EDDY CURRENT TUBE TESTING TECHNIQUE

Lesson 1
Introduction to
Electromagnetic Testing
History

1. Electromagnetic testing is one of the oldest testing methods.

2. Thales of Miletus (600 B.C.E.) first recorded that rubbing amber induced a
state in which the amber would attract other light objects.
3. Hans Christian Oersted observed that a wire connecting the ends of a
voltaic battery affected a compass in its vicinity.
4. He also discovered that a compass placed near a wire transmitting an
electric current tends to set itself perpendicular to the wire, and always
points toward the wire as the compass is moved around the wire.
5. The space in which these forces act may therefore be considered a
magnetic field.
6. His discovery meant that the lines of magnetic force are at right angles to
the wire, and are therefore circles perpendicular to the wire.

3
History Contd.
7. In 1946, the first practical system for the automatic electromagnetic
measurement of flux leakage fields was designed by Hastings.
8. Hastings demonstrated that he could detect both surface and subsurface
discontinuities near the bore surfaces of steel tubes.
9. He noted an empirical correlation between the amplitude of leakage
signals and the depths of surface cracks.
10. In 1950, Forster developed the first instruments with impedance-plane
signal displays, which were used to discriminate between different
parameters.
11. The introduction of this equipment, and of practical techniques for
analysis of quantitative test signals on the impedance-plane, contributed
to the development of electromagnetic induction and eddy current
testing.

4
Direct current (DC)
An electric current flowing continuously in one
direction through a conductor is called the
direct current (DC).
The dry cell is a DC voltage source because it has
only one polarity of the output voltage which
produces direct current in the external circuit.

Alternating current (AC)

An electric current that reverses its direction of

flow at regular intervals is called an alternating
current (AC).
Alternating voltage periodically reverses in
polarity, causing alternating current to
periodically reverses its direction.
5
Conductors and Insulators

A conducting material has free charges, which move under the influence
of an external field. The free charges in a metallic conductor are negative
electrons.
An insulator will not conduct electricity.
Although a conductor's atoms permit current flow when voltage is
applied, there is always some opposition to flow, due to the attraction of
electrons to their atoms. This opposition varies among the atoms of
different materials.
The greater the conductivity of a material, the greater the flow of eddy
currents on the surface of the material.
Factors that affect conductivity include material composition, ambient
temperature and internal residual stresses, heat treatment, work
hardening, and conductive coatings.

6
Ohms law

When a voltage V is applied across a conductor, a current I, flows through

it. The magnitude of the current is proportional to the applied voltage if
there is no change in the physical state of the conductor. This is known as
the Ohms law, discovered by George Ohm.

The Ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor through which a

current of one Ampere is flowing when the potential difference across it is
one Volt i.e.

1 Ohm = 1 Volt /1Ampere

7
Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction

1. Faraday discovered the effect of electro-magnetic induction while

experimenting with coils of wire and a battery.
2. He discovered that by connecting a battery to a coil A, an instant
electrical current is generated in a second coil B placed near coil A
when the battery is switched on and off.
3. He also discovered that the second current travels in the opposite
direction of the first current.
4. Maxwell published the comprehensive group of relations to the
electromagnetic field known as Maxwell equations, which represent
the entire present knowledge of the principles of electromagnetic
testing.

8
Basic Principles of Eddy Current Testing

1. Eddy current testing is a nondestructive testing method that is based on

the principles of electromagnetic induction.
2. Electromagnetic means that electricity and magnetism are used.
3. When an alternating current (AC) is passed through a coil, a changing
magnetic field is generated, as the coil is placed near a conductive test
object, the magnetic field induces current (eddy current).

9
 Lesson 2

Eddy Current Theory

Generation of Eddy Currents
1. The principles of eddy current testing depend on the process of
electromagnetic induction. This process includes a test coil through
which varying or alternating current (AC) is passed.
2. A varying current flowing in a test coil produces a varying
electromagnetic field around the coil.
3. The electromagnetic field produced around the coil is directly
proportional to the magnitude of applied current, rate of change in
current or frequency and the coil parameters.
4. Coil parameters include: inductance, diameter, length, thickness,
number of turns of wire, and core material.
5. Electromagnetic force is the electrical energy derived from mechanical,
chemical, or other form of energy that must be applied across the
material to force the electrons to move.
6. The unit of the electromagnetic force is called the volt.

11
Resistance
1. In an alternating current circuit containing only resistance, the resistance
simply limits the amount of current that flows through the circuit.
2. It does not change the phase relationship between the voltage and the
current.
3. The current is exactly in phase with the voltage.
4. The unit of resistance is called the ohm. Ohm is defined as the
resistance through which electromotive force of 1 Volt will produce a
current of 1 Ampere.
5. Ohmss law is expressed as follows:
E= I X R
where E is voltage (volt),
I is current (ampere) and
R is resistance (ohm).

12
Resistance, cont.

6. Coil resistance is determined by the length of wire used to wind a coil.

7. The specific resistance is determined by the wire type and the cross-
sectional area of the wire.

where resistance is in ohms, specific resistance in ohms/circular mil-foot,

area is in circular mils, and length is in feet.
8. Resistivity of a material changes with the change in temperature. As the
temperature of the conductor rises, the amplitude of the vibration of the
atoms in the lattice increases and hence the probability of their collision
with the free electrons also increases.

13
Sine Wave
1. A sine wave is the form commonly produced by alternating current
generators.
2. Since one turn (360 rotation) of the generator coil produces one cycle of
the sine wave, the sine wave can be marked into corresponding degrees
of rotation, as shown in the following figure.

14
Frequency
1. The frequency of an alternating current is defined as the number of
cycles of current that occur in one second.
2. The unit of frequency is the Hertz.
3. One hertz is equal to one cycle per second. Current at 60 cycles per
second has a frequency of 60 Hz.
Inductive Reactance
The opposition to changes in alternating current flow through a coil is called
inductive reactance and is designated by the letters XL.
XL = WL
where XL is the inductive reactance (ohm),
L is the inductance (Henries), and
W equals 2f.
15
Impedance (Z)
1. Impedance in an alternating current circuit is the total opposition to the
current flow through the circuit.
2. The impedance unit is the ohm.
3. The simplest way to combine the resistance and the inductive reactance
values to obtain the impedance value is through a vector diagram.
4. The following figure shows resistance and inductive reactance vectors
90 apart in direction. By adding these two vectors together, a rectangle
can be constructed and the diagonal from corner to corner represents
the impedance (Z) and phase angle, as shown in view B of the next
figure.

16
Phase Angle
1. The phase angle between the resistance vector and the inductive vector
is 90.
2. The fraction of a period difference between the peaks expressed in
degrees is said to be the phase difference.
3. The Greek letter alpha (A) is used to denote the phase angle of the
impedance vector.
Phase angle (A) = arctan XL/R
3. The angle whose tangent is known is written as tan-1 or arctan.

17
 Lesson 3

Eddy Current Instrumentation

Eddy Current Instrument Circuits
1. All eddy current instruments have some method of detecting the
impedance or change of impedance in the test coil.
2. It is the electronic circuitry that is the greatest variation between
instruments.
3. Basic test circuits consist of the following:
a. Alternating current source.
b. Testing coil.
c. Display apparatus.
4. When the test coil is placed on or
near a test object, the impedance
of the coil changes. This change
in impedance is reflected by the
change indicated in the display apparatus, as shown in the image.

19
Impedance Bridge Circuit (Wheatstone Bridge)
1. The impedance bridge circuit, as shown in the next slide, consists of the
following:
a. Alternating current source.
b. Two balanced resistors (R1 and R2).
c. Testing coil.
d. Balancing coil.
e. Display apparatus.
2. When the bridge is in balance (the impedance on both sides of the
bridge are equal), the display apparatus will read 0.
3. When the testing coil is placed on or near a test sample, there is a
change in impedance in that leg of the bridge. The bridge becomes
unbalanced and the display apparatus will indicate a current that is
proportional to the imbalance.

20
Functions of Eddy Current Instrumentation
1. The internal functions of eddy current instrumentation are
accomplished by the following functional steps:
Signal excitation: The excitation portion of an eddy current instrument
consists of a signal generator and amplifiers to drive the test coils. The
signal generator provides sine wave excitation for the test coil using one
frequency or multi-frequencies to provide multiple parameter options.
Signal modulation: Signal modulation occurs in the electromagnetic field
of the coils assembly. It is the magnetic field created by the primary
coil that provides the energy transfer into the test object. This
magnetic energy is modulated by the test object, and the resultant
magnetic field from the eddy currents opposes the primary field and
is sensed by the instrument for processing.
Signal preparation: The purpose of this step is to amplify the probe signal
and reject extraneous noise.

21
Functions of Eddy Current Instrumentation, cont.
Signal demodulation: In this step and after the signal has been
demodulated, the signal can be analyzed by many means. The signal
may be directed to an analog meter or bar graph for display or it may be
digitized for further analysis.
Signal display: The signal display section is the key link between the test
equipment and its intended purpose.
Common displays include: meters, cathode ray tubes (CRTs), and
liquid crystal displays (LCDs).
Signal-to-noise ratio: The ratio of signals of interest to unwanted signals.
Common noise sources are test object variations of surface roughness or
geometry, external sources such as electrical interference, or mechanical
vibrations, etc. It is common practice in nondestructive testing to require a
minimum signal-to-noise ratio of 3:1. This means that a signal of interest must
have a response at least three times that of the noise at that point.

22
Internal Functions of Eddy Current Instrumentation
The following image shows the basic internal functions of an eddy current
instrument.

23
 Lesson 4

Readout Mechanisms
Introduction
1. The readout mechanism is an important part of eddy current test
systems. It is the part of the instrument that quantifies the change in the
test coil impedance.
2. This component of the system can be:
a. An integral part of the test system.
b. A module that is plugged into the test system.
c. A separate device connected to the test system.
3. The indicating device used should be of adequate speed, accuracy, and
range to meet the requirements of the test system.
4. There are two types of readout mechanisms that are used in eddy
current instrumentation:
a. Analog meters.
b. Digital displays.

25
Analog Meters
1. An analog meter is an indicting device whose visual output varies as a
continuous function of the input of the meter.

2. A meter has a needle that moves in response to the input. The response
is immediate, and scales can be calibrated to read specific values directly.

Audio Alarms

Audio alarms only indicate qualitative information caused by abnormal

conditions.

26
Strip-Chart Recorders
1. Strip-chart recorders provide an analog recording of values at reasonably
high speeds.
2. The strip-chart recorder is one method that produces a permanent, fairly
accurate record.
3. The strip-chart length is indexed to time or distance and indicates normal
or abnormal conditions.
Digital Displays
1. A digital meter is one whose visual output is shown in discrete steps in
time.
2. The meter measures the input at a given moment, and the value of the
measurement is displayed in numerical form.
3. Digital meters provide greater accuracy and range than analog meters.

27
Cathode Ray Tube

1. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) can be used to display the output of a test
circuit.

2. They give continuous presentation and are highly accurate.

3. Presentation displayed is adjustable and stored so that the parameters of

particular interest may be studied more accurately.

28
Digital Data Storage

1. Digital data are displayed in a complex plane presentation with

supporting strip-chart and C-scan displays, as required by the
application.
2. Digital systems allow setup of calibration curves constructed from
stored data and automated analysis of signals as compared to these
curves.
3. Digital conductivity meters for example, calibrated from conductivity
reference standards, feed acquired data into algorithms that calculate
conductivity and then display results in numerical format.

29
Digital Mixing
The combination of components from different test frequencies allows the
suppression of unwanted parameters or signals from structures, such as
support plates in tubing applications, while retaining the signature of
discontinuities beneath those structures.
Liquid Crystal Display
1. A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number
of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector.
2. Liquid crystal displays use very small amounts of electric power.
The following are important factors when evaluating a LCD monitor:
a. Resolution.
b. Viewable size and input viewing angle.
c. Response time and contrast ratio.
d. Matrix type.
4. A computer screen is a typical LCD that is widely used in state-of-the-art eddy
current instruments.

30
 Lesson 5
Eddy Current Inspection Coils
Introduction

There are three types of inspection coils:

1. Surface coil (probe).

2. Encircling coil (feed through).

3. Bobbin coil (internal).

32
Surface Coil
1. Surface coil, flat coil or pancake coil are common terms used to describe
the same type of test coil. Probe coils provide a convenient method of
examining the surface of a test object.
2. The following figure shows an illustration of a typical surface probe.
View (a) shows the coil mounted in a probe and view (b) shows the coil
mounted in a spring loaded housing.

33
Surface Coil, cont.

3. The surface probe may be hand-held or may be mounted in automatic

scanning equipment.
4. The magnetic field produced by the coil is approximately the size of the
coil.
5. Probe coils with added coil shielding may be used where high resolution
is required.
Applications
Surface probes are used in aircraft testing for crack detection, near
fasteners or fastener holes, weld examination for surface discontinuities,
and metal sorting and critical areas of heat exchanger tubes. The probe
coil is spinning while being withdrawn at a uniform rate. This is known as a
spinning probe technique.

34
Encircling Coil
1. Encircling coil, outer diameter coil and feed-through coil are terms
commonly used to describe coils that are used to test outside diameter
surfaces of objects that pass through the coil.
2. The width of the coil, as shown in the following figure, is a function of
the application.

3. Wide coils cover large areas, so they respond to bulk effects such as
conductivity, whereas narrow coils sense small changes produced by
discontinuities or small thickness changes.
4. The following figure shows the flow of the eddy currents produced in a
test rod by an encircling coil.
35
Encircling Coil, cont.
5. The eddy currents strength is greater near the surface and decreases
toward the center of the rod.
6. If the diameter of the rod is large enough, there is no current at the
center. The phenomenon is known as the center effect.
7. Encircling coils are used to locate discontinuities that are parallel or
longitudinal to the length of the rod.

Applications
Encircling coils are primarily used to test tubular and bar-shaped products.
The tube or bar is fed through the coil (feed-through) at relatively high
speed by means of a special mechanical system.
36
Internal Coil
1. Bobbin coil, inner diameter coil and inside probe are terms that describe
coils used to test from the inside diameter or bore of a tubular test
object.
2. The following figure illustrates a type of coil that can be inserted into
tubing to test for discontinuities and thickness changes in the tube.

3. The internal coil induces currents that encircle the entire circumference
of the tube so that the entire section surrounding the coil is tested.
4. The internal coil may be either wide or narrow, and the magnetic field
extends slightly beyond the ends of the coil.
5. The coil may be shielded or unshielded.
Applications
Internal coils are used to test tubular products from the inside diameter or
the bore of a tubular test object.
37
Test Coil Arrangements
1. There are three basic coil arrangements that can
be applied in surface, internal and encircling coils:
a. Absolute coil arrangement.
b. Differential coil arrangement.
c. Hybrid coil arrangement (through transmission).

2. Absolute coil arrangements can be either single or double coil.

3. Differential coil arrangements can be either self-comparison or external
comparison.

38
Single Coil

1. The same coil is used to induce eddy currents in the test object and to
sense the test objects reaction to the eddy currents.
2. The single coil arrangement (absolute) will test only the area under the
coil and does not directly reference or compare itself to a reference
standard.
3. This figure illustrates the single coil arrangement.

39
Double Coil
1. It is possible to use two coils: one to establish the magnetic field and
induce eddy currents into the test object, and another to detect changes
in eddy current flow.
2. The double coil arrangement may appear in all three of the coil classes:
surface, inside, and encircling.
3. The following figure illustrates the double coil absolute arrangement.

40
Self-Comparison Technique
1. The differential coil arrangement shown in the following figure illustrates a
means of balancing out effects that are the same.
2. The two coils are wound and electrically connected so that the output of
one coil cancels the output of the other coil (oppose each other).
3. This occurs when the test object properties are the same under both coils.

41
External Comparison Technique
1. The coil arrangement illustrated in the following figure is exactly the
same as the self-comparison, except that the differential coil
arrangement is set up on an external reference standard and the test
object.
2. A carefully chosen, discontinuity-free test reference object is held
stationary in one coil while the test object moves through the other coil.
3. This differential coil arrangement is used to detect differences between
a calibration standards and the test object.
4. It is mostly used to compare conductivity, permeability, and dimensional
measurements.

42
Hybrid Coil Arrangements - Through Transmission
1. Hybrid coils may or may not be the same size and are not necessarily
adjacent to each other.
2. Common types of the hybrid coil are driver/pickup, through
transmission or primary/secondary coil assemblies.
3. The through transmission technique involves inducing eddy currents
into the test object by a transmitting coil placed on one side of the
material, and the presence of eddy currents is sensed by a receiving coil
placed on the opposite side of the material as shown in the following
figure.

43
Hybrid Coil Arrangements - Through Transmission , cont.

4. This arrangement requires that the two coils be placed exactly opposite
each other.
5. Only thin materials may be tested with the through transmission coils.

44
Factors Affecting Choice of Sensing Elements
The following is a list of several critical factors and specifications that must
be carefully considered when selecting eddy current sensing elements:
1. Frequency.
2. Excitation.
3. Gain linearity.
4. Horizontal and vertical deviation.
5. Quadrature accuracy.
6. Digitization rate.
7. Sample rate.
8. Bandwidth.

45
 Lesson 6

Coil Impedance
Test Object
There are three properties of material that affect the eddy current induced
in the test object.

1. Conductivity.

2. Permeability.

3. Dimensions.

47
Conductivity
1. Conductivity of a material is defined as the ability of the material to carry
electrical current.
2. The symbol of conductivity is and the unit is expressed in %IACS.
3. In IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard), the conductivity of
unalloyed (pure) annealed copper of (100%) was selected as the standard,
and the conductivities of all other materials are expressed as a percentage
of this standard.
4. Resistivity is defined as the ability of material to resist the flow of current.
5. The symbol for resistivity is (rho) and the unit is expressed in micro-ohm
centimeters (cm).
6. As resistivity increases, conductivity decreases, and vice versa.
7. To convert to either conductivity or resistivity, the following equation can
be used.

48
Conductivity - cont.
The following table lists the electrical conductivity and resistivity of
common metal and alloys.

49
Alloy Composition
1. Alloys are combinations of other metals and/or chemical elements with a
base metal.
2. Each metal or chemical element has an individual affect on the
conductivity of the base metal. Thus it is possible to identify basic metals
and their alloys by measuring their conductivity.

Hardness
1. When a metal or alloy is subjected to heat treatment, the metal will
become harder or softer depending on the material.
2. This change in hardness is brought about by the internal change in the
material that affects the conductivity and/or permeability of the material.
An improper heat treatment can be detected in this manner.

50
Temperature and Residual Stress
1. The ambient temperature and internal residual stresses of a test material
also have an affect on the conductivity of the material.
2. An increase of temperature of the material normally results in a decrease
in the conductivity of the material.
3. Residual stresses cause unpredictable, but detectable, change in
conductivity.

Conductive Coatings
1. The presence of a conductive coating on a conductive material changes
the inherent conductivity of the base metal just as alloy would.
2. If the thickness of the cladding varies, the conductivity will vary. This
change in thickness can be detected using eddy current testing.

51
Edge Effect

1. The coils field precedes the coil by some distance determined by the coil
diameter, test frequency and test object properties.
2. As the coil approaches the edge of a test object, eddy currents become
distorted by the edge signal. This is known as edge effect.

Skin Effect

1. Skin effect is the concentration of eddy currents in the test object

nearest the test coil and it is a result of mutual interactions of eddy
currents, test frequency and material properties such as conductivity and
permeability.
2. Electromagnetic tests are most sensitive to test objects variables
nearest the test coil due to skin effect.

52
End Effect
1. End effect is the signal observed when the end of a product approaches
the test coil.
2. Response to end effect can be reduced by coil shielding or reducing coil
length.
3. This term is most applicable to the inspection of bar or tubular products.

Permeability

1. Permeability is defined as the ease with which material can be

magnetized.
2. Soft iron and iron with low carbon content are very easy to magnetize and
are highly permeable.
3. Hardened ferromagnetic steel with high carbon content is hard to
magnetize and has low permeability.

53
Residual Magnetism
1. Although hard, ferromagnetic steel has low permeability and difficult to
magnetize.
2. It will hold some magnetism after the magnetizing current is shut off. That
is how a permanent magnet is made.
3. The magnetism retained in a magnet is called residual magnetism.

Dimensional Factors
Dimensional factors of the material fall under two types:

1. The dimension, shape, and thickness of the test object.

2. The presence of discontinuities in the test object.

54
Test Object Shape and Thickness
1. Eddy currents do not penetrate throughout thick material but tend to be
concentrated near the surface. Thus there is a limit to the depth of
penetration.
2. The depth of penetration is defined as the distance from the surface of the
test object to the point where the current density is about 37% of the
current density at the surface.
3. The depth of penetration of eddy currents in a nonmagnetic test object
depends on the conductivity of the nonmagnetic material and the (AC)
frequency used to energize the test coil.
4. The higher the conductivity, the less the penetration.
5. The lower the frequency, the higher the penetration.
6. When the material is thin enough, as shown in the following image, so
that all the coils magnetic field is not used in creating eddy currents, the
strength of the eddy currents is reduced.

55
Test Object Shape and Thickness - cont.

56
Discontinuities
1. A discontinuity is defined as any interruption in the normal physical
structure or configuration of an object.
2. The flow of eddy currents within the material is affected by the presence
of discontinuities, such as cracks, pits, voids, and corrosion.
3. Discontinuities in a test object disturb the normal eddy current flow and
this results in a change in the coil impedance.
4. Discontinuities open to the surface are more easily detected than
subsurface discontinuities.
5. The depth, width, and length of a discontinuity determine the change in
the eddy current flow, as illustrated in the following image.

57
Discontinuities - cont.

58
 Lesson 7

Eddy Current Test Systems

and Analysis
Impedance Testing Systems

1. Impedance testing systems are the simplest to operate.

2. Most of the portable conductivity testers and discontinuity detectors
detect changes in impedance rather than phase shifts.
3. The most difficult task is the ability to recognize whether a change in
impedance is due to a change of lift-off or due to a change in
conductivity.
4. The presence of discontinuities in material will also cause changes in the
impedance.

60
Phase Analysis Systems

1. Phase analysis systems are capable of detecting shift in phase angles

resulted form change of coil impedance. It is possible using these systems
to observe the phase shifts rather than the impedance change to
determine the conditions that exist in the material.
2. The impedance of a coil may be represented by a vector, whose length
represents the impedance value and whose direction represents a phase
angle (the angle by which the current lags behind the voltage).
3. These vectors may be measured and plotted on a chart known as the
impedance-plane diagram. The impedance-plane diagram may be plotted
using the impedance value and the phase angle or the resistive
component and the reactive component.

61
Conductivity on the Impedance-Plane Diagram
The following figure illustrates a typical impedance-plane representation of
several impedances obtained by eddy current testing from several different
types of nonmagnetic metals with the same test set and the same frequency
with different conductivity.

62
Conductivity on the Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
The following figure illustrates a curve drawn connecting the
impedance value of each vector. This curve is the locus of all the
impedances that will result from changes in conductivity.

63
Conductivity on the Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
1. An increase in conductivity will cause the impedance to move to the right
and down along the curve, while decrease in conductivity will cause the
impedance to move up and to the left.
2. The next image illustrates the locus of all impedances that will result as
the coil is lifted off the 100% IACS material. (All other factors held
constant.) As the coil is lifted of the material, the impedance moves in the
direction indicted by the dashed line. As the coil is further removed, the
impedance moves further along the dashed line until the material no
longer affects the coil (coil is in air).

64
Conductivity on the Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
The next image illustrates a family of lift-off curves, each one starting at
different conductivity. Note the angles (A & B) formed at the junctions of the
lift-off locus curves and conductivity locus curve. In the areas of low
conductivity the angle (B) is small. In the areas of high conductivity, the angle
(A) is larger.

65
Effect of Frequency on the Impedance-Plane Diagram

If the frequency of the voltage applied to the coil is changed, there is a

change in the resistive and reactive factors of the impedance.

66
Effect of Material Thickness on the Impedance-Plane Diagram
The following figure shows the
effect of thickness changes as
applied to brass material.
The thickness loci may be plotted by
measuring the resistance and
reactance of a very thin sheet of
brass and repeating the process for
steadily increasing thicknesses.
When the resistance and reactance
values reach the conductivity curve,
further thickness increases will have
no effect.

67
Effect of Frequency on Thickness Measurements
1. The next image shows the effect that change in frequency has on
thickness measurements of brass material.
2. Since a change in frequency changes the depth of penetration, a lower
frequency will give a greater depth of penetration when the
conductivity curve is reached. Raising the frequency will have the
opposite effect.

68
Effect of Conductivity and Permeability on the Impedance-Plane
Diagram
The following images illustrate the different loci curves for magnetic
materials in comparison to nonmagnetic material.

69
Effect of Conductivity and Permeability on the Impedance-Plane
Diagram - cont.

70
Effect of Conductivity and Permeability on the Impedance-Plane
Diagram - cont.
With phase analysis, an operator can produce impedance plane plots that can
represent the following material conditions.
a. Lift-off and edge effects.
b. Cracks.
c. Material separation and spacing.

d. Permeability.

e. Specimen thinning.

f. Conductivity.

g. Plating thickness.

71
Cathode Ray Tube Methods: Vector Point Method
1. When a CRT is provided as a part of the test equipment, the equipment
may be set up to show on the tube the locus of all points in which the
operator is interested.
2. The operator may construct, point by point, the impedance-plane
diagram directly on the tube rather than on a separate sheet of graph
paper.
3. During this test method, the impedance of the coil will cause a dot to
appear at some point on the CRT screen. Its position will provide the
operator with information on what has occurred within the test object,
as illustrated in the following figure.

72
Ellipse Display Method
1. A CRT may also be set up to compare a test object with a reference
standard. The ellipse method uses an inspection coil in conjunction with a
reference coil.
2. The dimension variable and the conductivity variable are shown on the
CRT by the width of the ellipse and the angle tilt of the axis, as illustrated
in the next figure.

73
Modulation Analysis
1. A modulation analysis system, as illustrated in the next figure, adds a
modulating device between the test set and the indicating device (a strip-
chart recorder).
2. The modulation device is simply an electronic filter that will pass only
certain frequencies.
3. A differential coil is used so that two adjacent areas of the article are
compared.
4. Using either a low or high frequency filter, the effect of one variable or the
other is eliminated from the strip-chart readout.

74
 Lesson 8

Selection of Test Frequency

Test Frequency

1. The frequency of an alternating current is defined as the number of cycles

that occur in one second. The unit is the hertz (Hz). One hertz is equal to
one cycle per second.
2. The depth of eddy current penetration within test materials is strongly
affected by test frequency, permeability, and conductivity.
3. Higher frequencies normally limit the eddy current test inspection of the
excited metal surface nearest the primary coil winding.
4. Lower frequencies will allow eddy currents to penetrate deeper in lower
conductivity alloys than in higher conductivity alloys.

76
Depth of Penetration

1. Eddy currents are not uniformly distributed throughout a test object. They
are mostly dense at the surface closest to the coil, and become less dense
with increasing distance below the surface of the material. At some
distance below the surface of a thick material there will be essentially no
currents flowing.
2. The depth of penetration is affected by:
a. Frequency.
b. Conductivity of the material.
Permeability of the material.
3. The standard depth of penetration is defined as the depth at which the
current strength has dropped 37% of the current density that exists at
the surface. The following image shows the distribution of currents in a
material.

77
Depth of Penetration - cont.

78
Depth of Penetration, cont.
1. As frequency increases, depth of penetration decreases.
2. As frequency decreases, depth of penetration increases.
3. The higher the conductivity and permeability, the less the penetration.
4. A depth of penetration formula using frequency and permeability can be
expressed as:

where is depth of penetration,

is conductivity
f is frequency and
rel is 1 for nonmagnetic materials.

79
Depth of Penetration, cont.
1. The limit frequency can be expressed as:

where fg is the limit frequency, 5066 is constant,

rel is the relative permeability,
is conductivity and
d is diameter of test object.
2. The next image shows the standard depth of penetration for several
materials with different conductivities at various operating frequencies.

80
Depth of Penetration - cont.

81
Single Frequency Systems

These systems are capable of energizing the test coil with a single frequency.

Multi-Frequency Systems

1. These systems are capable of energizing test coils by more than one
frequency.
2. Although several frequencies may be applied simultaneously or
sequentially to a test, each of the individual frequencies follow rules
established by single frequency methods.
3. Modern multi-frequency eddy current systems allow the operator to
perform discontinuity detection using the differential mode and absolute
mode simultaneously.

82
Lesson 9

Coupling
Lift-Off and Fill Factor
Lift-off and fill factor are terms used to describe any space that occurs
between the test object and the inspection coil.

Lift-Off
1. When a surface coil is energized and held in the air above a conductor, the
impedance of the coil has a certain value.
2. As the coil is moved closer to the conductor, the initial value will change
when the field of the coil begins to intercept the conductor. Because the
field of the coil is strongest close to the coil, the impedance value will
continue to change until the coil is directly on the conductor.
3. The coupling between the test coil and the test object varies with spacing
between the test coil and the test object. This spacing is called lift-off.
4. Lift-off pertains to tests that use surface probes.

84
Fill Factor
1. Fill factor is a term used to describe how well a test object will be
electromagnetically coupled to a test coil that surrounds or is inserted into
the test object.
2. Fill factor pertains to tests that use bobbin or encircling coils.
3. Fill factor can be described as the ratio of test object diameter squared to
coil diameter squared for an encircling coil, or vice versa for a bobbin coil
where the inside diameter is used.
4. Fill factor = d2 / D2
where d = coil winding outside diameter and
D = test object internal diameter
or
D2 / d2 (encircling coil)
where D = coil winding inner diameter and
d = test object outside diameter

85
 Fill Factor, cont.

5. The fill factor will always be a number less than 1. The following image
illustrates the concepts of both lift-off and fill factor.

86
 Lesson 10
Electromagnetic Testing Applications
Eddy Current Applications

Eddy current testing can detect discontinuities such as cracks, seams, pits
and corrosion.

Aerospace Applications Measurement of Metal and Coating

Thickness
1. In the aerospace industry, numerous metal parts are coated or plated to
obtain special surface properties such as corrosion resistance, wear
resistance, or improved appearance.
2. The coatings are prepared by various means such as:
a. Electron-deposition.
b. Cladding.
c. Spraying.

88
Aerospace Applications Measurement of Metal and Coating
Thickness - cont.
3. Four general types of coating and base materials lend themselves to
eddy current testing:
a. Metal foil and sheet or metal coating on a nonconductive base
material, such as metallic film on glass, ceramic, or plastics.
b. Metal cladding with higher conductivity than the base
metal, such as copper, zinc on steel, or pure aluminum on
aluminum alloy.
c. Metal cladding with lower conductivity than the base metal,
such as nickel on aluminum.
d. Nonconductive coating on metallic base material, such as
anodic film or paint on aluminum, or other organic coatings on
metals.

89
Reference Standards for Thickness Testing
1. At least three objects with known metal thickness are needed as reference
standards to calibrate equipment.
2. One reference standards represents the minimum acceptable thickness,
the second represents the maximum acceptable thickness, and the third is
from the middle of the range.
3. All calibration standards must have the same conductivity, permeability,
substrate thickness, and basic geometry of the test objects.
Metal Thickness
1. Tests for measuring metal thickness are generally used on chemically
milled sheet stock, thin wall tubing, metal foil bonded to nonmetallic
materials, and thin objects that may experience thinning from corrosion.

90
Metal Spacing
1. When a gap separates two metal sheets, the gap may be filled with a
nonmetallic shim or may be purposely produced as a fixed dimension.
2. If it is desired to measure the gap or spacing, an operating frequency must
be chosen so that eddy currents will be generated in the second
(subsurface) layer, as shown in the following image.

91
Tests of Metal Conductivity
1. Eddy current conductivity meters usually differ with respect to operating
frequency, lift-off, temperature, sensitivity, and probe size compensation
or means of presenting test results.
Testing of Bolt Holes
1. Small cracks in material located next to
fastener holes may go undetected until the
cracks grow to a size that allows detection at
the surface not covered by the head of the
fastener or nut.
2. A crack of this magnitude and under high
stresses may continue to grow to failure at a
rapid rate.
3. Eddy current tests are well known for
detecting small fatigue cracks, particularly in
aluminum fastener holes.
92
Testing of Aircraft Structures
1. Eddy current tests can be used to detect fatigue cracks resulting from
cyclic loading during flight, take-off, or landing.
2. Organizations have used automated eddy current testing to ensure that
critical engine components are free of rejectable surface discontinuities.
Chemical and Petroleum Applications
1. Heat exchanger tube testing is an important part of maintenance for the
refining and petroleum industry.
2. Heat exchangers and condensers are designed to keep products in the
tubes separate from products in the vessel. A leaking tube could cause a
significant impact on production, catastrophic failure, and perhaps loss of
life.
3. Eddy current bobbin probes are used in this application. They test for
discontinuities in the tubes such as cracks, corrosion, and mechanical
abnormalities that may affect the integrity of the tube.
93
Power Generation Applications
1. The most common use of electromagnetic testing in the power industry is
tube testing in heat exchangers such as:
a. Steam generators (nuclear plants).
b. Balance of plant (BOP), nuclear and fossil.
c. Oil coolers.
2. The following table shows a list of heat exchangers and damage
mechanisms in power generation applications.

94
Industrial Air Conditioning Chillers Applications
1. Cooling for large buildings and
manufacturing facilities is most
commonly provided by industrial chillers
(comfort cooling).
2. A typical chiller has two heat exchanger
bundles (condenser and evaporator).
3. These heat exchanger tubes have fins on
their outside and inside diameters to
increase heat transfer surface and
improve cooling water flow.
4. The following figure shows a typical
centrifugal chiller with the condenser
and evaporator heat exchanger sections.

95
Primary Metals Industries Testing of Hot Rolled Bars
There are several requirements for an effective electromagnetic bar testing:
1. High discontinuity sensitivity.
2. Ability to classify bar quantity.
3. Full automatic operation.
4. Rugged construction for use in mills.
5. Ability to test bars as received without special preparation.
A rotating surface probe eddy current technique is used for the testing of
hot rolled bars.

96
Testing of Square Billets
1. Eddy current testing can automatically inspect 100% of the surface of steel
billets without the need of an operators judgment for interpreting test
results.
2. A typical system can detect seams, evaluate their severity, and mark the
location of those that exceed an acceptable depth.
3. The key component in this system is a scanning head assembly that keeps
an eddy current probe in contact with, and tangent to, the billet surface at
all locations around the periphery, including the corners.

97
Testing of Hot Steel Rods and Wires
1. Surface discontinuity testing is essential in the quality assurance of iron
and steel products.
2. In many mills, eddy current and flux leakage testing are carried out after
the rolling, shearing, and cooling process.
3. Eddy current testing using an encircling coil has been applied for the
testing of hot rolling of bars and hot wires. Generally the encircling coils
are in the differential mode coil arrangement.
4. This system can detect short discontinuities, such as scabs and roll marks.

98
 Lesson 11

Remote Field Testing (RFT)

Instrumentation
A typical remote field instrument contains the following components:
1. Oscillator: The signal source for the exciter coil and a reference for the
detector signal.
2. Power amplifier: Increases the power level form the oscillator
signal to drive the exciter coil.
3. Phase and Amplitude Detectors: Measures the detector coil signal.
4. Computer: Storage device to process and stores the data.
5. The next image shows the different electronic components of a typical
remote field testing system.

100
Probe Configuration
1. The next image shows the configuration of a basic remote field eddy
current probe.
2. The probe contains one exciter coil and one receiving coil.
3. They are separated by a distance greater than twice the tubes diameter.
4. The detector measures the electromagnetic field remote from the exciter.

101
Probe Fill Factor
1. The fill factor for a remote field testing probe should be a minimum of
70% or higher.
2. A lower fill factor reduces sensitivity to small discontinuities, but does not
affect the quality of the data generated.
3. The ability to function with low fill factor makes remote field testing
applicable for pipes with internal coating and tight bends.
Probe Speed

1. The probe pull speed should be slow enough so that the digital sample
rate allows the field profile near the probe to be accurately recorded.
2. The speed of testing should be as constant as possible to avoid
anomalous signals.

102
Frequency Selection
1. Remote field testing operates at relatively low frequencies ranging from
40 to 500 Hz.
2. A lower frequency up to 250 Hz is used for thick walled and high
permeability pipe.
3. For higher sensitivity and high test speeds, a higher frequency is used.
Higher frequency is used to minimize noise and to remain in the remote
field zone.
4. Electromagnetic noise such as welders, electric motors, and pumps tends
in general to generate noise in the frequency range of remote field testing.

103
Remote Field Testing Applications
Remote field testing can be used for all conventional carbon steel material
specifications, diameter and wall thicknesses. The test speed can be up to 60
ft (18.3 m)/minute depending on wall thickness and test frequency.

Sensitivity

1. The accuracy for remote field testing in the straight part of the tubes is
about 5% of wall thickness for general wall loss. It is less than 20% of
wall for highly localized discontinuities and in bends in u-bend tube
applications. This is due to changes in magnetic properties and due to
shielding effects of external objects.
2. Remote field testing can detect both internal and external surface
discontinuities with equal sensitivity, but in most cases cannot
differentiate between them without using near field coils.
3. Remote field testing is insensitive to scale, nonmagnetic debris or
magnetic deposits, and centralizing of the probe is not critical.

104
Signal Analysis and Data Presentation

1. Remote field test data are recorded in computer memory or hard drive.
2. Phase amplitude diagrams (voltage planes) are displayed during the test
on instrument monitors in real time.
3. The data can be recalled for display, analysis, and final report preparation.
4. Most remote field test instruments display the data as strip charts and
voltage planes. In addition some instruments have automatic depth sizing
and reporting software.

105
Reference and Calibration Standards
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ASTM A 450/A450M General requirements for carbon, ferritic alloys and austenitic alloy steel
tubes
ASTM B 244 Method for measurement of thickness of anodic coatings of aluminum and other
nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base materials with eddy current instruments
ASTM B 659 Recommended practice for measurement of thickness of metallic coatings on
nonmetallic substrates
ASTM E 215 Standardizing equipment for electromagnetic testing of seamless aluminum alloy
tube
ASTM E 243 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless copper and copper alloy tubes
ASTM E 309 Eddy current examination of steel tubular products using magnetic saturation
ASTM E 426 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless and welded tubular products
austenitic stainless steel and similar alloys
ASTM E 571 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nickel and nickel alloy tubular
products
ASTM E 690 In-situ electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nonmagnetic heat-exchanger
tubes
ASTM E 703 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of nonferrous metals
ASTM E 1004 Electromagnetic (eddy current) measurements of electrical conductivity

106
EDDY CURRENT TUBE TESTING
TECHNIQUE
108
109
Magnetic field

110
111
112
113
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115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
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129
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133
134
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136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
IMPORTANT TIPS ON SIGNAL ANALYSIS

144
Possible Defects

ID pitting: inside diameter pitting

This can be caused from poor water treatment, scale getting lodged into the tube and
vibrating back and forth, ID Deposits, or from tube manufacturing. When ID Pitting has
occurred under deposits, this defect can be very deep and small in diameter and can
be very difficult to accurately depth analyze, and almost impossible if the deposit is
magnetic.

OD pitting: outside diameter pitting

This does not normally exist without corrosion being associated with it. OD pits can be
directly from manufacturing if there is no corrosion present. OD pits may also be
mistaken for Zipper Cracks.

Fretting: also known as saddle wear

Caused by excess machine vibration, surging or the support plate was drilled too large,
or sometimes water flow problems. It is the most unpredictable defects due to the
work hardening at the support plate area due to the continual tube vibration causing
the tube to rupture at any time. This defect is tube wear at the tube support plate.
Once this phenomena starts, the rate of damage increases exponentially.
145
OD deposits: outside diameter deposits
Outside Diameter Deposits are caused from moisture that has been in the system for
some time, rust from machine manufacturing, or from tube manufacturing. An OD
Deposit can look like a defect at normal test frequency, but can be recognized at a
proper frequency. OD Deposits can also mask defects on the outside, or inside of the
tube.

Id deposits: inside diameter deposits

Inside Diameter Deposits are caused from silty water, slow water flow, poor water
treatment, lack of proper tube cleaning, or the unit has been stored for the season
with silty water. ID Deposits can cause serious ID Pitting, and can make eddy current
testing difficult, if the deposit is magnetic.

Geometric changes
This type of indication normally happens in the same area along the length of a tube
and is the same for most all tubes in that bundle. This is from tube processing and can
be mistaken for many ID defect, OD defects, and Dents in the tube bundle if frequency
comparison is not properly utilized. These are referenced as tube manufacturing tool
impressions.

146
Corrosion OD
OD Corrosion is sometimes difficult to determine the exact extent of damage, but is
easily found. OD Corrosion is caused by excessive moisture, over a period of time in
the system. This type of defect in a worse case can set up stress corrosion cracking.

Circumferential cracking:
There are many mechanical variances that can cause this type of defect. Tube
manufacturing, tube installation at manufacturing, operation, or a combination of any
of the three. Due to the nature of circumferential cracks, and the rarity of this
occurrence, detection of this type of defect is virtually impossible with Eddy Current
testing.

Unknown indications:
In some units there are indications that can not be accurately analyzed. In some cases,
it may be better to plug these tubes just to be safe, unless otherwise stated in the final
report. Even the best of Eddy Current equipment, some circumstances still hinder the
analyzing capabilities that would normally take place. It is also a general understanding
that Eddy Current is not a 100% type of inspection. This is due to the nature of Eddy
Current Testing, and to all the different
147
Multi- frequency testing - Principles
1. In multi-frequency testing, two or more sinusoidal signals of different
frequencies are fed simultaneously to a single eddy current probe. Gain
and phase of the output signal from each frequency can be separately
controlled.
2. Multi-frequency testing allows signals from undesirable variables to be
eliminated. Usually, two frequencies are mixed to suppress one variable
in order to monitor a second variable, resulting in a mixed output
which is insensitive to that condition.
3. The most common application is to eliminate unwanted signals, so that
signals of interest give clear, easy to interpret indications.
4. The primary frequency used in multi-frequency testing is usually f90
and, as a general rule, the second frequency should be no greater than
half the primary frequency for external variables and no less than twice
the primary frequency for the internal variables.

148
Multi- frequency testing - Applications

1. It is most often used in tube testing, but some surface testing

applications also make use of it.
2. For tube testing examples include, baffle plates, probe wobble and fill
factor signals.
3. In tube testing a third frequency is sometimes used to eliminate probe
wobble noise or signals from dents.
4. In general, higher operating frequencies are used the suppression of
internal
5. variables like probe wobble or dents, whereas low and intermediate
frequencies are used for the suppression of external variables like
baffles.

149
Important tips on signal analysis
1. The coil(s) in bobbin probes produce eddy currents circumferentially around the
tube wall.
2. Flaws can be detected only if they distort the flow of eddy currents, a lamination
or other separation of the material parallel to the surface of the tube cannot be
detected.
3. Narrow circumferential or transverse flaws like fatigue cracks and stress corrosion
cracks cannot be detected, as shown in figure.
4. Stress corrosion cracks are often branched and may be detected. Fatigue cracks,
are not branched and the likelihood of detection is very low.
5. Flaws which progress along the tube, like seams, and flaws which are relatively
wide, like fretting grooves and corrosion pits, can be readily detected if they are of
a significant size.

150
Important tips on signal analysis
1. Absolute probes have only one coil sensing the test material.
2. Differential probes have two coils sensing the test material.
3. Differential probes give a signal only when the two coils sense different
conditions. Identical conditions and gradually varying conditions, like
gradual wall thinning, cannot be detected by differential probes.
4. Long flaws, such as a seam in a tube, will give a signal only at their
beginning and end.
5. In Differential probes, probe wobble noise is much less, and temperature
drift and wandering of the spot because of changes in the conductivity of
the tube are almost absent.

151
Important tips on signal analysis

As the frequency increases, the phase separation between the inside surface flaw and
the outside surface flaw increases, but the amplitude of the outside surface flaw
decreases relative to the inside surface flaw.

152
Important tips on signal analysis
Absolute probe signals

During testing of in-service tubes, signals can appear at similar phase angles to those
of flaws. It is therefore important to be familiar with these signals and how to
distinguish them from flaw signals. These conditions include the following.

(a) Probe wobble

1. Probe wobble appears as a variation in fill factor and so gives an approximately

horizontal signal either side of the operating point for all test frequencies.
2. This signal is readily distinguishable from flaw signals, but can add noise to other
signals and so is undesirable.
3. High frequencies increase the relative intensity of the inside surface eddy currents
and so cause greater probe wobble signals.

153
Important tips on signal analysis
Probe wobble contd.

4. The signals can therefore be reduced by decreasing the test frequency. This may
not be acceptable because of decreased sensitivity to the outside surface
conditions, so if probe wobble noise is a problem, a slightly larger diameter probe
should be used.
5. Alternatively, the probe being used could be wrapped with adhesive tape to
reduce wobble.

154
Important tips on signal analysis
(b) Dents
1. Dents can be present in tubes in heat exchangers because of the build-up of
corrosion products between the tube and a baffle plate or tube support sheet, and
from other causes.
2. The stresses associated with them can lead to stress corrosion cracking or fatigue
cracking.
3. A dent causes a reduction in inside and outside diameters without any significant
thinning or the tube wall, and therefore appears as an increase in fill factor at all
test frequencies, as shown in figure.
4. This signal is readily distinguishable from flaw signals.

155
Important tips on signal analysis
(c) Ferromagnetic conditions at the inside
surface
1. A ferromagnetic inclusion at or near the
inside surface of a nonferrous tube or an
accumulation of iron oxide corrosion
product give a similar signal.
2. The ferromagnetic material increases the
amount of flux which in turn increases
the inductive reactance of the coil. The
signal produced is therefore in the
upwards direction on the impedance
diagram, whatever the test frequency.
3. However, although the direction on
the impedance diagram varies little
with frequency, the direction relative
to the fill factor direction or the direction
of flaw signals varies considerable as
shown in the figure adjacent.
156
Important tips on signal analysis
(c) Ferromagnetic conditions at the inside surface Contd.
4. At f90 (and at higher frequencies) the signal appears between the shallow inside
surface flaw and shallow outside surface flaw signals, and so could be mistaken
for a flaw signal (see the two lower operating points) as shown below.
5. A signal from a ferromagnetic condition at the inside surface can be distinguished
from a flaw signal by retesting at a lower frequency, for example, 1/4 f90 or lower.
6. As the frequency is reduced, the angle between the shallow inside surface flaw
and the shallow outside surface flaw signals decreases, as shown in the upper
operating point in the figure below. That is, the outside surface flaw signal rotates
anticlockwise towards the inside surface flaw signal. However, a signal from a
ferromagnetic condition at the inside surface will rotate slightly clockwise.

157
Important tips on signal analysis
(d) Ferromagnetic conditions at the outside surface

1. A ferromagnetic condition at the outside surface gives the same signal as a

ferromagnetic condition at the inside surface except that, because the eddy
currents which are affected by it have a phase delay with respect to the inside
surface eddy currents, the signal shows a phase shift.
2. In addition, the eddy currents at the outside surface have a lower intensity than
those at the inside surface, so the signal amplitude is less for a ferromagnetic
condition at the outside surface. That is, the difference is the same as the
difference between the signals from flaws at the outside and inside surfaces.
3. At a test frequency of f90, outside surface signals are rotated 90 clockwise with
respect to inside signals. At lower frequencies, the phase rotation is less, but the
signal amplitude is greater, whereas at higher frequencies, the phase rotation is
greater, but the signal amplitude is less.

158
Important tips on signal analysis
(d) Ferromagnetic conditions at the outside surface contd.

4. The signal from a ferromagnetic condition at the outside surface will show phase
rotation with respect to the signal from an inside surface flaw, as stated above,
whereas a dent signal will remain approximately 1800 from the inside surface flaw
signal.
5. It could be confused with a signal from a dent, but the two can readily be
distinguished if required by retesting at a different test frequency.

159
Important tips on signal analysis
(d). Non-ferromagnetic support or baffle plates and conducting deposits at the
outside surface
1. A non-ferromagnetic tube support of baffle plate gives the combined effect of
an increase in thickness of the tube.
2. If the support has a different conductivity from that of the tube, a change of
conductivity causes, clockwise rotation because of phase shift.
3. A change of conductivity will give a signal approximately parallel to the
conductivity curve, which is approximately vertical.
4. A decrease in conductivity will move the spot generally upwards, whereas an
increase in conductivity will move the spot generally downwards.

160
Important tips on signal analysis
(d). Non-ferromagnetic support or baffle plates and conducting deposits at the
outside surface contd.
5. However, the conductivity change occurs at the outside of the tube, and is
therefore phase shifted. At f90, this phase shift is 90 clockwise, so if the
conductivity of the support is less than that of the tube, the spot will move
generally to the right.
6. If the conductivity of the support is greater than that of the tube the spot will
move generally to the left. Consequently, the effect of a difference in conductivity
between the support and the tube is to rotate the increase in thickness signal
anticlockwise if the support has a lower conductivity and clockwise if the support
has higher conductivity.

161
Important tips on signal analysis
(e) Ferromagnetic support or baffle plates

1. The signal from ferromagnetic support or baffle plates is complex because it

combines an increase of thickness, a phase shifted change of conductivity, and a
phase shifted increase in permeability.
2. The first two effects give a signal similar to that of a non-ferromagnetic baffle
plate, and move the spot downwards and to the left. The signal from a
ferromagnetic baffle plate commences in much the same way, because there is
little magnetic response to the very weak magnetic field produced initially in the
baffle plate.
3. However, as the probe gets closer to the baffle plate, the magnetic effect
increases, and the spot moves sideways to the right, as was the case for a
ferromagnetic condition at the outside surface. The signal therefore usually has a
distinct bend in it, giving rise to a characteristic hooked or curved signal .

162
Important tips on signal analysis
Ferromagnetic support or baffle plates contd.
4. Absolute probe signals from ferromagnetic baffle plates are below the horizontal
and so are not readily confused with flaw signals.
5. Corrosion is common at the locations of baffle plates, and, if a flaw does occurs at
this location, the signal will be a combination of the two conditions, and may be
difficult to interpret.
6. Baffle plate signals should therefore be examined carefully, and any difference
from the usual signal for the particular installation needs to be analyzed to
determine if it incorporates a flaw signal.

163
Important tips on signal analysis
Ferromagnetic support or baffle plates contd.

7. This is often possible because eddy current signals are generally vectorially
additive. This means, for instance, that if one condition causes the spot
to move upwards and another concurrent condition causes the spot to move
to the left, then the spot will move obliquely, upwards and to the left.

164
Important tips on signal analysis
Signals from differential probes
1. When a differential probe is pulled along the tube, the first coil detects the
particular condition, and a signal very similar to that produced by an absolute
probe is produced.
2. As the probe is pulled further along, the second coil starts sensing the condition.
The difference between the two coils is reduced, and so the signal amplitude
decreases until, when the condition is detected equally by the two coils, the spot
returns to the operating point. As the probe is pulled further along, the condition
is sensed more by the second
coil than the first coil, so the
bridge becomes unbalanced
in the opposite direction, and
a signal in the opposite direction
is produced.

165
Important tips on signal analysis
Signals from differential probes contd.

3. Absolute probe signals, which are close to 180apart, such as a shallow inside
surface flaw and a magnetic deposit at the outside surface, will give very similar
differential probe signals.
4. These signals may be distinguished only by observing the initial direction of
movement of the spot, which is the same direction as the absolute signal.
5. If the probe is pushed rather than pulled, there is no change to absolute signals,
but differential signals are traced out in reverse. That is, the initial direction of the
spot movement is the opposite to when the probe is pulled, and opposite to the
direction of the corresponding absolute probe signal.
6. One of the property of differential probe signals is that when a condition persists
for some length along the tube, like a seam, the first half of the signal is produced
when it detects the beginning of the condition, and the second half of the signal is
produced when it detects the end of the condition. In between, when both coils
are sensing the condition, there is no signal.

166
Important tips on signal analysis
Correlating flaw depth and signal phase angle

1. Usually, evaluation of flaw depth is accomplished by measuring the phase angle

of the flaw signal and comparing it to those obtained from a suitable reference
standard.
2. This is normally done by using a reference standard of the type indicated in
Section V Article 8 of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, to prepare a
graph correlating flaw depth and signal phase angle.
3. The ASME reference standard contains flat bottom holes 20%, 40%, 60%, and 80%
of the tube wall thickness from the outside surface, and a through hole.
4. If these artificial flaws in the reference standard represent the flaws being
analyzed, then reasonably accurate results can be obtained.
5. However it should be realised that some flaws, for example, narrow
circumferential flaws like fretting grooves, and the grooves in the common British
reference tube, will not show the kind of correlation of phase angle and flaw
depth shown by the ASME reference tube.
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Correlating flaw depth and signal phase angle contd.
6. Higher frequency provides greater phase separation than the other frequencies.
7. Accuracy of flaw depth estimation by correlating flaw depth and phase angle
increases with increasing frequency.
8. The optimum frequency for evaluating flaw depth by relating it to signal phase
angle has been found to be approximately 2f90, and this frequency is
recommended for defect evaluation. (The optimum evaluating frequency, based
on a 90separation between the through hole and a flaw at 50% of the wall
thickness at the outside surface, is 2.2f90).
9. A typical curve correlating flaw depth and phase angle is shown as below.

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Important tips on signal analysis
Correlating flaw depth and signal phase angle

10 Higher frequencies give greater accuracy, but the signal from a shallow flaw at the
outside surface will then approach the horizontal (180) and so could be
confused with a dent indication or probe wobble signals.
11 Also, higher frequencies reduce the strength of signals from flaws at the outside
surface. It should be noted that operating at 2f90 rotates signals from conducting
non-ferromagnetic deposits at the outside surface to over 360 that is, to the
region occupied by flaws at the inside surface.
12 Care must be taken therefore to correctly identify signals from such deposits at
the frequency used for detection of signals (f90) before changing to the evaluation
frequency.
13 The accuracy of flaw depth estimation increases with increasing flaw depth. This is
advantageous because the greater flaw depths are of course more critical.

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Important tips on signal analysis
Correlating flaw depth and signal amplitude

1. Some flaws do not show the kind correlation of phase angle and flaw depth shown
by the ASME reference tube. This can be the case for narrow flaws such as fretting
wear at the tube support plates and anti-vibration bars.
2. If it is known that the likely type of flaw shows correlation between signal
amplitude and flaw depth, signal amplitude may be used to estimate flaw depth.
3. A suitable reference standard containing artificial flaws simulating the type of flaw
expected should be prepared and a graph correlating signal amplitude with flaw
depth, should be prepared as shown below.

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ANY QUESTIONS ?

THANKS

171
REMOTE FIELD EDDY CURRENT TESTING

1. General theory
2. Setup & Calibration
3. Analysis

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ANY QUESTIONS ?

THANKS

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