DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000
Applications of Digital Elevation Models
J. R. Sulebak
SINTEF Institute of Applied Mathematics
Department of Geographic Information Technology
E-post: jrs@math.sintef.no
White paper developed as part of the DYNAMAP project, Oslo 2000. The document gives and insight into different
applications areas for Digital Elevation Models.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental issues are of vital importance for
human life on Earth. A question is, how can 3-
dimensional information of the topography of the
Earth surface help us in understanding our
vulnerable environment and secure a more
sustainable management and use of our
environmental resources. What are the areas in
which digital elevation models are essential tools
easing the struggle towards a better ability to
perceive and analyze the physical, biological,
chemical and cultural character of the Earths
surface?
This paper tries to answer some of these questions
by giving a presentation of representative
applications and possible business opportunities
with respect to digital elevation models. The paper
is intended to focus on the potential use of digital
elevation data in science, security relevant
applications or in management and decision
making related to environmental issues in
community. In other words, an aim is that
geologists, hydrologists, ecologists,
geomorphologists, civil and mining engineers,
geographers, geophysics, soil scientists,
climatologists, managers and specialists working
- Applications of Digital Elevation Models - DYNAMAP "White paper", 2000
in environmental planning agencies, in mineral
and petroleum industries and in consulting firms
become intrigued by the widespread application
areas of digital terrain and elevation models.
A problem however so far is that analysis and
interpretation of remotely sensed data as well as
the generation of scientific computer models
require terrain models for data correction and
simulation of a quality that is currently not
available. Thus, a prerequisite for a fully
exploitation of the potential of DEMs is to make
them available for the community at sufficient
accuracy, detail, projection and format to sustain a
variety of applications need for topographical
information.
TOPOGRAPHY
The knowledge of the surface topography is of
major importance to the Earth sciences. It is
essential in any discipline concerned with process
modeling like hydrology, climatology,
geomorphology and ecology. As will be seen in
this paper it is also a prerequisite for many
applications in civil and military agencies and in
industrial areas like telecommunications
(specifically, radio wave propagation), navigation,
hydrology, disaster management (prevention,
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 DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000

relief, assessment), transportation and of small-scale features could give valuable

infrastructure planning. In a classical sense, the information when analyzing large-scale
expression topography is defined by the Greek phenomena.
words topos and graphein referring to place and
the process of writing or describing, respectively. Today, the techniques of radar interferometry
Topography is, therefore, a detailed study or with Synthetic Aperture Radar systems (SAR) and
description of a particular place or region. By laser interferometry (LIDAR) are currently the
describing the elevation of each point and its most advanced technology and the most effective
neighborhood, topography is a graphic way of acquiring topographic information. It is
representation of landscapes natural surface independent of cloud covers, sun illumination and
features including hills, valleys, rivers, lakes and the contrast of the Earth's surface.
such, as principle man-made features. Typically,
topography is drawn on maps and charts or DIGITAL ELEVATION MODELS
otherwise presented.
When modern aerial photography and satellite
remote sensing started to provide continuos
Early topographic models were made of wood,
surface information by means of optical cameras,
pasteboards, plaster or moulded material, maps
radar or laser beams, for example, and the
were, then painted by hand onto the surface of the
derivation of terrain elevation was made possible
model. More familiar are paper maps with the
by stereoscopy and interferometry, topography
topography recorded as shaded relief, slope map
gained whole new meaning in spatial studies. Our
or as contour lines. The first two methods gives a
ability to perceive and analyze the physical,
strong visual effect of 3-dimension (or rely 2.5
biological, chemical and cultural character of the
dimension) helping the reader of the map to grasp
Earths surface has, since, been greatly expanded.
the essential characteristics of the landscape
features. These methods of displaying relief are,
Today, the elevation information is represented in
however inadequate in that they do not give any
computers as elevation data in a digital format.
information on the elevation above sea level of all
This format is usually called digital elevation
points on the map or how steep the slopes are.
models (DEM). Thus a DEM is a computerized
Topographic contours derived from
representation of the Earths relief. Different
photogrammetry by interpreting stereo aerial
formats exists, among the most usual are
photography images give an accurate depiction of
triangulated irregular networks (TIN), regular
the elevation along the contours. Between the
grids, contour lines and scattered data points. A
contours however topographic contours supply
DEM is usually described either by a wire frame
only fairly accurate information about elevation
model or an image matrix in which the value of
and slopes, being derived from an interpolation
each pixel is associated with a specific topographic
between precisely determined reference points
height.
along the contours. The elevation is also always
estimated to the nearest meter. The need for Digital elevation models are in combination with
approximation and generalization in topographic other spatial data, an important database for
maps results in great loss of detail and accuracy. topography-related analyses or 3D video
Although in some circumstances the elimination animations (e.g. fly-throughs). Different

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georeferenced 3D products can be derived and
complemented by a coordinate system and
presented in a 2D-map projection or as a 3D
perspective view.
The availability of DEM data
The science community and the commercial
market are increasingly aware of the importance
of DEMs in their applications. However there are
certain limitations in their employment. On the
one hand, there is only limited access to existing
digital topographic data due to high costs and
military secrecy. On the other hand, free available
global data sets with a horizontal resolution of 1
km and a vertical one of 100 m do not meet the
requirements of detailed spatial and geographical
analysis. Additionally, when using the mosaic of
existing DEMs, which where derived by different
resolutions, datums, frequencies and
polarizations, in order to arrive at global
representations of the Earths relief, the results are
inhomogeneous, inconsistent and, consequently,
incomparable.
At present, currently available digital elevation
models exhibit discontinuities with respect to
coverage, resolution, accuracy and reference
datum. They are also inhomogeneous because
they are derived through different acquisition
methods. The currently best, most comprehensive,
global data set comes with a horizontal resolution
of one kilometer and an elevation accuracy of 100
meters.
Unfortunately, the acquisition of digital terrain
models is too expensive for most environmental
authorities and private users. This however, may
change with the Shuttle Radar Topographic
Mission project carried out in february 2000. The
aim of this project was to map the topography of
the earth surface (80%) from space within 11 days
by using SAR interferometry. The result will be
- Applications of Digital Elevation Models -- DYNAMAP "White paper", 2000
DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000
the first continuos large-scale product, which has
not been mosaiced from data derived from
differing sensors, formats and dates. It will be
global consistency and based on one geodetical
reference system. The expected low cost of SRTM
data will make DEM affordable for many scientific
and operational users.
DEM and Geographical information systems
DEMs can be used together with other spatial
data, image data in geographic information
systems (GIS), for instance. A GIS is an
information system designed to acquire, store,
process and display data referenced by spatial or
geographical coordinates. In a sense, a GIS may be
thought of as a higher-order map, being both a
database system with specific capabilities for
spatially referenced data as well as a set of
operations for processing and analyzing the data.
The DEM provides a basic spatial reference
system to the GIS spatial data set. Images or vector
information can automatically be draped over and
integrated with the DEM for more advanced
analysis.
APPLICATIONS OF DEM
Geographical information technology and digital
image processing have become a rapidly
expanding field in recent years with particular
significance in the treatment of geo- and image
information for scientific, commercial and
operational applications. For most applications in
these three domains, digital elevation models
(DEMs) are an important, integral part. In the
following sections the various applications and
application areas of DEMs is described in more
detail. It is decided to consider these as a selection
of representative activities in the domains of
Scientific applications
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Commercial applications
Industrial applications
Operational applications
Military applications
where DEMs play a significant role in the
improvement of analysis result, product
development and decision making.
Thus, DEM are an asset in a variety of both
commercial and public business and management
fields within telecommunications, navigation,
energy, disaster management, transportation,
weather forecast, remote sensing, geodesy, land
cover classification, civil engineering and many
more. The wide range of different applications in
which DEMs will be useful reflect the overall
importance of the availability of global, consistent,
high quality digital elevation models.
SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS
Exact information about the Earths surface is of
fundamental importance in all geosciences. The
topography exaggerate control over range of Earth
surface processes (evaporation, water flow, mass
movement, forest fires) important for the energy
exchange between the physical climate system in
the atmosphere and the biogeochemical cycles at
the Earth surface. Ecology investigates the
dependencies between all life forms and their
environment such as soil, water, climate and
landscape. Hydrology needs the knowledge about
the relief to model the movement of water,
glaciers and ice. Geomorphology describes the
relief recognizing form-building processes.
Climatology investigates fluxes of temperature,
moisture, air particles all influenced by
topography.
- Applications of Digital Elevation Models -- DYNAMAP "White paper", 2000
DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000
In weather forecast and climate modeling,
models of conversion processes between the
ground and the atmosphere as well as of
movements in the lower atmospheric strata
also rely on uniform and global DEMs.
Relationship between the topography and the
shape of the land surface with a variety of
state variables of geo-processes like
evaporation, runoff, soil moisture, influencing
the climate in local and global scale.
Another area of application is a global land cover
classification. Precise mapping and classification
of the Earth's surface at a global scale is the most
important prerequisite for large-scale modeling of
geo-processes. In numerous studies, it was
demonstrated that radar images are suitable for
documentation and classification of natural
vegetation and agricultural areas. In remote
sensing DEMs are used together with GIS to
correct images or retrieve thematic information
with respect to sensor geometry and local relief to
produce geocoded products. Thus, for the
synergic use of different sensor systems (and GIS),
digital elevation model are a prerequisite for
geocoding satellite images and correcting terrain
effects in radar scenes.
To summarize, the science community, for
example, employs DEMs for research on
Climate impact studies
Water and wildlife management
Geological and hydrological modeling
Geographic information technology
Geomorphology and landscape analysis
Mapping purposes and
Educational programs
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COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS
Commercial applications are more marked and
business oriented applications related to sale and
distribution of DEM and DEM products. From this
point of view, two main market sectors are
interested in digital terrain models. One sector
employs basic DEM products where data are
preprocessed and geocoded but have no
application associated with them. The other sector
encompasses the value-adding services, which
couple DEMs with a specific application. The
following overview for both sectors addresses
questions like
Is there a market for digital elevation models?
Do the users know the available products?
Are there any competitors on the market?
Commercial providers offer DEMs or DEM
associated products, which are of interests for
issues in
Telecommunication
Air traffic routing and navigation
Planning and construction
Geological exploration
Hydrological and meteorological services
Geokoding of remote sensing and
Market of multimedia applications
computer games
Basic DEM products
New opportunities for generating digital elevation
models are given by new technology in remote
sensing to measure elevation at the Earth surface
at increasing resolution for larger areas. An
- Applications of Digital Elevation Models -- DYNAMAP "White paper", 2000
DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000
example is the X-SAR/STRM Shuttle Radar
Topography Mission that gives a digital elevation
data at 30m resolution covering 80% of the Earth
surface. Several studies where carried out for the
European Union, for the European Space Agency
and by the Euroimage Consortium. All studies
confirm that there is not only a significant marked
which is served with remotely sensed DEMs from
airborne and spaceborne sensors, they even
forecast a boost in the DEM offers induced several
radar and high-resolution optical sensors. The
studies demonstrated a currently strong need for
DEMs of a variety of sources with accuracies
ranging form 1m to 100m. DEMs covering areas of
tens of millions km2 with annual production rates
of several million km2 are in the archives.
A large amount of topographic data is available.
In many cases however, the coverage is
incomplete or the products are not accessible for
civilian. Also technology is needed to effectively
manage and distribute the large amount of
elevation data collected to an increasing number
of disparate users.
For many years, companies and agencies have
offered digital elevation data from different
countries. The cost varies from country to country.
The largest distributor of DEMs worldwide is the
French company ISTAR, followed by Atlantis
Scientific Inc., USA. The main data source used by
ISTAR is the SPOT system, complemented by ERS
and RADARSAT and recently by airborne SAR
and
DEMs.
In Norway the leading distributor is The
Norwegian Mapping Authority. They deliver a
digital elevation model (DTED level 1) for the
whole of Norway at 100m resolution. Digital
elevation data as contour lines however is
available at larger scale. Other Norwegian
providers of digital elevation models are BLOM
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ASA and Fotonor, offering high-resolution DEMs
by e.g. using laser interferometry and digital
photogrammetry.
Customer are only willing to invest in DEMs if the
data product is according to their specific needs,
e.g. delivered in a specific data model (TIN,
GRID), covering the entire study area
homogeneously at accurate resolution.
Value added DEM products
In the long run, the sales of basic digital elevation
models only cover the operational costs of a
company. The real market opportunity lies in the
value-adding process during which the basic
products are tailored to the requirement of an end-
user. Value-adding cover a variety of processes
ranging form transforming the reference
coordinate system into a user specific grid to
applications in the fields of e.g.
- planning and construction
- hydrological and meteorological services,
including risk assessment
- geocoding of remote sensing data
In all the above market segments digital elevation
models are required. The marked dynamics are
vivid. Some of the end-users buy DEM data others
license them. Some offers DEMs for resale.
Presumably, the value-adding enterprise will
show the most rapid growth rate for DEM use
within the next decade.
Planning and construction
Desktop planning and construction based on high
resolution digital elevation models is a market for
both, the small value-adding businesses as well as
the large construction companies. Linear
constructions like roads, railway tracks, oil and
gas pipelines, bridges and electric power lines
- Applications of Digital Elevation Models -- DYNAMAP "White paper", 2000
DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000
may be planned without having to send surveyors
onsite. For example digital topographic data sets
facilitate urban planning and enable engineers to
model new roads within an existing landscape
context.
Hydrology and meteorological services including
risk assessment
For hydrological modeling of watersheds, it is
necessary to have very precise and homogenous
DEMs. Only through the combination of
topographic data, land use information,
precipitation, water storage etc. is a forecast on
river flooding possible. Apart from such extreme
events, an ongoing analysis of hydrological
situation is important for the agricultural activities
like irrigation management and for power
companies when estimating the market of
electricity. Small and medium-sized value-adding
companies in cooperation with local and central
water management authorities can carry out this
work.
It should be possible to provide services of
hydrological parameter extraction form
interferometric SAR data and the development of
flood forecast models based on remote sensing
and digital elevation data. Examples of such
parameters are flow paths and slope that may
serve as input into a rainfall-runoff model for
flood forecast and flood prediction. Insurance
companies are very interested customers of this
kind of manipulated DEM data for a client-
oriented assessment of flood risks.
Geocoding of remote sensing data
A variety of applications require the combination
of imagery of different sensors, seasons,
resolutions or frequencies. For these purposes, the
remotely sensed data sets need to be geocoded,
meaning that each pixel in an image will be
6

transformed from its sensor dependent relative
grid system position to its absolute geographic
coordinates. If this is not or rather insufficiently
performed, any quantitative interpretation of
remote sensing data will render erroneous results.
In the case of side looking sensors, the
transformation from slant to ground range is
extremely important, especially of terrain with
large relief. Neglecting the influence of image
geometry distortions caused by topographical
effects will results in a great loss of detailed
information or in the worst case in incorrect
analysis results. The providers of satellite data
usually carry out this kind of value-adding.
However, in many cases, where DEMs of
sufficient accuracy does not exists for geocoding
purposes, this process has to be subcontracted.
SRTM DEMs for example may prove beneficial
for geocoding ERS or Envisat products in cases
where no other digital elevation models are
available for the area under study.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
For industrial applications digital elevation
models are used for development of market-
oriented product technology, improved services
and to increase the economic outcome of the
industrial production. Such applications are found
within e.g. the Telecom, Telematics, Avionics,
Mining, Mineral exploration, Tourism and
Engineering industry.
Telecom industry
The telecommunication sector encompasses
manufacturers, wireless service providers and
operators. About 60% of all DEM sales in Europe
are to the telecommunication industry (GIS
Europe 1996). Topographic data are used for
- Applications of Digital Elevation Models -- DYNAMAP "White paper", 2000
DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000
macro cell planning (area grid cells ranging
from 3-5km with elevated base transceiver
stations)
micro cell planning (mainly applied in central
parts of large cities)
clutter data (land use information in the
telecommunication industry)
Typically the databases of 100m grid elevation
data are used for macro cell planning while
detailed 5-10 m elevation data are used for micro
cell planning. Tools are developed for modeling
multitransmitter communication networks and for
aid in positioning of radio towers. Such tools
strongly rely on the availability of recent DEMs
and land use information supplied by value-
adding companies.
Actual digital elevation models are required for
determining optimal locations for transmitting
masts for all forms of terrestrial radio signal
propagation. Based on e.g. the SAR data of the
SRTM, DEMs will be calculated that have the
advantage of showing the existing situation "as is",
with all human-made and natural objects that
might impede radio wave transmission.
Avionics industry
By combining land use data and terrain height
information with airport databases, value-adding
software companies are able to provide avionics
industry with an important tool for collision
avoidance systems, ground proximity warning
and flight management systems. Flight simulators
for crew training will have a realistic background
and together with real-time in-flight GPS
positioning information air traffic will become
safer.
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 DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000

Telematics industry identification of oil spills on satellite imagery and

The reliability of GPS (Global Positioning System) other phenomena and combinations leads the
navigation applications, e.g., for automobiles and prospecting companies to successful explorations.
aircraft, depends on actual and precise data, too. In addition to exploration activities digital
The topographic data of SRTM are captured and elevation models are also used for monitoring the
processed in order to maintain compatibility with exploration consequences. The problems of
the global co-ordinate system defined for GPS. subsidence in mining regions, for example, is
Hence, clear improvements in GPS navigation addressed by Atlantis Scientific Inc. in cooperation
applications are expected to progress current with Shell Oil.
development. Terrestrial data acquisition often
depends on political decisions, in many cases Tourism industry
resulting in abrupt resolution changes in areas With the widespread availability of personal
where state borders meet. The resolution of SRTM computers in private households, the value-
DEMs will remain constant on a global scale. adding sector increasingly turns to expanding
private market. A great potential exists in the
Great commercial expectations are associated with
areas of tourist and leisure maps, digital color-
the expanding market of car navigation systems
coded satellite maps and digital elevation models.
and digital road map. Here the most important
An example is the CD rom Opplev Norge
information for the user remains the horizontal
provided by the Norwegian Mapping Authority.
plane, nonetheless, terrain height is used by the
Although still only using 2D maps. It should be
mapping industry to estimate elevation values to
combined with a digital elevation model
road segments. New updated road data however
combined with a fly-through software that enables
are registered with an elevation value by using
the user to virtually cruise over the terrain surface
GPS in moving vehicles.
of Norway. Other applications and companies can
be found in the tourist section. Portier System
Updated basic data can considerably enhance the
combines 2D map data, satellite images and
efficiency of transportation network planning.
orthophotos with digital elevation models with
Computer-based scenarios ease analyses of
tourist information to yield a tourist information
necessary excavations and bridges, which are
system for Norway or any specific region. Further,
primary cost factors in the construction of
the users are able to inform themselves
transportation infrastructure. A realistic
interactively about their potential vacation
simulation of air corridors to airports with actual
destination. The user can extract 3D visualizations
data is another DEM application.
and 3D fly-through animations of scenic
Mining and oil industry viewpoints and specific scenic regions of
Norwegian nature. They can also extract
Exploration experts are possibly the most
information on infrastructure, accommodations,
experienced users of remote sensing data and
leisure activities, opening hours of restaurants and
digital elevation models. By analyzing optical
more.
radar images they determine promising regions of
potential mineral deposits around the world.
More and more, a combination of remote sensing
data, especially DEMs, with gravity maps the

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OPERATIONAL APPLICATIONS
Geoinformation is a substantial part of the need of
modern society for communication and
information technologies. This data is increasingly
used throughout all levels in administration,
management and planning. Geoinformation is the
basis for regional planning and its availability the
prerequisite for decision making processes in
order to locate infrastructure development and
investment. Operational applications include
applications where DEM is used to improve
management and planning of natural resources
and within areas of regional planning,
environmental protection, hazard reduction,
military and other security-relevant applications,
insurance issues, health services, agriculture,
forestry, and soil conservation. Operational
applications are mostly related to state and
governmental services and management
operations. DEMs may ultimately replace printed
maps as the standard means of portraying
landforms. Finally, operational users need DEMs
for
generating and updating geoinformation for
governmental issues
administering assistance in areas inflicted by
disasters
airline operation safety, and
security relevant activities (risk and hazard)
Below follows some examples of operational
applications.
Reconnaissance for mineral and water resources
A successful reconnaissance for mineral and water
resources is often dependent on the opportunities
of a synoptic view of many geospatial information
sources. Geophysical and geological prospecting
has to be done in several steps by increasing
- Applications of Digital Elevation Models -- DYNAMAP "White paper", 2000
DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000
degrees of intensity mapping and prospecting.
Remote sensing information and digital elevation
models deliver basic information on geologic
structures. These information sources are
especially important in remote areas where
coverage by topographic maps is limited.
An example is finding ground water resources in
Africa where drinking water resources are scarce.
German Remotes Sensing Center aims at
extracting ground water relevant information
from radar images. Information on hydrological
patterns, lineaments, morphological structures,
tectonic and sedimentological anomalies are to be
extracted and to be merged with optical satellite
data and available topographic and geological
maps. Remote sensing techniques are being
utilized to search for promising bearing grounds
and to designate locations of wells. High-
resolution digital elevation models would deliver
much needed additional information for the
interpretation of the ground water relevant
structures and catchment areas, e.g. for wadis.
Aircraft guidance systems flight simulations
Current investigations in the field of aircraft
guidance systems focus on the improvements of
operational safety and quality. Today aircraft
crews have to handle increasingly complex
situations. The simulated topography renders
additional information and ascertains safety,
particular in critical situation like in darkness and
under adverse weather conditions. The detailed
simulation of landscape based on accurate digital
elevation model is important for training purposes
but, more so, guiding the aircraft when
approaching an unsupported airstrip, be it times
of military actions or when attempting to reach an
undeveloped area affected by natural hazards or
other catastrophic events. Only if the integrated
terrain data are reliable can they be introduced
9

safely to such critical applications. Consequently,
high accuracy and high resolution are of great
importance.
Forest planning and management
Resent years there has been an increasing focus on
a sustainable management of natural resources
like forest. Tools have been developed e.g. at
SINTEF applied mathematics to create plans for a
sustainable management of forest during a longer
time span. By introducing digital terrain models
different criteria concerning the topography of the
forest area can be considered in the planning
process. Examples are calculation of slope
gradient and its influence on erosion process due
to clear cutting of hill slopes; aspect computation
and the effect of solar insolation on forest growth
and derivation of surface curvature related to soil
moisture conditions.
Planning of breakwater constructions
Breakwaters are important to protect harbors for
damages caused by large ocean waves e.g. along
the Norwegian coastline. Exact location of the
breakwaters is important to give maximum
protection due to e.g. prevailing wind directions.
Digital models of the seafloor bottom and the
coastal zone can be used to produce realistic
computer simulations of the optimal location of
breakwaters before construction. It is well known
that seafloor topography and coast morphology
have significant effects on the direction and size of
ocean waves at shallow water.
Mass movement and hazard prediction
Rock fall and avalanches is responsible for large
costs due to reparation of infrastructure and
buildings in addition to the loss of life for more
catastrophic events. An important task for the
public community is to predict and prevent such
hazardous events. Digital terrain models
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DYNAMAP " White paper", 2000
combined with geological, vegetation and soil
information is important to detect risk areas in
order to prevent building constructions and where
to start specific protection actions. Such
information is also of interest for insurance
companies in determination of high-risk areas
with larger potential for damages and thus
exposed for higher insurance fees.
Hydrology Flooding risk assessment
The modeling of river catchment areas necessitates
high-precision DEMs that are homogeneous and
not confined to areas of the respective water
authorities. Only the combination of exact
topographic data, situational information, data on
precipitation, water retention and storage
capacities enables precise statements as to the
duration and extent of floods caused by rivers.
Aside from such extreme situations, a continuous
monitoring of hydrological phenomena is useful
in agriculture, for example, in helping making
decisions on the need for irrigation. In coastal
zones, DEMs can be used to assess in advance the
dangers in areas exposed to potential inundation,
and help governments in their task of maintaining
open shipping routes.
Disaster management (prevention, relief,
assessment)
Disaster management is often impeded by lacking,
incorrect or simply imprecise information about
the situation on the ground. Up-to-date and
precise data are imperative in assessing potential
risks (posed by floods, for example), in employing
relief personnel effectively, in disaster aid (e.g.,
locating adequate spots for dropping of relief
supplies) and in analyzing damages and changes.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The terrain surface is 3D and should be treated
like that. There is a large gap between the
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behavior of the observed phenomena and

processes of the earth surface and their digital
representation forms in existing commercial GIS.
More effective dynamic representation forms and
data structures are necessary to better capture the
complexity and interactions of geographic
phenomena and processes. This is essential to
carry out more advanced studies of the complex
behavior of geographic process and observed
shape, patterns, and morphometric structures of
the earth surface. In this new representation
model the DEMs should behave as a carrier of
geoinformation representing features related to
the earth surface. This should provide new
mechanisms satisfying the increasing demand for
operational applications for effectively carry out
more complex modeling issues and analysis
operations to investigate the complex interactions
among geospatial features and processes
identified at the Earth surface.

Existing DEMs however, still show large

drawbacks with respect to consistency,
availability, cost, degree of resolution, and
coverage.

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