o n of this n e w h i s t o r i c a l cont e x t
was a r e v o l u t i o n in the scale and d i r e c t i o n of m o v e m e n t p a t
terns a c h i e v e d d u r i n g the A g e of E x p l o r a t i o n . The t r a n s o c e a n i c
travel of E u r o p e a n s g r a d u a l l y s h i f t e d the m o r e i nfluential
t r a d e p a t t e r n s f r o m M e d i t e r r a n e a n to A t l a n t i c E u r o p e and e s
tablished trade r o u t e s to Africa, A sia, and the Americas. In
some ways e a r l y m o d e r n cities d e p e n d e d o n m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s and
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m s n e a r l y as e x t e n s i v e as m o d e r n cities do.
M a j o r changes in..movement patterns o v e r w i d e r sea areas and
more i ntegrated l a n d areas e x t e n d e d the u r b a n i z a t i o n process
to a w ider r a n g e of u r b a n centers in e a r l y m o d e r n Europe. The
a b o v e as w ell as o t h e r i nfluences h e l p e d to m a k e this p e r i o d
a distinct p h a s e of E u r o p e a n u r b a n h i s tory. As the m e t r o p o l i t a n
center of one o f the m o r e hi g h l y u r b a n i z e d regions of Europe,
F lorentine h i s t o r y a n d p o l i c y r e s p o n s e to m a j o r u r b a n issues
of the time p r o v i d e s d i s t i n c t o p p o r t u n i t y to v i e w the c h a n g i n g
p a t t e r n and d i r e c t i o n of the early m o d e r n u r b a n i z a t i o n process.
From R o m a n c a s t r u m to early m o d e r n m e t r o p o l i t a n center,
F l o r e n c e s h i s t o r y o u t l i n e s d i f f e r e n t stages of a city's
development from a single to a m o r e c o m p l e x u r b a n environment.
A n equally s i g n i f i c a n t d i m e n s i o n of this u r b a n i z a t i o n process
390
was the parallel t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of Tus c a n y f r o m an area of
i n d i v i d u a l c i t y - states to a s y s t e m of cities integrated within
a r e g i o n a l state a nd spatial area. Flore n c e was the m e t r o
p o l i t a n center for the exch a n g e of economic, political, ad
ministrative, a nd c u l t u r a l goods a nd s ervices.* W h a t was
o c c u r r i n g on the r e g i o n a l level in Italy was b e g i n n i n g to
o c c u r on a natio n a l a nd i n t e r n a t i o n a l level in o t h e r areas
o f Europe. M e t r o p o l i t a n centers and systems o f cities d e v e l
o p e d in Europe alo n g w i t h n e w m o v e m e n t patte r n s that b e g a n to
c h a r a c t e r i z e the p o l i t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n of spatial areas to form
nati o n - s t a t e s . The econ o m i c i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f cities often
f o r m e d u r b a n i z e d r egions w h i c h t e nded to t r a n s c e n d exis t i n g
political and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o u n d a r i e s of an i n d i v i d u a l state
* See the d i s c u s s i o n in chapters 1 and 2.
2 Giova n n i Asten g o , "Town P l a n n i n g , " in The E n c y c l o p e d i a

of W o r l d A r t , vol. 14, p p . 171-263, e s p e c i a l l y 196-197, 215-
239; K r i s t o f Glamann, " E u r o p e a n Trade 1 5 0 0 - 1 7 0 0 , " in The F o n
tana E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y of E u r o p e , vol. 2, "The S i x t e e n t h and
S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s , " p p . 427-526, p a r t i c u l a r l y 429-431, and
434-439; C E H , "Tra n s p o r t and Trade R o u t e s , " by J.H. Parry, vol.
4, c h a p t e r 3, p p . 155-219. This essay p r o v i d e s an excellent
s u m m a r y of c h a n g i n g trade p a t t e r n s and the me a n s of t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n a v a i l a b l e d u r i n g the ear l y m o d e r n period; Le Goff,
"The T o w n as an A g e n t of C i v i l i z a t i o n , " p p . 91-95; Three m a i n
r e f e r e n c e s for the n e w m o v e m e n t patte r n s are: J.H. Parry,
The D i s c o v e r y of the Sea (New York:. The Dial Press, 1974).
B e s i d e s a fine su m m a r y of the g eneral and s p e c i f i c elements
i n f l u e n c i n g this p e r i o d of e x p l o r a t i o n by the E u ropeans, this
s t u d y contains e i g h t y - t h r e e e x c e l l e n t i l l u s t r a t i o n s d e p icting
ships, tools, maps, travel scenes, etc., of the e a r l y m o d e r n
p e r i o d ; See also: Parry, The A g e of R e c o n n a i s s a n c e (London:
W e i d e n f e l d and Nicolson, 1963); Samuel Eliot M o r i s o n , The
E u r o p e a n D i s c o v e r y of A m e r i c a , 2 vols. (New York: Oxford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971-1974) ; H e r m a n n Kellenbenz, The Rise of
the E u r o p e a n Economy: A n Economic H i s t o r y o f C o n t i n e n t a l
E u r o p e from the F i f t e e n t h to the E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y , ed.
391
o r region. D u r i n g the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y F lorentine a n d
E u r o p e a n u r b a n i z a t i o n d e v e l o p e d a scale of m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s
in some w a y s n e a r l y as w i d e as those of m o d e r n E u r o p e a n
history.^
F l o r e n t i n e h istory is one a m o n g other examples w h i c h
indicates that u r b a n forms and f u n c t i o n s are n e i t h e r t i m e
less n o r time b o u n d but r e l a t e d to chang i n g cultural con
ditions a n d m o v e m e n t patterns w h i c h i n form the u r b a n i z a t i o n

4
p r o c e s s d u r i n g each p e riod of history. Each city has a
h i s t o r y o f the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m o v e m e n t and s e t t l e
m e n t p a t t e r n s w h i c h is w r i t t e n into the d e v e l opment o f the
forms a n d functions of the u r b a n a n d cultural enviro n m e n t s .
The c i t y is w h e r e goods, services, ideas and p e ople m e e t and
g e n e r a t e n e w kinds of a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n s . T h ough a l t e r e d in
f o r m a nd f u n c t i o n w h e n t e c h n o l o g y a nd other cultural con
ditions change, cities m a y be v i e w e d as settlement p o i n t s in
the m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n of goods, services, ideas and p eople.
The l o n g e r the his t o r y of a city w h i c h has r e m a i n e d a n a c t i v e
participant in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f civilization, g r e a t e r and
r i c h e r are the dimensions and l a yers of u r b a n i z a t i o n to be
G e r h a r d B e n e c k e (New York: H o l m e s Meier, 1976), p p . 28-36,

129-144, a nd p p . 144-167 discuss trade patterns w i t h i n v arious
c o n t i n e n t a l c o u ntries during the six t e e n t h century. .
^ Ke l l e n b e n z , Rise of the E u r o p e a n E c o n o m y , p p . 28-56,

129-167; Le Goff, The T o w n as a n A g e n t of C i v i l i z a t i o n , "
p p . 91-95.
4
S ee the introduction.
392
r e a d and understood. The w i d e r the m o v e m e n t patt e r n s that
a c i t y generates and rece i v e s the m o r e diverse, specialized,
a nd i n t e r r e l a t e d its u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t b e c o m e s . ^ in this
s en s e the phases and d i r e c t i o n o f Florence's d e v e l o p m e n t
p r o v i d e s a rich text for u n d e r s t a n d i n g its own u r b a n h i s t o r y
and, at least partially, the u r b a n i z a t i o n process a f f e c t i n g
all of E u rope in various ways d u r i n g the m e d i e v a l a nd ear l y
m o d e r n periods.
F lor e n c e ' s long u r b a n career, like other c i t i e s of p r e
m o d e r n Europe, includes d i s t i n c t eras of d e v e l o p m e n t a nd d e
cli n e and w i d e n i n g and c o n t r a c t i n g m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s . 6
F l o r e n t i n e his t o r y indicates that u r b a n i z a t i o n is n ot a c o n
stant pr o c e s s and alters w h e n c i v i l i z a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s change;
Cities do n ot h a ppen all the time everywhere. They are not
b o r n n a t u r a l l y or do not o c c u r a u t o m a t i c a l l y in e v e r y age of
human history.^ Urb a n d e v e l o p m e n t is to a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x
tent the r e sult of hu m a n d e c i s i o n and plann i n g as w e l l as the
gen e r a l conditions favor i n g or d i s f a voring these cho i c e s and
in i t i a t i v e s during d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d s of history. N o t all
R o m a n forts became p r o s p e r o u s R o m a n towns, nor d id all R o m a n
towns b e c o m e thriving m e d i e v a l cities and early m o d e r n met-
5 Re f e r to the views of G u i c c i a r d i n i and B o t e r o d i s

c u s s e d in chapter 3.
6 Lopez, "The Tra d e of M e d i e v a l Europe," C E H , vol. 2,

257-354, p a r t i c u l a r l y 257-280; Henri Pirenne, M e d i e v a l C i t i e s :
T h e i r O r i g i n and the Revival of T r a d e , t r a n s . F r a n k D. H a l s e y
(Princeton, N.J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1952), p p . 3-105.
7 See the d i scussion that follows.
393
ropolitan centers.8 W i t h the t r a n s i t i o n from one era to
another, new civilizational conditions required new u r ban
c a p abilities, and p r e v i o u s p a t t e r n s of u r b a n i z a t i o n w e r e
no l o n g e r always coherent w i t h the chan g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s
of h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t .^ T he h i s t o r i c a l co n t e x t o f the
u r b a n i z a t i o n process sugg e s t s a n e e d for a h i s t o r i c a l side
to the u r b a n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s that helps to f o r m u l a t e in a
c o h e r e n t fra m e w o r k an u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e g a r d for the p a s t and
a s o u n d o r i e n t a t i o n to the future.
T h o u g h u r b a n i z a t i o n m a y n o t occ u r ever y w h e r e all the time,
the e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i p d was a time of m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t for
m a n y E u r o p e a n cities. The d e v e l o p m e n t and c h a n g i n g roles
of c i ties d u r i n g this p e r i o d r a i s e s m a n y questions a b o u t the
g en e r a l d i r e c t i o n of the e a r l y m o d e r n u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s
as w e l l as the specific role o f m e t r o p o l i t a n centers like
Florence. One v i e w p o i n t p r o p o s e d by a scholar of the M e d i t e r
r a n e a n r e g i o n and early m o d e r n E u r o p e a n hi s t o r y sugge s t s a
model f r o m w h i c h to e s t i m a t e u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t d u r i n g this
8 Lopez, Birth of E u r o p e , B o o k 1, chapters 1-3, a n d "The

City in P o s t - C a r o l m g i a n E u r o p e , " in I Problemi C o muni Dell*
E u r o p a P o s t - C a r o l i n g a (Spoleto: Del Centro Italiano di Studi
sul l ' A l t o Medioevo, 1955) , p p . 547-574; V a n Houtte, L ow
C o u n t r i e s , chapter 2, "The R e v i v a l of Towns a nd T r a d e ," p p . 17-
31; Luzzatto, Economic H i s t o r y of Italy, chapters 5-8, p p . 47-
3.6 7 . ---------
Q
Luzzatto, Economic H i s t o r y of I t a l y , chapt e r s 5-8, pp.
47-167; See also the d i s c u s s i o n of the changing roles o f Pisa,
Pistoia, and Florence in the following: Herlihy, Pisa in the
E ar l y R e n a i s s a n c e , p p . 162-186, a nd M e d i e v a l a nd R e n a i s s a n c e
P i s t o i a , p p . 1-13, 149-179, p a r t i c u l a r l y 155-160; M a l l e t t ,
F l o r e n t i n e G a l l e y s , p p . 3-20.
394
period.
In his study on the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a nd the age of
Philip II of Spain, Fe r n a n d B r a u d e l l p r o p o s e d a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
or t y p o l o g y o f cities and u r b a n development. E n t i t l i n g one
s e c t i o n o f his w o r k "From roads to b a n k i n g " he d i s c u s s e d
a broad developmental process which Mediterranean urban
c e n t e r s p a s s e d t hrough w h e n they became m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d in
their e c o n o m i c activity. H e o u t l i n e d three stages of d e v e l
opment in the e c o n o m i c and u r b a n i z a t i o n process:
Roa d s a nd the excha n g e t h e y p e r m i t t e d led to

the g r a d u a l d i v i s i o n of labor by w h i c h the towns
g r e w up, p a i n f u l l y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g them s e l v e s f r o m
the s u r r o u n d i n g co un t r y s i d e , t h ough o n l y at the
p r i c e of an u n r e m i t t i n g struggle. This struggle
in t u r n h ad its effects inside the towns, o r g a n i z i n g
t h e i r d i f f e r e n t tasks, t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m internally,
a c c o r d i n g to patte r n s that w e r e r e g u l a r only in
the v e r y b r o a d e s t sense.
The s t a r t i n g point of this process, w i t h its

m a n y v a r iants, was n a t u r a l l y c o m m e r c i a l a c
tivity, ever-present, a l l - i m p o r t a n t a n d the
s o u r c e of all econo m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n . . . .So our
s y s t e m s of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n u s e d the t e r m 'commercial
c a p i t a l i s m ' to descr i b e the agile, al r e a d y
m o d e r n a nd i n d i s p u a b l y e f f e c t i v e form taken
b y e c o n o m i c life in the s i x t e e n t h century. All
a c t i v i t y d id not n e c e s s a r i l y c o n t r i b u t e to its
a d v a n c e but m u c h d e p e n d e d o n its d y n a m i s m and
magnatism. The imperatives of large-scale, l o n g
d i s t a n c e commerce, its a c c u m u l a t i o n of capital,
i a c t e d as d r i v i n g forces. It was in the space
d e f i n e d by a comme r c i a l e c o n o m y that i n dustrial
a c t i v i t y was kin d l e d at Genoa, Florence, Venice,
a n d M i lan, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the n e w and r e v o l u t i o n a r y
t e x t i l e industries, c o t t o n and silk. The cla s s i c
t h e o r y of Paul M a n t o u x was a l r e a d y true of the
s i x t e e n t h century: i n d u s t r y is c r e a t e d and
f o s t e r e d by commerce. P erhaps this was truest
o f all in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n wh e r e exchange,
395
transport, a nd r e s e l l i n g w e r e a ctivities central
to l i f e ....
If large scale indu s t r y is the s e cond stage of a

t o w n s e c o n o m i c life cycle, ba n k i n g is perhaps
the third. F r o m a town's earliest b e g i n n i n g all
forms of e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y are u n d o u b t e d l y
underway, fin a n c e like a ny other. B u t it is not
u s u a l l y u n t i l a later sta g e that m o n e y - d e a l i n g
b e c o m e s e s t a b l i s h e d as a n a c t i v i t y in its own
right. E c o n o m i c f u n ctions r e main c o n f u s e d during
the ea r l y p e r i o d . 10
As Bra u d e l has stated, his t y p o l o g y is an incomplete one,
and cities "led c o m p l i c a t e d l i v e s " by p e r f o r m i n g various
functions as the same t i m e . 11 His mo d e l suggests, though,
trends a nd a m e t h o d of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g the m u l t i p l e activities
and e c o n o m i c c o m p l e x i t y of a c h a n g i n g u r b a n environment.
A c c o r d i n g to Br a u d e l ' s m o d e l of u r b a n development, the
t r a n s i t i o n for a c o m m e r c i a l to a n industrial sector of a c
tivity r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y to a city's role as a transfer and
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n center. The m o t i v e force for change from
one k i n d of a c t i v i t y to a n o t h e r or for the change of the
bal a n c e b e t w e e n the two is a c i ty's c a p a c i t y to act as a
c o o r d i n a t i n g c e n t e r a nd t r a n s f e r point for the m a i n routes
of trade and traffic: the m o r e limited the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
and c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y o f a .city, the m o r e likely i n
d u s t r y will be e s t a b l i s h e d to f a c i l i t a t e future development.
However, it m a y also be p o s s i b l e that i n d u s t r y and commerce
1 Braudel, The M e d i t e r r a n e a n , p p . 318-320.
11 Ibid., p . 323.
396
will d e v e l o p together or that industry m a y so m e t i m e s help
stimulate c o m m e r c e as occurred, for example, in Florence.
In s u p p o r t of his thesis and t y p o l o g y B r a u d e l c o n
siders it " s y m p t o m a t i c that industry f l o u r i s h e d m o s t in
cities far f r o m the sea, cities that w e r e p r e v e n t e d by their
p o s t i t i o n f r o m fulf i l l i n g all the fu n c t i o n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n
centers, in Lucca, for instance, the h o m e o f silk weaving,
Milan, Como, or Flore n c e h e r s e l f . "12 He continues: "In
dustry f l o u r i s h e d also in towns whose c o m m u n i c a t i o n s or m e r
chandise w e r e t h r e a t e n e d in the s i x t e e n t h century, such as
Flore n c e or V e n i c e . "13 As m a i n trade r o u t e d s h i f t e d to the
A t l a n t i c a n d n o r t h e r n E u r o p e during the s i x t e e n t h century,
the m a j o r c i t i e s of Italy a nd the M e d i t e r r a n e a n b e g a n to
adapt their economies to m e e t n ew needs.
T h o u g h B r a u d e l h i m s e l f notes that his t y p o l o g y is a
mod e l n o t a h i s t o r y of u r b a n development, it m a y h e l p to
estim a t e some of the influences of F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n plann i n g
during the f i f t e e n t h a nd six t e e n t h c e nturies. F or example,
w h e n the l o c a t i o n of Italy became i n c r e a s i n g l y less central
to the m a i n trade routes, inland cities like F l o r e n c e and
e ven coa s t a l cities like V e n i c e b e g a n to r e l y m o r e on their
industrial c a p a c i t y and the adjacent r e g i o n for further
12 Braudel, The M e d i t e r r a n e a n , p . 322.
23 Ibid., p p . 322-323, 324-326.
397
development.This trend in turn m a d e it more n e c e s s a r y
to c o o r d i n a t e larger movem e n t p a t t e r n s o f trade and tra f f i c
for the import of resources and the e x port of f i n i s h e d p r o d
ucts. The r e s u l t w o u l d be a g r e a t e r emphasis to e s t a b l i s h
a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system to f a c i l i t a t e the m o v e m e n t of goods
and services l o c a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y by land and by sea.
In part, this m a y explain F l o r e n t i n e p o l i c y to coor d i n a t e
a r e g i o n a l l y i n t e g r a t e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a nd c o m m u n i c a t i o n
s y s t e m lin k i n g inland Florence w i t h the seaports Pisa and
Liv o r n o d u r i n g the early m o d e r n pe r i o d . Regional a nd i n t e r
national influ e n c e s c o n verged to a c c e l e r a t e the t r a n s i t i o n
o f Flore n c e a n d o t h e r Tuscan c i ties f r om'a more individual
to a m o r e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t process. Both
land a nd sea t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p l a y e d central roles in this
development. The Flor e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t ' s p o licy o f a
m o r e c o o r d i n a t e d approach to t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and m o v e m e n t
p atte r n s on a regional scale c o r r e s p o n d e d to a more inter
r e l a t e d and e x t e n s i v e u r b a n i z a t i o n process.
A l o n g w i t h economic m o t i v a t i o n s , there were also other
m a j o r elements influencing F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n develo p m e n t and
policy. Like m a n y other m a j o r e a r l y m o d e r n u r b a n centers,
Flore n c e l ed a "complicated" life. Venice, Milan, Paris,
D o m e n i c o Sella, "Crisis a n d T r a n s f o r m a t i o n in V e n e t i a n
T r a d e , " and "The Rise and Fall of the V e n e t i a n W o olen I n
d u s t r y , " in Crisis and Change in the V e n e t i a n Economy in the
Si x t e e n t h a n 3 ~ S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s , e d ited by Brian P u l l a n
(London: M e t h u e n % Co., Ltd., 1968), p p . 88-126.
398
London and Florence were political c a p i t a l s and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
centers for territorial states as w e l l as m a j o r e c o nomic
centers. They w e r e also centers of c u l tural innovation.
The d i v e r s i f i e d m e t r o p o l i t a n role o f these cities d e r i v e d
l a r g e l y f r o m the interplay and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a b r o a d l y
b a s e d a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n that g e n e r a t e d a w i d e range of goods
and services and n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s for economic and c u l tural
d evelo pment. The above cities w e r e less s p e c i a l i z e d centers
than c e n t e r s of specialization. This m a n y s i d e d d e v e l o p m e n t
o f m e t r o p o l i t a n Florence h a d a p a r a l l e l m a n y s i d e d d e v e l o p m e n t
in F l o r e n t i n e u r b a n p o l i c y and pla n n i n g .
The a r c h i t e c t s , engineers, essay i s t s , and F l o r e n t i n e
policymakers d i s c u s s e d in the p r e c e d i n g chapter e x p r e s s e d
a n e w u r b a n consc i o u s n e s s and a n e w a p p r o a c h to u r b a n p o l i c y
in their r e c o g n i t i o n and r e s p o n s e to the scale and d i v e r s i t y
of u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t during the R e n a i s s a n c e and early m o d e r n
period. B r u n elleschi, Alberti, a n d F i l a r e t e embodied m a n y
of the ideals of R e n a i ssance a n d F l o r e n t i n e c i v i l i z a t i o n
in their d e s i g n s of u rban space. Each in their o w n w a y a t t e m p t
ed to a p p l y a p a r t i c u l a r r a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e of harmony,
balance, a n d p r o p o r t i o n in their ideal formulations of the
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p betw e e n u r b a n f o r m a n d function. They
s e a r c h e d for a graceful and u s e f u l f o r m for the m a n y a c t i v i t i e s
of c ity life.
In this s e a r c h Albe r t i and F i l a r e t e dis c u s s e d in their
architectural treatises some of the f u nctional issues a
399
d i v e r s i f i e d u r b a n a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n p r e s e n t e d for the d e s i g n
of a c o m p r e h e n s i v e c i t y plan. For health, economic, as well
as ot h e r r e a s o n s the level of c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f the d i f f e r e n t
a c t i v i t i e s o f a n u r b a n center v a r i e d considerably. The
att e m p t to d e s i g n a city p l a n that t o o k into c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,
for example, the s e p a r a t i o n of i n c o m p a t i b l e i n dustrial and
re s i d e n t i a l areas of the city w h i l e at the same time p l a n n e d
to i n t e r r e l a t e all the u r b a n a r e a in a c o o r d i n a t e d t r a n s
p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m i n d i c a t e d the d e g r e e to w h i c h a n e w a p p r o a c h
to the w i d e r a n g e of u r b a n a c t i v i t i e s was t a king form during
the early m o d e r n period. These t h e o r e t i c a l a nd "ideal"
views of the c i t y h a d pr a c t i c a l foundation.
F l o r e n c e and o t h e r m e t r o p o l i t a n centers o f Europe
w e r e then a nd are n o w busy places. Guicciardini noted with
del i g h t the " c o m i n g a nd going" of tra f f i c in A n t w e r p - t h e
bus i e s t c o m m e r c i a l c e nter of m i d - s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y Europe.
Road and s a i l i n g i m p r ovements d u r i n g the early m o d e r n p e r i o d
i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y the m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s that de f i n e d
m u c h of the a c t i v i t y of Antwerp. Besides the m o v e m e n t of o v e r
a t h o u s a n d ships a w e e k up and d o w n the S cheldt Riv e r w h i c h
flows p a s t Antwe r p , one h i s t o r i a n r e c o r d e d the f o l lowing level
of l a n d traffic:
A l s o e v e r y day 200 wagons came into the town

f i l l e d w i t h travellers. Each w e e k 1,000 wagons
came f r o m Germany, the H a n s a towns, Lorraine,
and France, l a d e n with m e r c h a n d i s e and creak i n g
u n d e r t h e i r burdens. In a d d i t i o n to these camel
c o u n t r y carts b r i n g i n g all kinds of p r o v i s i o n s to
the n u m b e r of over 10,000 a week. Besides these
400
v e h i c l e s there w e r e in the t o w n some 500

c a r r i a g e s u s e d for p l e a s u r e by the i n
h a b i t a n t s .15
Clearly, A n t w e r p was the m e t r o p o l i t a n c e nter of a lar g e
p a r t o f the e c o n o m i c a nd m o v e m e n t patte r n s of the s u r r o u n d i n g
r e g i o n as w e l l as the b u s i e s t E u r o p e a n entrepot of the mid-
s i x t e e n t h century. The p l a n to e x t e n d and r e d e s i g n large
p ar t s of A n t w e r p w h i c h was p u t into effect by stages af t e r
1540 c a l l e d for a m o r e e f f e c t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n of the r e s i d e n
tial, c o m m e r c i a l a n d indu s t r i a l p a t t e r n s of the c i t y w i t h the
m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s w i t h i n a n d b e y o n d the city g a t e s . *6 The
c o n c e r n o f ear l y m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e plann e r s and p o l i c y m a k e r s
to c o o r d i n a t e m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d c o m
munication patterns on a l a rger a nd m o r e regional u r b a n scale
th a n b e f o r e was one also s h a r e d el s e w h e r e in E u rope d u r i n g
the s i x t e e n t h century.
The r e g i o n a l scale o f u r b a n de v e l o p m e n t was also a p
parent in the sketc h e s a n d designs of Leonardo da V i n c i a nd

I
the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t s p o l i c y t o ward the r e l a t i o n s h i p
15 Wegg, A n t w e r p , p . 323, (cited by the above a u t h o r from

the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y w r i t e r Scribani, Origines A n t w e r p i e n -
s i u m ).
16 Wegg, A n t w e r p , c h a p t e r XI, "The Enlarging, Re b u i l d i n g ,

A n d R e f o r t i f y i n g of the T o w n - G i l b e r t V a n S c h o onbeke," pp.
228-236; p . 234: " In the e a r l y part of the s i x teenth c e n t u r y
the r e w e r e as m a n y as s e v e n t y b ridges joining s treets s e v e r e d
by w a t e r - c o u r s e s - w h i c h i m p e d e d the transit of wagons; a nd
the w o r k o f l e v e l l i n g the roadways became as n e c e s s a r y for
the f u ture of A n t w e r p as the e r e c t i o n of the fortif i c a t i o n s .
Stone h o u s e s w e r e t a king the pla c e of those of mud, wood, and
c l a y . ..."
401
b e t w e e n the b u i l t - c u l t u r a l and n a t u r a l environments. Leo
nardo's " d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n pla n " o f u r b a n d e v elopment-a p l a n n e d
u r b a n complex of a central city w i t h surrounding s u b u r b s - t o
" d e c o n g e s t " the cro w d e d early m o d e r n cities and his a r e a w i d e
sketches of and canal p r o j e c t s fot the A r n o River V a l l e y o u t
l i n e d a n ew a nd la r g e - s c a l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etween city and
countryside. The conceptual r e g i o n a l scale of his theoreti
cal u r b a n v o c a b u l a r y and n atural l a n d s c a p e sketches also a p
p e a r e d in some of the d i m e n s i o n s o f F l orentine e n v i r o n m e n t a l
policy.
The attempt to control w a t e r p o l l u t i o n and to c o n s e r v e
the forests of t e n n e c e s s a r i l y p l a c e d area w i d e issues and
qu e s t i o n s on the agenda of F l o r e n t i n e p o l i cymakers w h i c h i n
h e r e n t l y called for a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y w i d e response. The s e
issues affe c t e d d i r e c t l y the f o o d and e n ergy supplies of the
cities and region. The decline o f the fish p o p u l a t i o n a n d the
shortage of timb e r - t h e m a i n s o urce of e n e r g y during the e a r l y
m o d e r n p e r i o d - m o v e d the F l o r e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t to adopt r e g u
l a t o r y le g i s l a t i o n intended to c l e a n the water and to p r o t e c t
ag a i n s t deforestation. The r e p e a t e d p a s s i n g of similar l e g i s
l a t i o n suggested a growing a w a r e n e s s as well as a c o n t i n u a t i o n
of the problem. Near the end of the s i x teenth c e n t u r y the

17
ti mber shortage g r e w worse in Italy a nd other parts of Europe.
17
Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution, p p . 228-
230.
402
T h o u g h gains w e r e limited, the Flor e n t i n e g o v e r n m e n t a t
t e m p t e d to curb f urther t hrough the l e g i s lation o f the
later part of the si x t e e n t h c entury the r e d u c t i o n of the forests.
Both amo n g e a r l y m o d e r n F lorentine theorists and p o l i c y m a k e r s
there was the b e g i n n i n g d e v e l o p m e n t of a larger c o n s c i o u s
ness o f the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the built a n d natural
envi r o n m e n t s a n d an ex p a n s i o n of the plann i n g v o c a b u l a r y to
r e s p o n d in a m o r e b a l a n c e d and harmo n i o u s w ay to this vital
interrelationship.
The d e v e l o p m e n t of a regional u r b a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n also
r e f l e c t e d the a r e a w i d e issues a nd concerns of F l o r e n t i n e
policy. The tre n d d u r i n g the early m o d e r n p e r i o d t o w a r d the
f o r m a t i o n of larger scale po l i t i c a l and economic units, w i d e r
m o v e m e n t patterns, and a m o r e ext e n s i v e u r b a n i z a t i o n pr o c e s s
h ad a paral l e l d e v e l o p m e n t in a l a rger scale p l a n n i n g r e
sponse b y the F l o r e n t i n e as well as other E u r o p e a n go v e r n m e n t s
of the time in order to c o ordinate m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y the c o m
p l e x i t y of the u r b a n activ i t y p a t t e r n s w i t h i n their te r r i t o r i a l
j u risdictions. This r e q u i r e d the establi s h m e n t of a p e r m a n e n t
and k n o w l e d g e a b l e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sta f f that c o u l d implement
u r b a n p l a n n i n g a nd p o l i c y decisions in a c o n s i s t e n t a nd c o
h e rent way.
D u r i n g the early m o d e r n p e r i o d m a n y elements c o n t r i b u t e d
to the d i r e c t i o n of a larger scale u r b a n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s and
the f o r m a t i o n of Flor e n t i n e u r b a n p o l i c y and p l a nning. In
l i m i t e d t h o u g h im p o r t a n t ways early m o d e r n F l o r e n t i n e policy-
403
makers expressed a g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s that F l o r e n c e and
o t h e r Tuscan cities w e r e n ot i s o l a t e d s e l f - c o n t a i n e d entities
b ut participants in a l a r g e r s y s t e m of c u l t u r a l and environmental
i nterrel a t i o n s h i p s that e x t e n d e d b e y o n d the m o r e immediate
v i s i b l e and p h y s i c a l b o u n d a r i e s of the city. N e i t h e r the
city's needs n or the city's i n f l u e n c e cou l d be encl o s e d by
the c i t y walls. A n era of a r e a w i d e u r b a n issues and needs
c a l l e d for a longer-term, m o r e c o h e r e n t and c o o r d i n a t e d a p
p r o a c h to u r b a n p l a n n i n g a nd a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in the early
modern Florentine-Tuscan regional state. H o w did early m o d e r n
Florentine policymakers respond? They b e c a m e l i m i t e d planners
b e c a u s e they h ad to be l a r g e - s c a l e p r o b l e m - s o l v e r s .
404
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The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand

2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark it is an

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CRIBARO, CHRISTOPHER DANIEL

URBAN PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION IN FLORENCE: 1400-1600

The University of Nebraska - Lincoln PH.D. 1980

CRIBARO, CHRISTOPHER DANIEL

All Rights Reserved

The Graduate C ollege in the U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b r a s k a

For the D e g r e e of Doctor of Philosophy

U nd e r the S u p e r v i s i o n of Professor John K. Y o s t

URBAN PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION

John K. Yost________ 10 July 1980

Patrice Berger______ 10 July 1980

Benjamin G. Rader 10 July 1980

Nels W. Forde_______ 10 July 1980

Edward L. Homze_____ 10 July 1980

Dale L. Gibbs 10 July 1980

GRADUATE COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

omao saooa aoo -m

- most densely built area

= iess densely built area

N = least densely built area

0 200 400 600m

Aquisitions 1381 -14 54

2: E A R L Y M O D E R N FLORENCE: 1 4 0 0 - 1 6 0 0 .................. 109

The Tower O f f icials and the G u e l f P a r t y

Policy Administration: 1 3 70-1396

6: I N T E R U R B A N TRANSPORTATION: FLORENCE, SIENA,

T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Norht and South: S i e n a to

7: I N T E R U R B A N TRANSP ORTATION: FLORENCE, AREZZO,

1 4 t h and 15th C e n t u r y J u r i s d i c t i o n : The

F o r e s t and Timber Legi s l a t i o n : 15 5 1 - 1 5 8 1

AS I Archivio Storico Italiano

B o tero B otero, Giovanni. Delle

Cantini Cantini, Lorenzo, ed. Legis-

Nove N o v e tC o n s e r v a t o r ! della Giur-

Quaderno Q u a d e r n o del Libro de l l a L u n a

Repetti Dizionario E. Repetti, Dizion-

Statuti Caggese, Romolo. S tatuti d e l l a

D u r i n g the medieval and e a r l y m o d e r n periods the

1 f l o r i n = 20 soldi a or o = 240 deniers a oro

1333 T h i r d wall com p l e t e d

1338 Florentine medieval economic production peaked

1348 Pl a g u e struck F l o rence

137 5 - 1 3 7 8 Florentine-Papal war

1 3 78- 1381 Ciompi revolt

1381-1433 Rule of the F l o r e n t i n e o l i g a r c h y

1433 F i r s t exile of the M e d i c i

1 4 34- 1494 R e t u r n and rule of the M e d i c i

1494 F r e n c h invasion of I taly

1512-1527 S e c o n d return of the M e d i c i

1527-1530 S iege of Florence

1531-1537 T h i r d return of the M e d i c i

During the f i f t e e n t h and s i x teenth c e n t u r i e s Florence

made the t r a n s i t i o n from the capital of a c i t y state to the

The change in scale of e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l acti v i t y wrote

a n e w agenda of i n t e r u r b a n and a r e a w i d e n e e d s and i s s u e s --

for example, regio n a l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l ities, inter

governmental and i n t e r d e p a r t m e n t a l j u r i s d i c t i o n a l issues,

and e n ergy and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s - - t h a t offers a new

avenue of a p p r o a c h to the r i c h l y d iverse a n d m a n y l a y e r e d

u r b a n his t o r y of Flore n c e and Tuscany. U r b a n studies of