Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Management & Research New Delhi

Course Pack

Fundamentals of Information Technology

BCA-I SEM

By

PREETI TANEJA

Table of Content

1. Course outline
2. Previous year question papers
3. Study Notes
4. Question paper template for 1st internal
5. Question paper template for 2nd internal
6. Template of front cover of assignment
7. Assignment-1
8. Assignment-2

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 Course outline

BHARATI VIDYAPEETH DEEMED UNIVERSITY

BCA ; SEMESTER I ; ACADEMIC YEAR 2016-17

1. Course Code:

Course Title: Fundamentals Of Information Technology (This is an elementary

course in computers and information technology The main objective is to introduce
IT in a simple language to all undergraduate students, regardless of their
specialization. It will help them to pursue specialized programs leading to technical
and professional careers and certifications in the IT industry.

The focus of the subject is on introducing skills relating to IT basics, computer

applications, programming, interactive medias, Internet basics etc.)

2. Course Overview:

Unit 1 begins with the discussion of the evolution of computers in

different generations, followed by classification of computers in
different categories based on their capabilities.
Unit 2 covers basic computer organization including input and output
devices.
Unit 3 includes the primary and secondary storage units in computer
systems.
Unit 4 describes in detail, the various types of software, including
system and application software.
Unit 5 focuses on various components of operating system.
Unit 6 discusses communication networks, topologies and protocols
related to data communication.
Unit 7 covers business data processing, which focuses on file
organization in computers
Unit 8 includes the various number systems along with conversion of a
number system to another.
By the end of the 8th unit, the students will gain complete insight into

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 fundamentals of computer systems and information technology.

3. Course Outcome:

They describe what the students will learn and be able to do after completion of this
course.
CO-1: Upon the completion of this course, the students shall be able to
explain the concepts of IT (Hardware, Software, Networking, Security, Web
and applications).
CO-2: Select and judge usage of IT product and services.
CO-3: Use internet web services and resource for learning and discovery.
CO-4: Know about the importance of algorithm, flowcharts, decision table,
and pseudo code in development of IT.
CO-5: Understand the roles of databases in IT applications.
CO-6: Create an understanding of the importance of operating system and
memory management.

4. List of topics and modules

Topic/ Module Contents/ Concepts

Introduction, Definition
Characteristics of computer
Module I: Introduction to Computers Evolution of Computer
Block Diagram Of a computer
Generations of Computer
Classification Of Computers
Applications of Computer
Capabilities and limitations of
computer.

Module II:Basic Computer Input Units: Keyboard, Terminals

Organization and its types.
Pointing Devices, Scanners and its
types
Voice Recognition Systems
Vision Input System,
Touch Screen
Output Units: Monitors and its
types.
Printers: Impact Printers and its

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 types.
Non-Impact Printers and its types
Plotters, types of plotters
Sound cards, Speakers.

Module III: Storage Fundamentals Data storage & retrieval methods.

Primary Storage: RAM ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM.
Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes,
Magnetic Disks. Cartridge tape,
hard disks, Floppy disks Optical
Disks, Compact Disks, Zip Drive,
Flash Drives.

Module IV: Software Software and its needs

System Software: Operating
System, Utility Programs
Programming Language: Machine
Language, Assembly Language,
High Level Language their
advantages & disadvantages.
Application S/W and its types:
Word Processing, Spread Sheets
Presentation, Graphics, DBMS s/w.

Module V: Operating System

Functions Of Operating system,
Measuring System Performance
Assemblers, Compilers and
Interpreters.
Batch Processing,
Multiprogramming, Multi Tasking,
Multiprocessing, Time Sharing
systems
DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux.

Module VI: Data Communication Communication Process, Data

Transmission speed,
Communication Types (modes),
Data Transmission Medias
Modem and its working and
characteristics
Types of Networks
LAN Topologies
Computer network Protocols

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Module VII: Business data processing Introduction, data storage hierarchy
Methods of organizing data
File Types, Organization and Utilities

Module VIII: Computer Arithmetic Binary, Binary Arithmetic, Number

System: Positional & Non Positional,
Binary, Octal, Decimal,
Hexadecimal
Converting from one number
system to another

5. Evaluation Criteria:

SN Type Number CES under

this category
1 Internal Exam 2
2 2
Class test

3 Assignment 1
4 Quiz 1
5 Attendence

6. Recommended/ Reference Text Books and Resources:

Text Computer Fundamentals by P.K.Sinha

Books

Course Introduction to Information Technology , 2009, by Pearson Education

Reading
Reference 1. V. Raja Raman, Introduction to Computers, PHI, 1998.
s 2. Alex Leon & Mathews Leon, Introduction to Computers, Vikas
Publishing House,1999.
3. Modern Digital Electronics by R P Jain, 3rd Edition
4. Computer Networks by Sanjay Gupta

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 7. Session Plan

Session Topic Requirement Learning Outcome

s: Readings/
Cases
Module I: Introduction to Computers:
1 Introduction, Definition, Book page 2 Students will learn
Characteristics of about basics and
computer history of computers
2 Evolution of Computer, Book page 3 Students will learn
Generations of to 10 about different
Computer generations
3 Applications of Book , page 15 Students will gain
Computer, Capabilities to 18 insight into
and limitations of classification Of
computer, Basic computers, various
computer organization applications,
capabilities and
limitations of
computers.
4 Classification Of FIT notes- Students will gain
Computers module 1 insight into
classification Of
computers
5 Revision of Unit 1
Module II: Basic Computer Organization
6 Role of I/O devices in a Book page Students will get to
computer system. 149 know about Keyboard,
Input devices: Terminals and pointing
Keyboard, terminals, devices
Pointing Devices
7 Scanners and its types Page 153 Discussion of Scanners

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 and its types
8 Digitizer, e card reader, Page 157, 158, Discussion of Voice
speech Recognition 159 Recognition Systems,
Systems, Vision Input Vision Input System
System
9 Output devices: Pg 160, 165 Detailed discussion of
Monitors and its types, Monitors and its types,
plotters speakers, sound cards,
plotters
10 Printers and its types. Pg 160 to 165 Discussion of impact
printers
11 Impact and Non Impact Fit notes Discussion of Non
Printers module 2 Impact Printers and its
types
12 CLASS TEST-1 module I and II Quiz from module I and
II
Module III: Storage Fundamentals
13 Primary storage/ main Book Pg 108, Discussion of Primary
memory, memory cell memory
Fit notes
module 3
14 Primary Storage Pg 108-113 Detailed discussion of
methods: RAM ROM, primary storage
PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM.
15 Secondary Storage: Pg 117-124 Introduction to
Secondary Storage
Sequential and direct
access, Magnetic Tapes
16 Magnetic disks ,Optical Pg 124-140 Detailed discussion of
disks CD ROM and its Magnetic and Optical
type (CD ROM, CD Disks
ROM-R, CD ROM-EO,
DVD ROM
17 Memory storage Pg 140-141 Discussion of flash
devices drives and memory
card, with revision of

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 (flash drive, memory complete unit
card)
18 Revision of Unit 3
Module IV: Software
19 Software and its needs, Pg 172-175 Introduction to Software
Types of S/W(System
and Application)
20 Logical system Pg175-178 Discussion on Logical
architecture, acquiring system architecture,
software acquiring software
21 System software: Utility Fit notes System software
program, Application module 4 discussion
software
22 Introduction to Pg 208- 216 Types of computers
programming Languages
language, Machine
level language:
advantages &
disadvantages
23 Assembly Language: Pg 216- 223 Discussion of high level
advantages & languages
disadvantages, High-
Level Language:
advantages &
disadvantages
24 Application S/W and its Pg 278 Intro to application
types: Word Processing software
software, spreadsheet
25 Presentation software, Fit Notes Discussion of
(presentation Presentation software
Graphics software
software) , and graphics software

Pg
278(graphics)
26 Assignment 1 Quiz of module 3 and 4
Module V:Operating System
27 Functions Of O.S., Pg 251-253 Discussing Functions of

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 Measuring System O.S.
Performance
28 Types of OS FIT notes Discussion of types of
module 5 OS
29 Multiprogramming, Multi PG 255-262 Discussion of multi-
Tasking, multithreading, processing, Time
Sharing
Multiprocessing , Time
Multiprogramming,
Sharing
Multi Tasking, time
sharing
30 Unix, DOS Internal Pg 272, Intro to unix and DOS
Commands ( Date, Time,
NOTES
ver, vol, cls, type, dir,
copy con, copy, rename,
del, rmdir, mkdir) &
External Commands
( Xcopy, diskcopy,
diskcomp, doskey, Sys,
label, attrib, chkdsk,
more, format)
31 Windows, windows NT Pg 272-273 Discussion of Windows,
Linux and linux
32 Revision of Unit 5
Module VI: Data Communication
33 Communication Process, Pg 321-323, Pg Overview of Computer
characteristics of 341-343 networks
networks, Data
Transmission speed,
Communication Types
(modes), types of
networks(LAN,MAN,WAN)
34 Applications of computer Fit notes Various applications
networks, network module 6 and topologies: mesh,
topologies (applications) star, tree, ring, bus

Pg 328-
340(topologies

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 )
35 Transmission Media 323-326 Guided and unguided
media
36 Modem and its working 328-220 Discussion of working
of Modems
37 Computer Protocols Pg 343-344 Discussion of various
network protocols
38 Quiz-1
Module VII: Business Data Processing
39 Introduction, data Pg 295-297 Introduction To BDP
storage hierarchy
40 Method of organizing Pg 297-299 Discussion of methods
data, File Types of organizing data, File
Types
41 File Organization, and Pg 299-303 File Organization and
utilities utility discussion
42 Databases Pg 305-310 Discussion of databases
43 Revision Quiz of module 5, 6 and
7
Module VIII: Binary arithmetic
44 Binary, Binary Pg 20-22 Introduction to binary
Arithmetic, Number arithmetic
System: Positional & Non
Positional system
45 Binary, Octal, Decimal Pg 21-22 Intro to different
systems number systems
46 Hexadecimal number Pg 22 Discussion of
system hexadecimal systems
47 Conversion of number Pg 23-27 Students will learn
systems about Conversion of
number systems
48 Conversion of number Pg 27-31 Students will learn
systems, continued about Conversion of
number systems

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 49 Class Test-2
50 REVISION Revision of entire
syllabus

8. Contact Details:

Name of the Instructor: PREETI TANEJA

Office Location:
Telephone:
Email: Pretty91kapoor@gmail.com
Teaching Venue:
Website:
Office Hours:
Online Links (Link to
Blackboard etc.):

Previous year question papers

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12
FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY:

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 STUDY NOTES

MODULE 1:INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Computer Evolution
Early Computing Machines and Inventors:
ABACUS- It is a counting device which has emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in
use today, may be considered the first computer. This device allows users to make computations using a
system of sliding beads arranged on a rack.
Pascaline Machine - In 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), invented first functional automatic
calculator called Pascaline Machine. This brass rectangular box, also called a Pascaline, used
eight movable dials to add sums up to eight figures long. The drawback to the Pascaline, of
course, was its limitation to addition.
Leibniz Machine- In 1694, a German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhem von
Leibniz (1646-1716), improved the Pascaline by creating a machine that could also multiply,
divide and find the square root. Leibniz's mechanical multiplier worked by a system of gears and
dials. It lacked mechanical precision in its construction and was not very reliable.
Charles Babbage- Charles Babbage, a 19th century professor is considered as father of
modern digital computers. In 1842, he came up with his new idea of analytical engine, which
was completely automatic. It was capable of performing basic arithmetic functions for any
mathematical problem. But he was not able to produce it working model.
He proposed another machine to perform differential equations called difference engine
powered by steam and large as locomotive, the machine would have stored program and could
perform calculations and print result automatically.

Herman Hollerith- In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Hollerith (1860-1929), also applied
the Jacquard loom concept to computing. His first task was to find a faster way to compute the
U.S. census. He gave the concept of punched cards. Punched cards were used as input
medium in computers. Holleriths method used cards to store data information which he fed into
a machine that compiled the result mechanically.

Some well known early computers are:

The Mark I Computer (1939-44) : It also known as automatic sequence controlled calculator, it
was first fully automatic calculating machine, designed by Howard A. Aiken.
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-46) : This electronic machine was developed by Dr.
John Atanoff to solve certain maths equations. It was called Atanasoff Berry computer or ABC,
after its inventors name and his assistant, Clifford Berry.

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The ENIAC (1943-46) : The Electronic Numeric Integrator and calculator was first all electronic
computer. It was constructed at Moore school of engineering in U.S.A developed for military
needs. It took wall space in 20 *40 sq feet room.
The EDVAC (1946-52) : Electronic Discrete variable Automatic computer ( EDVAC). Major
drawback of ENIAC was that its program was wired on boards, which made it difficult to change
the wired on boards, which made it difficult to change the programs. This problem was
overcome by EDVAC, as it has the stored program concept. The idea behind this concept was
that the sequence of instructions and data can be stored in memory of computer for
automatically directing the flow of operations. Due to this feature, we often refer to modern
digital computer as stored program digital computers.
The EDSAC (1947-49) : Electronic Delay storage Automatic calculator ( EDSAC). It was based
on John Von Neumans stored program concept. This machine executed addition operations in
1500 microseconds and multiplication operation in 4000 microseconds. It was developed by
team of Maurice Wilkes.
The UNIVAC I (1951) : Universal Automatic computer. Many UNIVAC machines were produced,
first of which was installed in 1951.

Computer Generations

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 DATA,INFORMATIONANDINSTRUCTION

Data:Dataisafact,observationorassumptionfromwhichconclusioncanbedrawn.Datarelatesto
fact,eventandtransactions.

Information:Informationisdatathathasbeenprocessedinsuchawayastobemeaningfultothe personwho
receivesit.

For example: Researchers whoconductmarketresearchsurveymightaskmemberofthepublictocomplete

questionnaires aboutaproductoraservice.Thesecompletedquestionnairesaredata;theyareprocessed
andanalyzeinordertopreparea reportonthesurvey.Thisresultingreportisinformation.

Instruction: Instructionisa rulesorbasicsthroughwhichweperforma certaintask. In

computerterm:-
Wheninformationisenteredintoandstoredina computer,it is generallyreferredtoasdata.

Andwhenthisdataisprocessed(suchasformattingorprinting),outputdatacanagainbe perceivedas
information.

Instructionis acodethattellsa computertoperforma particularoperation.

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Characteristics of computers:
1.Automatic: A machine is said to be automatic if it works without humanintervention.Once
theystarton ajob,theycarryon untilitiscompletedwithoutanyhumanassistance.
2 Speed:It is a veryfastdevice.Thelatestcomputercanperforma takeinthebillionthportionofa Second.
3. Accuracy: The degree of accuracyof a computeris very high. It can find out the results of
mathematicalcalculationaccurateup to20 placesofdecimalandveryspeedily.
4.Diligence: Unlike humans a computer is free from tiredness and lack ofconcentration.Itcan
continuouslyworkforhours, withoutcreatingerrors orgrumbling.
5.Versatility: Acomputer iscapableofperformingalmost anytask, ifthe taskcanbereduced toaseries of
logical steps. It can send and receive data in various
forms like text, sound, video, graphics etc. Because of this it is used in all fields of life.
6. Storage: It can store very large amount of data and also it can retrieve the
information required, in fractions of a second. After several years the information can be
recalled and it would be as accurate as on the day when it was inputted to thecomputer.
7.ResourceSharing: Withthetremendousgrowthincomputertechnology,computerstodayhavethe
capabilitytoconnect witheachother.This hasmadethesharingofcostlyresourceslikeprinterspossible.
Apartfromdevicesharing,dataandinformationcanalsobe sharedamonggroup of computers.

CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Applications of computer:

Medical
Scientific
Education
Engineering

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 Military
Banking
Entertainment
Business

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

a) Based on size
b) Based on Technology

BASED ON TECHNOLOGY:-

Based on Technology/working principle we classify the computer into 3 categories:-

1. Analog Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

ANALOG COMPUTERS:
Analog Computers are those computers that recognized data as a continuous measurement of physical
quantities like pressure, voltage or temperature. The output of analog computer computer is usually
display in the form of dial gauge reading or graphs.

Example- Automobile Speedometer, Voltmeter

DIGITAL COMPUTER:
Digital Computers are those computers that take data in digits i.e. 0 or 1.These computer recognizes data
by counting discrete signal representing by either a high or low voltage of electricity and store them in
digits.

Example- Digital Watch, PC

HYBRID COMPUTER:
Hybrid Computers are those computers which perform operation based on both i.e. analog and digital
principle. This computer measure both continuous and discrete form of data.

Example: - Measuring heart beat or ECG system in ICU.

Classification of Computers based on Size/ Types of Digital Computer

Microcomputer

A microcomputer is a complete computer on a smaller scale and is generally a synonym for the more
common term, personal computer or PC , a computer designed for an individual. A microcomputer
contains a microprocessor (a central processing unit on a microchip ), memory in the form of read-only
memory and random access memory , I/O ports and a bus or system of interconnecting wires, housed in a
unit that is usually called a motherboard . Although these computers have limited memory and speed,
their cost makes them very attractive for applications that would otherwise not be feasible. Moreover
micros are frequently used to provide additional computer power for companies that already have

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mainframes or minis. It is mostly used as a single user. Its speed is usually counted in MHz rather than
MIPS. The speed is generally from 8 MHz to onward. The RAM is from 640 KB to onward.

Mini Computer

Mini computers have been very popular in business. Minis are frequently used to add computer power
with mainframes. Sometimes an organization decides to decentralize or distribute its computer power to
various stations or locations within users departments. Mini computers are ideal for processing data in a
decentralized mode since they are small. Moreover minis have also made it possible for many smaller
organizations to afford a computer for the first time. Typically, minicomputers have been stand-alone
computers (computer systems with attached terminals and other devices) sold to small and mid-size
businesses for general business applications and to large enterprises for department-level operations. In
recent years, the minicomputer has evolved into the "mid-range server" and is part of a network. The
input/output devices are lesser as compared to mainframe. The speed is usually from 10 MIPS to onward.
RAM is from 2 MB to onward. IBM's AS/400e is a good example.
Mainframe

mainframes are the traditional medium and large scale computer systems used in most
business organizations for information processing.A mainframe typically has a advanced control
system and is capable of linking up with dozens of input/output units and even minis for
additional computer power. It can usually perform from 16 MIPS to onward. Memory size is from
2 MB to onward. Examples are IBM 4300 and 3300 series, Honeywell 700 series and NCR 800
series.

Supercomputer

Super computers are the fastest, largest and costliest computers available. The speed is in the 100 million
instructions per second range. They tend to be used for specific applications in weather forecasting,
aircraft design and nuclear research. Super computers are sometimes used for time sharing as well.
Memory size is in hundreds of megabytes.

Supercomputer use multiprocessing and parallel processing technologies to solve the complex problem
faster, hence they are also called as Parallel Computer. PARAM series computers are an example of
supercomputer developed by C-DAC, Pune.

COMPUTER HARDWARE, SOFTWARE, FIRMWARE AND HUMANWARE

Hardware:-
Physical components of computer which we can touch and feel are called hardware.
Example:-Input Devices, Output Devices, Memory Devices, etc

Software:-
Collection of programs and other associated documents that help to control, manage and integrate the
component of a computer system to accomplish a specific task.
Example:-Operating System, Compiler, Assembler etc.
Software are of 2 types:-
1. Application Software
2. System Software
Application Software:-

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A set of programs comprises of various modules that are written for specific application such as payroll,
inventory control and investment analysis.etc.
Example:-MS-Office, Anti-Viruses, etc
System Software:-
Are a set of programs which are meant not only for the computer operation but also for the effective
utilization of the computer hardware.
In other words system software is a set of program which is used for controlling the computer hardware
and for interfacing, interconnecting the various resources of computer system in an optimal way.
Example:-Operating System, Interpreter, Assembler.etc

Firmware:-
It is pre-written program in machine language that is stored in ROM (Read Only Memory).
Example:-BIOS
Firmware boots up computerized devices.

Humanware:-
The personnel which are related to installation, maintenance, operation and testing of computer are called
humanware.
Example:-Programmer, Hardware/Network Engineers, System Analysts

Humanware is hardware and software that emphasizes user capability and empowerment and the design
of the user interface. The process of building humanware generally consists of these steps:

1. Define users (age, mindset, environmental context, previous product experience and expectations,
and so forth) and what they really want to do

2. Identify tasks they will need to do or capabilities they will want

3. Specify usability objectives (if possible, these should be measurable, such as how long to do
something or how many mouse clicks to get to a specified task point) for each task or capability

4. Build a prototype of the user interface (it can be a paper or simulated prototype if time is short)

5. Test and verify or correct the prototype

6. Provide the prototype and usability objectives to the program designers and coders

7. Test the code against the prototype and objectives and, if necessary, redesign or recode the
software

8. Test the product with users or valid test subjects and revise as necessary

9. Get feedback from users and continually improve the product

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 MODULE 2:Basic computer organization/Computer Architecture/Design

A typical computer system has an Input Unit, a Central Processing Unit, Memory Unit and Output Unit.
This is also known as Von Neumann Architectureof the computer. Over the years the technology has
changed but basic design/architecture is not changed. The important
elements of a computer system are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Input Unit:
The input unit links the external environment with the computer system. Data and instructions inputted to
the computer system through this unit. The data can be inputted to the computer by various means, it can
be entered through a keyboard, through a card reader, through a mouse etc. All the data supplied to the
computer is transformed into the binary codes. Unit called input interface accomplishes this
transformation. Input interface is designed
to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices with the requirements of the
computer system for example Keyboard, Mouse, Joy stick, Light Pen, Punched Cards, Optical Mark
Reader, Magnetic Tape, Optical Character Reader etc.

Output Unit:
It links the computer with the external environment. The job of an output unit is just opposite of an input
unit. It supplies information and results of computation to the outside world. As computers work with
binary code, the results produced are also in the binary form. Hence, before supplying the results to the
outside world, it must be converted to human readable form. Unit called output interface accomplishes
this task. Output interface is

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designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (e.g. Monitor, Printer,
Plotter) with the requirement of the external environment.

Central Processing Unit:

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). As
in a human body, the brain takes all major decisions and controls all body parts, similarly, in a computer
system, all major computations are made by the CPU and is also responsible for activating and controlling
the operations of other units. The CPU performs the following functions:
It performs all calculations.
It takes all decisions.
It controls all units of the computer.
1. Control Unit:
The control unit is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system. By selecting,
interpreting, and decoding, it executes the program instructions. This unit acts as a central nervous system
for the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It directs the flow of data
through the CPU, and to and from other devices. Control unit controls the input and output devices and
the passing of data to the Arithmetic/Logical Unit for computation. The control unit stores the CPU's
microcode, which contains the instructions for all the tasks the CPU can perform.
2.Arithmetic Logic Unit:
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual execution of the
instructions takes place during the processing operation. The data and instructions, stored in the primary
storage (RAM or Cache) prior to processing, are transferred as and when needed to the ALU. ALU uses
various CPU registers to store intermediate results of computations. The Final result of computations is
transferred back to the primary storage. After the completion of processing, the final results that are stored
in the primary storage unit are released to an output device or to a secondary storage device.
The ALU is designed to perform all the basic Arithmetic Operations add, subtract, multiply, divide,
Relational Operations such as comparisons using < ,<=, > , >=, == etc and Logical Operations such as
AND, OR, NOT.
3.Storage Unit (Memory):
The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered through the input unit, before
they are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the output
devices. It also saves the data for the later use. The various storage devices of a computer system are
divided into two categories.

1. Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast. This memory is generally used to hold the program
being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from the input unit, the intermediate
and final results of the program. The primary memory is temporary in nature. The data is lost, when the
computer is switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the data has to be transferred to the
secondary memory.
The cost of the primary storage is more compared to the secondary storage. Therefore most computers
have limited primary storage capacity.

2. Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several programs, documents,
data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer are first transferred to the primary memory
before it is actually run. Whenever the results are saved, again they get stored in the secondary memory.
The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Some of the commonly used
secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,

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 INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside world. Input/output
devices are required for users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring
information INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer system. These
input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory of a
computer system.
DEVICES

OUTPUTDEVICES
INPUT DEVICES

Keyboard
Mouse Monitor
Joystick Printer
Scanner Plotter
Light Pen LCD Projector
Touch Screen
Bar Code Reader
MICR
OMR

INPUT DEVICES:-
Are electromechanical device that are used for entering the data into computer in the machine under
stable form i.e. in binary form. In other words, It accepts data & instruction from the user & other
applications. Data input to a computer can be in the form of text, audio etc.
All the todays available input devices can be broadly classified into the following categories:-
A) Human Data entry device:
Keyboard
Pointing Device(mouse)
Picking device(lightpen,touchscreen)

B) Source data entry Device:

Audio input-Speech recognition
Video Input-Digital camera
Optical scanner-OCR,MICR,OMR.

Need for a Good Input:

a. Timeliness: If data is collected on right time & then processed faster to generate
information so that required corrective action can be taken.
b. Accuracy: Data must be accurate to save the alarming informational needs of data.
c. Usefulness: Data are raw facts & figures & they are of no use unless its logical.
These data when processed must get converted into fruitful information that helps in
further decision making & taking corrective actions.

1. Keyboard Device

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 One of the primary simple input device that allows the user to input text & number. It consists of a
set of keys mounted on a board.

Alphanumeric Keypad
It consists of keys for English alphabets, 0 to 9 numbers, and special characters like + / *
( ) etc.
Function Keys
There are twelve function keys labeled F1, F2, F3, , F12. The functions assigned to these
keys differ from one software package to another. These keys are also user programmable
keys.
Special-function Keys
These keys have special functions assigned to them and can be used only for those specific
purposes. Functions of some of the important keys are defined below.
Enter
It is similar to the return key of the typewriter and is used to execute a command or
program.
Spacebar
It is used to enter a space at the current cursor location.
Backspace
This key is used to move the cursor one position to the left and also delete the character in
that position.
Delete
It is used to delete the character at the cursor position.
Insert
Insert key is used to toggle between insert and overwrite mode during data entry.
Shift
This key is used to type capital letters when pressed along with an alphabet key. Also used to
type the special characters located on the upper-side of a key that has two characters defined
on the same key.
Caps Lock
Cap Lock is used to toggle between the capital lock feature. When on, it locks the
alphanumeric keypad for capital letters input only.
Tab
Tab is used to move the cursor to the next tab position defined in the document. Also, it is
used to insert indentation into a document.
Ctrl
Control key is used in conjunction with other keys to provide additional functionality on the
keyboard.
Alt
Also like the control key, Alt key is always used in combination with other keys to perform
specific tasks.
Esc
This key is usually used to negate a command. Also used to cancel or abort executing
programs.
Numeric Keypad
Numeric keypad is located on the right side of the keyboard and consists of keys having
numbers (0 to 9) and mathematical operators (+ * /) defined on them. This keypad is
provided to support quick entry for numeric data.
Cursor Movement Keys

24
 These are arrow keys and are used to move the cursor in the direction indicated by the arrow
(up, down, left, right).

2. Point-and draw Devices

A) Mouse
The mouse is a common pointing small hand-held input device having 2-3 buttons on upper-side
along with a wheel that you can roll over a hard, flat surface It is .used to point to a particular place
on the screen and select in order to perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu
commands, size windows, start programs etc.
Types Of Mouse:
1)Physical Mouse: I t has a rubber ball on the bottom side that protrudes when the mouse is moved .It
require a smooth, dust free surface such as mouse pad on which its rolled.
2)Optical Mouse: It uses led to detect the movement of mouse. It requires an opaque flat surface
underneath it.
Different Functions of Mouse :-
Pointing: Used to point to a location or an object on the screen.
Left Click: Used to select an item, icon or a button on the screen.
Double Click:Used to start a program or open a file.
Right Click: Usually used to display a set of commands.
Drag and Drop:It allows you to select and move an item from one location to another. To
achieve this place the cursor over an item on the screen, click the left mouse button and while
holding the button down move the cursor to where you want to place the item, and then release it.
B) Joystick: A Screen-pointing Device
The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick is moved. It
typically has a button (also called as triggers)on top that is used to select the option pointed by the
cursor. Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games, training simulators and
controlling robots.
c)light Pen
It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like the mouse (in its
functionality) but uses a light sensitive detector to move the pointer and select any object on the
screen by pointing to the object.
Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications commonly use the light pens to directly draw
on screen.
3. Data Scanning Devices
D) Scanner
Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry from the source document into the computer
system. It converts the document image into digital form so that it can be fed into the computer.
Capturing information like this reduces the possibility of errors typically experienced during large
data entry.

TYPES OF SCANNER
1. Flatbed scanners: also called desktop scanners, are the most versatile and commonly used scanners. It
provide high quality scan in a single pass. Its a box-shaped machine similar to a photocopy machine &has
a glass top & a lid that covers the glass. Used to scan full page documents.

2.Handheld scanners: use the same basic technology as a flatbed scanner, but rely on the user to move
them instead of a motorized belt. This type of scanner typically does not provide good image quality.
However, it can be useful for quickly capturing text.

25
E) MICR

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition is a character recognition system that uses special ink and
characters. When a document that contains this ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine, which
magnetizes the ink and then translates the magnetic information into characters.

MICR technology is used by banks. Numbers and characters found on the bottom of checks (usually
containing the check number, sort number, and account number) are printed using Magnetic Ink. To print
Magnetic Ink need, you need a laser printer that accepts MICR toner.

MICR provides a secure, high-speed method of scanning and processing information.

MICR, is a character recognition technology used primarily by the banking industry to facilitate
the processing of cheques. The technology allows computers to read information (such as
account numbers) off printed documents. Unlike barcodes or similar technologies, however,
MICR codes can be easily read by humans.
MICR characters are printed in special typefaces with a magnetic ink or toner, usually containing
iron oxide. As a machine decodes the MICR text, it first magnetizes the characters in the plane
of the paper. Then the characters are passed over a MICR read head, a device similar to the
playback head of a tape recorder. As each character passes over the head it produces a unique
waveform that can be easily identified by the system.
The use of magnetic printing allows the characters to be read reliably even if they have been
overprinted or obscured by other marks, such as cancellation stamps and signature. The error
rate for the magnetic scanning of a typical check is smaller than with optical character
recognition systems. For well printed MICR documents, the "can't read" rate is usually less than
1% while the substitution rate (misread rate) is in the order of 1 per 100,000 characters.

F) OCR
Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic
translation of scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded
text. It is widely used to convert books and documents into electronic files, to computerize a
record-keeping system in an office, or to publish the text on a website. OCR makes it possible to
edit the text, search for a word or phrase, store it more compactly, display or print a copy free of
scanning artifacts, and apply techniques such as machine translation, text-to-speech and text
mining to it. OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence and computer
vision.
OCR systems require calibration to read a specific font; early versions needed to be
programmed with images of each character, and worked on one font at a time. "Intelligent"
systems with a high degree of recognition accuracy for most fonts are now common. Some
systems are capable of reproducing formatted output that closely approximates the original
scanned page including images, columns and other non-textual components.
It involves reading text from paper and translating the images into a form that the computer can
manipulate (for example, into ASCII codes).
O
C ASCII Text
Text Bitmap
Scanner
document R

26
An OCR system enables you to take a book or a magazine article, feed it directly into an
electronic computer file, and then edit the file using a word processor.
All OCR systems include an optical scanner for reading text, and sophisticated software for
analyzing images. Most OCR systems use a combination of hardware (specialized circuit
boards) and software to recognize characters, although some inexpensive systems do it entirely
through software. Advanced OCR systems can read text in large variety of fonts, but they still
have difficulty with handwritten text.
The potential of OCR systems is enormous because they enable users to harness the power of
computers to access printed documents. OCR is already being used widely in the legal
profession, where searches that once required hours or days can now be accomplished in a few
seconds.

Benefits

Includes assessment of coursework, the best way to assess the candidate's level of practical skills
in computing.

Simple, straightforward assessment, with all examination papers externally assessed. For the AS
level, coursework weighting reduced to 20%.

Content revised to include greater emphasis on programming and removal of topics entirely ICT
based.

A2 exam paper cut to two hours in length, with AS one and a half hours.

This specification is excellent preparation for those students intending to pursue computing
studies at degree level, or for anyone considering any kind of career in computing.

G) OMR
Optical Mark Recognition (also called Optical Mark Reading and OMR) is the process of
capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests.

Optical Mark Recognition also called Mark Reading (mark sensing). Through the technology of OMR a
simply and reasonable method of entering data by document into a computer system is enable. Optical
Mark Reading (OMR) is one of the fastest and safest methods for data-entry into a host until today.
OMR forms are used for collecting data. Preparation of this type of form involves several critical
steps.
Obviously, one needs to thoughtfully determine the kind of data that needs to be gathered and
layout the questions in a clear, understandable format. These questions are then sent to the
designer to figure out the best way to present these questions in an attractive layout. The
designer needs to understand how the OMR scanner reads this information and position the
questions and related response bubbles in just the right position on the form to assure that the
scanner can accurately read the information. When the form design or layout is approved by the
customer, the electronic form is moved to the printing phase. It is critical that the printer also
understands the importance of consistent positioning of the printed sheet according to the
layout.
The layout is based upon a grid system that is determined by the specific parameters of the
scanner. The two basic elements of this grid are the timing marks and the response bubbles.
The timing marks appear in one column on one edge of the sheet. These rectangular marks are
viewed by the scanner as the sheet travels through it. A timing mark determines when to begin

27
and end the viewing of the corresponding row of bubbles and record the results. A typical form
can have up to 48 bubbles across the sheet. In order for the scanner to know what bubbles to
look at, a file called a scanning definition needs to be created with the scanning software prior to
the actual scanning process. This scanning definition tells the scanner which bubble or bubbles
in the grid to look at to determine if they are filled in and then record the assigned value. These
values or results are then added to an Excel type data file as each form is scanned. When the
scanning is finished the results are then tabulated with the use of special reporting software. If
the quality of the original scan form has been compromised by sloppy layout or printing
processes, then the scanned data and the tabulated results potentially may not be reliable.
OMR is a great time-saving process in collecting data but can also create a huge headache if
not done correctly. It's important to do some homework and get a good handle on how OMR
works before jumping into an OMR evaluation survey project. There are many good resources
to be found on the internet that can assist you in one or all of the steps involved. Just google
"omr data collection services" for an extensive list.
How does it work?

A pen or pencil mark is made in pre-defined positions at the document to indicate each selected response
(for example: answers to a survey question or an absent pupil in a school register).
The complete forms are scanned by the Optical Mark Reader which detects the presence of a mark by
measuring reflected light levels. The reader interprets this pattern marks and spaces into a data record and
transmits it to your computer for storage, analysis and reporting.

What are the main advantages of OMR-Technology?

simplicity: Tick box answers are marked with a by pen or pencil

functionality: the OMR-Reader scans the form, detect the presence of marks and passes
information to the computer

speed: OMR-Readers can read up to 9,000 forms DIN A4 per hour

flexibility: OMR-readers tests for plausibilitys and transmit the processed information to the
computer with up to 38,400 Baud.

The interpretation based on a simple Yes/No answer.

When to use OMR-readers?

on applications where other entering possibilities are not present

if a large volume of data has to be collected and processed within a short period of time

if the persons who have to collect the data are not regular computer users

if information mainly comprises the selection of categories or Tick box answers to multiple
choice questions

28
Where do the OMR-readers work?

examinations at schools, colleges and universities

public opinion polls of research institutes

assessment tests

counting of votes

staff opinion surveys

What is possible?

Barcode

OCR

Double document recognition

Print on the form

Sorting with two pockets

What kind of equipment do I need?

a computer with serial interface

the appropriate software for your application made by Binary Logic

specially designed forms

3. BAR-CODE READER
Data coded in the form of small lines (known as bars) are known as bar codes. Bar codes represent
alphanumeric data by a combination of adjacent vertical lines(bars) by varying their width and the
spacing between them. They are particularly used for unique identification of all types of goods, books,
postal packages, badges, tags, etc.
A bar code reader is a device used for reading (decoding) bar-coded data. It may be a hand-held scanner, o
or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. It scans a bar-code image and converts it into an
alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer to which the bar-code reader is connected, just as
though the alphanumeric value had been typed on a keyboard.
A bar-code reader uses a laser-beam scanning technology. The laser beam is stroked across the pattern of
bars of a bar code. Different bar code having different patterns of bars reflects the beam in different ways,
which is sensed by a light-sensitive detector. Reflected light patterns are converted into electrical pulses
and then transmitted to recognition logic circuits which convert it into an alphanumeric value.

4. Electronic Card Reader

29
An electronic-card reader, which is normally connected to a computer, is used to read the data encoded
on an electronic card and transfer it to the computer for further processing.
Depending on the manner in which data is encoded, electronic card are of following two types:
1. Magnetic strip cards:-
These cards have a magnetic strip on their back. The data to be encoded on the card is stored on the
magnetic strip.
1. Smart Card:-
Smart cards have a built-in microprocessor chip instead of the magnetic strip. The data to be encoded on
the card is permanently stored in the memory of the microprocessor chip. The memory of a smart card
microprocessor can contain much more data than the magnetic strip of a magnetic strip card.

5. Voice Recognition Device/Speech Recognizer:

It is the technology by which sounds, words or phrases spoken by human are converted into digital signal
& these signals are then transformed into computer Text. It accepts the spoken word through microphone
&convert them into binary form of 1s & 0s. Thus they make computers much easier to use.
Voice recognition system is normally classified into the following 2 categories:-
1. Speaker-dependent
Due to vast variation in the accent of different speaker, most voices recognition system of today are
speaker-dependent. That is they can recognize the speech of only a single individual or a few individuals.
2. Speaker-Independent
Speaker-independent voice recognition systems can recognize words spoken by anyone.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are an electromechanical device that accepts data from a computer and then processed the
data & display it in a form suitable for use by the outside world (the user).
Output generated by output devices is classified into following 2 types:-
1. Soft-copy:-
The electronic version of an output which usually resides in a computer memory is
known as soft copy.
It is Intangible, Transient & usually displayed on the screen.
This output includes audio & video form of output.
Example-Monitors display
2. Hard-copy: -
It is the Physical form of output It refers to the recorded information copied from a
computer onto a paper.
It is permanent & relatively stable form of output.
Highly Portable.
Example-Printout obtained from printer
Monitors
Monitors produce soft-copy output. Two basic types of monitor used today
1. Cathod Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
2. Flat-panel Monitor

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

Monitor is an output device that resembles the television screen and uses a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to
display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters and
displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or application output. Like the
television, monitors are also available in different sizes.

Characteristic of CRT monitors

30
1. Screen Size:-
Screen size of monitor varies from 5 to 25 inches. Monitors with 17 inch to 21 inch screen size are
common today with personal computer and other desktop computers.
2. Resolution:-
Overall resolution of monitor is expressed as multiple of its horizontal and vertical resolution. A low
resolution monitor has a resolution of about 320*200.Todays computer can have resolution of 1024*768
or more.
3. Referesh Rate
The actual number of times that the electron beam scans the entire screen per second is called the refresh
rate of the monitor. The higher the refresh rate the better will be the display quality of a monitor because
it will be less strenuous for the eyes to continuously views the screen. Today most computer operate at 60
Hz i.e. they refresh the screen 60 times per second.
4. Color
Monitor may be either monochrome or color. A monochrome can display images only in single color
usually white, red,green,blue or amber. On the other hand color monitor can display multi-color images.
Based on the resolution and number of colors supported, several standards for color monitor have
evolved. Each one is implemented by installing an add-on board (commonly known as Graphic Adapter
Board or a Video card) in the main computer box and connecting it to the appropriate monitor. The four
most popular of these standards are:
CGA (Color Graphic Adapter):- It has a low resolution of 320*200 and support up to 16 colors.
EGA (Extended Graphics Adaptor):-It has a resolution of 640*350 and support up to 16 colors.
VGA (Video Graphic Array):- It has a resolution of 640*480 and support up to 256 colors.
SVGA (Super Video Graphic Array):- It has a resolution from 800*600 to 1280*1024 and support up to
256 colors.
XGA (Extended Graphics Array) is a high-resolution video display mode that provides screen
pixelresolution of 1,024 by 768 in 256 colors or 640 by 480 in high (16-bit) color. XGA monitor s
can be interlaced display s.
XGA-2 is a display mode that provides 1,024 by 768 resolution in high color and higher-refresh
rates than XGA. XGA was introduced by IBM in 1990 as an improvement on an earlier IBM
display standard, the 8514/A.
The XGA standard is used in desktop and laptop computers as well as in projection systems.
Flat-panel Monitor
The display technologies used by flat-panel monitors include liquid crystal display (LCD), electro-
luminescent display(ELD).out of these LCD are most commonly used.
LCD was introduced in the 1970s and is now applied to display terminals also. Its advantages like low
energy consumption, smaller and lighter have paved its way for usage in portable computers (laptops).

BITS AND BYTES

All information in the computer is handled using electrical components like the integrated circuits,
semiconductors, all of which can recognize only two states presence or absence of an electrical signal.
Two symbols used to represent these two states are 0 and 1, and are known as BITS (an abbreviation for
BInaryDigiTS). 0 represents the absence of a signal, 1 represents the presence of a signal. A BIT is,
therefore, the smallest unit of data in a computer and can either store a 0 or 1.
Since a single bit can store only one of the two values, there can possibly be only four unique
combinations:
00 01 10 11
Bits are, therefore, combined together into larger units in order to hold greater range of values.
BYTES are typically a sequence of eight bits put together to create a single computer alphabetical or
numerical character. More often referred to in larger multiples, bytes may appear as Kilobytes (1,024
bytes), Megabytes (1,048,576 bytes), GigaBytes (1,073,741,824), TeraBytes (approx. 1,099,511,000,000
bytes), or PetaBytes (approx. 1,125,899,900,000,000 bytes).

31
Bytes are used to quantify the amount of data digitally stored (on disks, tapes) or transmitted (over the
internet), and are also used to measure the memory and document size.

OTHER OUTPUT DEVICES

Printer
Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on the technology used,
they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
When we talk about printers we refer to two basic qualities associated with printers: resolution, and
speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed is measured
in terms of number of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as characters-per-second
(cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).

Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. The ink ribbon is pressed against the paper,
marking the page with the appropriate character, dot, line, or symbol. Common examples of
impact printers include dot matrix, daisy-wheel printers, and drum printer.
Dot-Matrix Printers
Dot-matrix printers print about 40-300 characters per second (cps) and can print some
graphics, although the reproduction quality is poor. Color ribbons are available for limited use
of color. Dot-matrix printers are noisy, inexpensive, and they can print through multipart forms,
creating several copies of a page at the same time.
Daisy-Wheel Printer
A type of printer that produces letter-quality type.daisy-wheel is a serial printer A daisy-wheel
printer works on the same principle as a ball-head typewriter. The daisy wheel is a disk made
of plastic or metal on which characters stand out in relief along the outer edge. To print a
character, the printer rotates the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a hammer
strikes the disk, forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the
character on the paper. You can change the daisy wheel to print different fonts.
Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in general they are noisy and slow, printing
from 10 to about 75 characters per second. As the price of laser and ink-jet printers has
declined, and the quality of dot-matrix printers has improved, daisy-wheel printers have become
obsolete.
Drum Printer
An impact printer in which a complete set of characters for each print position on a line is on a
continuously rotating drum behind an inked ribbon, with paper in front of the ribbon; identical
characters are printed simultaneously at all required positions on a line, on the fly, by signal-
controlled hammers.

Chain Printer
It is the character printer. The print element in a chain printer is a metallic band or chain
containing the embossed characters that rotates horizontally in front of paper. A complete
chain consists of the five sections; each section consists of 48 characters. As the print chain
rotates, properly timed print hammers strike the paper along with linked ribbon, against the
proper character on the chain as it passes. Chain printer are one of the fastest impact
printers that can produce up to 400 to 2500 characters per second. Chain Printer also called
band printers, contain characters on a rotation band. Speeds of up to 3000 lines a minute
may be possible with these machines.
Line Printer

32
A high-speed printer capable of printing an entire line at one time. A fast line printer can
print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages of line printers are that they
cannot print graphics, the print quality is low, and they are very noisy.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. Nonimpact printers form characters and
images without direct physical contact between the printing mechanism and the paper. They use chemical,
heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, DeskJet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under
this category of printers.

LaserPrinter:
Like a dot-matrix printer, a laser printer creates images with dots. However, as in a photocopying
machine, these images are created on a drum, treated with a magnetically charged ink-like toner
(powder), and then transferred from drum to paper.
- There are good reasons why laser printers are so popular. They produce sharp, crisp images of both text
and graphics, providing resolutions from 300 dpi up to 1200 dpi, which is near-typeset quality (NTQ).
They are quiet and fast. They can print 4-32 text-only pages per minute for individual microcomputers,
and more than 120 pages per minute for mainframes. (Pages with more graphics print more slowly.)
They can print in many fonts (type styles and sizes).

Ink-jetPrinters:Like laser and dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers also form images with little dots.
Ink-jet printers spray small, electrically charged droplets of ink from four nozzles through holes in a
matrix at high speed onto paper. Ink-jet printers can print in color and are quieter and much less
expensive than a color laser printer. However, they are slower and print in a somewhat lower resolution
(300-720 dpi) than laser printers. Some new, expensive ink-jet printers print up 1200 or 1400 dpi

Difference between Impact and Non-Impact printer are as follows :

Impact printer:-
1. Itprints characters or images by striking print hammer against an inked ribbon.
2. Its speed is lower.
3. Its print quality is poor.
4. It normally uses continuous paper sheet.
5. It uses inked ribbon for printing.
6. It generates noise during printing.
7. It is less expensive.
8. Dot matrix is an example.
Non-Impact Printer:-
1. It prints character or image without striking the paper.
2. Its speed is faster.
3. Its print quality is higher.
4. It normally uses individual paper sheet.
5. It doesnt generate noise during printing.
6. It uses toner or cartridges for printing.
7. It is more expensive.
8. Laser and Ink Jet are an example.

Plotter

33
Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. Plotters are ideal output devices for architects,
engineers, city planners and others who need to routinely generate high precision, hard-copy graphic
output of widely varying sizes.
Two commonly used types of plotter are:-
1. Drum Plotter
2. Flatbed plotter
Drum Plotter
In a drum plotter the paper on which the design has to make is placed over a drum that can rotate in both
clockwise and anti-clockwise directions to produce vertical motion.
Flatbed plotter
A flatbed plotter plots a design or graph on a sheet of paper that is spread and fixed over a rectangular
flatbed table.

Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM
(Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage areas for plotters.

MODULE 3: STORAGE FUNDAMENTALS

A computer memory is a device or medium that accepts data, hold them & deliver them on demand at a
later time.

Memory cell
Building block of computer data storage.
Entire RAM is divided into a number of equal parts, known as memory cells.
Each memory cell can store one-byte of data.
Each memory cell has unique address.
Units to measure Computer memory:

34
 1) Bit: smallest unit of information. It can hold either 0 or 1.
2) Byte: A unit of 8 bits is known as a byte.
3) Kilobyte: 1024 bytes
4) Megabyte: 1024 kilobyte
5) Gigabyte: 1024 Megabyte.
6)Terabyte: 1024 gigabyte.

Primary Memory

1) Internal processor memory: This memory is placed in the CPU (processor) or is attached to a
special fast bus. Internal memory usually includes cache memory and special registers both of
which can be directly accessed by the processor. This memory is used for temporary storage of
data and instructions on which the CPU is currently working. Processor memory is the fastest
among all the memory. Cache memory is used in between the CPU and the RAM and holds most
frequently used data or instructions.
2) Primary Memory: RAM (Random accessible memory) and ROM (Read only memory) make up
the primary memory. RAM is volatile. It is a place where the computer stores its Operating
System, application programs and current data. ROM is non volatile. It contains boot
firmware(called BIOS). This contains just enough information so that the computer can check its
hardware and load its operating system into RAM. There are two types of Primary memory---
RAM and ROM
a) RAM(Random Access Memory)- It allows the computer to store data for immediate manipulation
and to keep track of what is currently being processed. It is the place in a computer where the
operating, application programs and data in current use are kept so that they can be accessed

35
 quickly by the computer processor. RAM is much faster to read from and write to than other
kinds of storage in a computer like hard disk or floppy disk.
Types of RAM
Static RAM- This RAM retains the data as long as power is provided to the memory
chips. It does not need to be refreshed periodically. SRAM is much fast but much more
expensive than DRAM. SRAM is often used as cache memory due to its high speed.
Dynamic RAM- Unlike SRAM, it must be continually refreshed in order for it to
maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites
the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory
because it is cheap and small.

b) ROM(Read only Memory)-It is a non-volatile primary memory. It does not lose its content when
the power is switched off. As the name suggest it has read only facility and no write capability.
After the information is stored in ROM, it is permanent and cannot be corrected. It stores
standard processing programs that permanently reside in the computer.

Types of ROM:
Masked ROM: They are hard-wired devices that contain a pre-programmed set of
data and instructions.
Programmable ROM (PROM): or one-time programmable ROM (OTP), can be
written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM programmer.
Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently destroy or create internal
links within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once.
Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by exposure
to strong ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a
process that again needs higher than usual voltage applied. Repeated exposure to UV
light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but the endurance of most EPROM chips
exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often
be identified by the prominent quartz "window" which allows UV light to enter. After
programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent accidental
erasure. Some EPROM chips are factory-erased before they are packaged, and
include no window; these are effectively PROM. At time of erasing entire EPROM is
erased.
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is based on a
similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected
banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be
removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.). EEPROM can be erased
one byte at a time.
Flash ROM or Flash memory, also called as BIOS, is a type of constantly powered
non-volatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks. It is variation
of EEPROM, which unlike flash memory, is erased and reprogrammed and rewritten
at byte level. Flash memory is often used to hold control code such as BIOS.

The primary storage of a computer system has the following limitations:

1) Limited capacity: the storage capacity of the primary storage of todays computers is not
sufficient to store the large volume of data, which needs to be handled by most data processing
centre.

36
 2) Volatile: The primary storage is volatile and data stored in it is lost, when the electric power is
turned off or interrupted. However, the computer systems need to store data on a permanent basis
for several days, several months or even several years.
To overcome the limitations of primary storage, additional memory, called auxiliary memory or
secondary storage is used with most computer systems.

Secondary memory: Secondary memory is also known as auxillary memory. It provides the
backup storage for instructions and data. It has large storage capacity than primary memory.
Instructions and data stored on such storage devices are permanent in nature. The most commonly
used secondary memory devices are hard disk, magnetic disk and magnetic tapes.
Secondary Storage Device

Sequential Access Storage Direct Access Storage Device

Device

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Disk Optical Disk

CD-ROM
Hard Disk
CD-RW

DVD
Floppy Disk
Depending on the access mechanism used we categorized the secondary memory into WORMtwo types:-
Sequential Access Storage Devices (SASD): It is aclass of data storage devices that read their data in
sequence and the time for access depends on the location of the data desired. While sequential access
memory is read in sequence, accesses can still be made to arbitrary locations by "seeking" to the
requested location. Magnetic sequential access memory is typically used for secondary storage in general-
purpose computers due to their higher density at lower cost compared to RAM, as well as resistance to
wear and non-volatility.

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Example: Magnetic tape

Direct Access Storage Devices (DASD): are also called random-access devices. It allows stored data to
be accessed in any order in very nearly the same amount of time for any storage location or size of
memory device. In case of direct access devices data can be accessed in a random manner.
Example: Magnetic Disk
Direct memory access may be required in the following cases:
1) In a computerized bank, where at any instance it is required to determine the exact balance in the
savings account of a particular customer.
2) In a computerized airline ticket booking system, immediate access may be required to reservation
system records, to find out if seats are currently available on a particular flight.

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a form of auxiliary memory which is more commonly used as back up storage. Magnetic
tape is thin plastic reel coated with iron oxide substance that can be magnetized. Data is represented as
magnetized and non-magnetized spots representing 1s and 0s respectively, Because of continuous length
read/write head cannot jump to the desired location, thus tape must be read or written sequentially. The
magnetic tape can be erased and reused indefinitely.
The tape of magnetic tape storage is divided into vertical columns called frames and horizontal rows
called tracks. In magnetic tape the records are separated by blank spaces on the tape, called Inter record
gaps (IRG). When a tape contains a large number of very short records with an IRG after each record,
more than half of the tape could be unused. To overcome this problem of efficiency in storage space
utilization, records are grouped usually in blocks of two or more separated by an inter-block gap (IBG).
The process of grouping two or more records together to form a block of data is known as blocking and
the number of records put together in each block is called blocking factor. Blocking factor generally
depends on record length. The generally followed rule for deciding blocking factor is a block should be
at least ten times as long as the IBG.
Storage capacity of tape= Data record density * length.
Types of Magnetic Tapes
Data recording density and data transfer rate of Magnetic tape depends largely on the data organization
and principles of operation various types of magnetic tape and their tape drives. Commonly used ones are:
1) -inch tape reel
2) -inch Tape cartridge
3) 1/4 inch streamer tape
4) 4-mm digital audio tape

Uses
Magnetic tapes are used for the following applications:
1) For taking backups of data that re stored on an on-line storage device (i.e disks) so that data can
be retrieved from the backup if data on the disk is lost accidently.
2) Archiving of data which may be required rarely.
3) Magnetic tapes are generally used for distribution of software by vendors.
4) Magnetic tapes are used for applications which require sequential data processing.

Advantages
1) High Storage Capacity: The storage capacity is extremely high and it can store large amount of
data.
2) Low Cost: Magnetic tape reels and cartridges have high data recording densities. Thus cost per bit
of storage is less.
3) Reusability: Magnetic tapes can be erased and reused many times.
4) Easy to handle: Magnetic tapes and cartridges are compact and light in weight.

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 5) Portability: Magnetic tapes are often used for transferring data and program from one computer to
another because of its compact size, light in weight and high storage capacity.
Limitations
1) Magnetic tape is not suitable for applications which require random access of data, because tape
can only be accessed sequentially.
2) Tape must be stored in dust-free and moisture free environment.
3) It needs to be labeled in order to avoid ambiguity.

Magnetic disks: Magnetic disks are most commonly used direct access storage device.A magnetic disk's
medium contains iron particles, which can be polarizedgiven a magnetic chargein one of two
directions.Each particle's direction represents a 1 (on) or 0 (off), representing each bit of data that the
CPU can recognize.
A disk drive uses read/write heads containing electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the medium.
The most commonly used magnetic disks are floppy disks and hard disks.

Floppy Disks
A floppy disk is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage
medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles. They are
read and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD). Invented by IBM, floppy disks in 3.5-inch (89 mm),
5.25-inch (133 mm) and 8-inch (200 mm) forms Floppy disks store less data than a CD-ROM or USB
flash drive. A current 3 inch floppy (known as 3 Double-Sided, High-Density floppies) can take 1.44
megabytes of data. This is usually enough for text documents. Special floppies (known as 3 Double-
Sided, Extended-Density floppies) were made to hold 2.88 MB of data, but they were not commonly
available. Basically, a floppy disk drive reads and writes data to a small, circular piece of metal-coated
plastic similar to audio cassette tape.

Hard Disk
A magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to distinguish it
from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy disks. A hard
disk, for example, can store anywhere from 10 to more than 100 gigabytes, whereas most
floppies have a maximum storage capacity of 1.4 megabytes.
A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write
heads, one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that
they cannot move independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks, and a track
location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder.

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Uses:
1) Magnetic Disk is used for application that requires random data processing.
2) As a backup device for off-line data storage. If data on an On-line storage device is somehow
corrupted, it can be retrieved from backup storage.
3) Archiving of data that are not used frequently but may be used occasionally.
4) Transferring of data & programs between two computers that are not linked together. Floppy
disk & zip disk are often used for this purpose.
Advantages:
1) Magnetic Disk support direct access of data making them more suitable for a wider range of
application.

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2) Floppy disk & zip disk being compact in size & light in weight are easy to handle & store.
They enable storage of very large amount of data in a small storage space.
3) Magnetic disk is less vulnerable to data corruption due to careless handling or unfavorable
temperature and humidity conditions than magnetic tape.
4) Due to their low cost & high data recording densities, cost per bit of storage is low for
magnetic disk. An additional cost benefit is that magnetic disk can be erased & reused many
times.
5) Magnetic disk is suitable for both on-line & off-line storage of data.
6) Due to random access property, magnetic disk are often used by multiple users
simultaneously as a shared device.

Limitations
1) Although magnetic Disks can be used for both types of application (random as well as
sequential data processing),use of magnetic disk is less efficient than magnetic tape for
sequential applications.
2) It is more difficult to maintain security of information stored on those magnetic disks that are
used as shared, on-line secondary storage devices as compared to information store on
magnetic tapes or on other types of magnetic disks.
3) Some type of magnetic disks such as disk packs & Winchester disk are not so easily portable
as magnetic tapes.
4) They must be stored in a dust-free environment.

OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES

Optical disk is flat, circular plastic plate coated with a thin layer of metal like aluminum, gold or
silver on which data may be stored in form of highly reflective area and significantly less
reflective area from which data is read or written into through a laser beam.
These disks are capable of storing enormous amount of data in a limited amount of space.
Example-CD,DVD
Optical disk comes in various sizes and capacity. A CD can store 600-700 MB of data while DVD
can store data in GB.

Optical Disk Storage Organization

Unlike magnetic disk where each platter/plate contains multiple tracks, an optical disk contains a
single long track in the form of spiral shape.

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 The spiral shape of the track makes the optical disk suitable for reading large blocks off
sequential data such as music.
The track is further divided into sector of fixed size.
In optical disk no arm movement is required that is used in magnetic disk.

ACCESS MECHANISM

Laser beam technology is used for reading/writing of data. This technology uses 2 laser beam source of
different intensity. The greater intensity laser beam is used to write data on the surface of platter by
turning it on and off at a varying rate so that the tiny pits are burnt into the surface of disk. The lesser
intensity beam is required to read the data which is strongly reflected by the coated surface called Pit.
The beginning or end of pit represent 1 and no change in elevation between intervals represent 0.

CD-ROM

Read-Only Discs: CD-ROM and DVD-ROM Discs

CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory) is an abbreviation of Compact Disc Read-Only Memory. A
CD-ROM is a CD that contains computer data, which cannot be rewritten. In computers, CD-ROM is the
most commonly used optical storage technology. CD-ROM is a compact disc that contains information,
which is accessible by a computer. It is composed of polycarbonate plastic, thin reflective metal layers,
made of aluminum and a lacquer coating. Data is stored on the disc as a series of light and dark pits; the
light portion refers to the spaces between the pits. A laser beam reads the pits and the data can be
accessed. A standard 120 mm CD-ROM holds up to 700 MB of data, or about 70 minutes of audio.

DVD-ROM (digital versatile disc read-only memory). DVD-ROM is an optical disc storage media
format that can be used for data storage, which includes movies with high video and sound quality. DVD-
ROM is a non-volatile optical storage medium similar to CD-ROM, which contains computer data that
cannot be erased or rewritten. These DVDs are read-only disks that have storage capacity for 133 minutes
of high quality video, in format, and audio full- length feature film. The discs are pressed in a similar
fashion as the CDs. The reflective surface is gold or silver colored. DVD-ROM can be accessed using a
DVD-ROM drive attached to the personal computer. A standard DVD disc stores up to 9.4 GB of data..

Recordable Discs: CD-R, DVD-R, and DVD+R Discs

Recordable discs can be written to, but the discs cannot be erased and reused. Recordable CDs
are referred to as CD-R discs; recordable DVDs are called DVD-R or DVD+R discs, depending
on the standard being used (different optical disc and drive manufacturers support different
standards). Recordable CDs are commonly used for backing up files, sending large files to
others, and creating custom music CDs from MP3 files legally downloaded from the Internet or
from songs on CDs the user owns. DVD-Rs can be used for similar purposes when more storage
space than is available on a CD-R disc is needed, as well as for storing home movies and other
video applications since video requires a tremendous amount of storage space. Standard-sized 4
1/2-inch CD-R discs hold 700 MB, 3-inch mini CD-R discs hold about 200 MB, business-card-
sized CD-R discs hold 50 MB, and DVD-R or DVD+R discs can store 4.7 GB per side. The
recording laser inside the CD-R or DVD-R drive is less powerful than the one used to create read-
only discs, but still makes permanent marks on the disc to represent Os and Is. The process of
recording data onto an optical disc is called burning. To bum a CD-R or DVD-R disc, special
software is needed.

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Rewritable Discs: CD-RW, DVD-RW
The newer rewritable discs can be recorded on, erased, and overwritten just like a magnetic
disk. The most common types of rewritable optical media are CD-RW, DVD-RW,
and DVD+RW discs. CD-RW discs are written to using a CD-RW drive and can be read by most
CD and DVD drives. DVD-RW discs and DVD+RW discs are recorded using a DVD-RW drive
or DVD+RW drive, respectively, and can be read by most DVD drives.
CD-RW discs hold 700 MB, DVD+RW and DVD-RW discs hold 4.7 GB per side, and DVD-
RAM discs typically hold between 2.6 and 9.4 GB, depending on the speed of the disc and the
number of sides used.

To record and erase rewritable optical discs, phase-change technology is most often used. With
this technology, the recordable CD or DVD disc is coated with a special metal alloy compound
that has two different appearances once it's been heated and then cooled, depending on the
temperature reached during the heating process. With one temperature, the surface is reflective;
with a higher temperature, it's not. Before any data is written to a disc, the disc is completely
reflective. To record onto the disc, pits are burned into the surface by creating non-reflective
areas; unburned areas (lands) remain reflective. Just as with other CDs and DVDs, these pits and
lands are interpreted as 1 s and 0s when the disc is read. To erase the disc, the appropriate
temperature is used to change the areas to be erased back to their original reflective state.

MODULE 4: Software:

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Software is a set of electronic instructions consisting of complex codes (Known as programs) that make
the computer perform tasks. In other words, software tells the computer what to do, some programs exist
primary for the computers use & help the computer perform & manage its own task. Other types of
program exist primarily for the user & enable the computer to perform task such as creating documents or
drawing pictures.

Types of Software

Types of software
A wide variety of computer software is available today. Although the range of software
available is vast and varied, most software can be divided into two major categories:
1. System software,
2. Application software

System Software
System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation and extend the
processing capability of a computer system. It acts as an intermediary between the computer hardware
and application program, it also provides interface between user and computer In general, a computer's
system software performs one or more of the following functions:
1. Supports the development of other application software.
2. Supports the execution of other application software.
3. Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU, memory,
peripherals, etc.
4. Communicates with and controls the operation of peripheral devices such as printer,
disk, tape, etc.
5. It helps the hardware components work together and provides support for the
6. Development and execution of application software (programs).
7. The programs included in a system software package are called system programs and the
programmers who prepare system software are referred to as system programmers.

Advantages

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 1. Good system software allows application packages to be run on the computer with less time and
effort.
2. Without system software, application packages could not be run on the computer system. A
system software is an indispensable part of a total computer system.
3. A computer without some kind of system software would be very ineffective and most likely
impossible to operate.

Examples
Some examples of system software are:
Operating systems
Programming language translators
Utility programs

Operating Systems
An operating system is a set of integrated programs that manages overall
Performance and functioning of the computer system by controlling the resources such as CPU,
memory, I/O devices and overall flow of information within the system.
It provides as an interface between machine and its users.
Examples of operating system are Windows XP, Linux.Unix.
Every computer has an operating system software that takes care of the effective and
Efficient utilization of all the hardware and software components of the computer system.

Programming Language Translators

Translator refers to program that translate or convert the programming languages into
machine languages. In other words translator is a program which accept the program written in a
programming language and executed them by transforming them into a form suitable for
execution.

1)Compiler:
Definition:.A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code
written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the
target language, often having a binary form known as object code). In other words,a compiler is a
translator program that translates a high-level language program into its equivalent machine
language program.

High Level Language Input Compiler Output Machine Level Language

Program

One-to-many correspondence
(Source Program) (Object Program)

The input to the compiler is the high-level language program (often referred to as a source program) and
its output is the machine language program (often referred to as an object program). The compiler
translates each high level language instruction into a set of machine language instructions rather than a
single machine language instruction.

During the process of translation of a source program into its equivalent object program by the compiler
,the source program is not being executed. It is only being converted into a form
that can be executed by the computer's processor.
A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been written in

45
the language for which the compiler is meant. For example, a C compiler is only capable of translating
source programs, which have been written in C.Therefore, each computer requires a separate compiler for
each high-level language that it supports.

How Does Complier Works?

High Level language program on disk

Source program in
LOAD memory

Object Code in Compiler translate

Machine whole program
language
Execute

Compilers are large programs, which reside permanently on secondary storage.

STEP1:When a source program is to be translated, the compiler and the source program
are copied from secondary storage into the main memory of the computer. The
compiler, being a program, is then executed with the source program as its input
data.
STEP2:It generates the equivalent object program as its output, which is normally
saved in a file on secondary storage.
STEP3: Whenever there is a need to execute the program, the object program is copied from secondary
storage into the main memory of the computer and executed.

Characteristics of Compiler

1.There is no need to repeat the compilation process every time you wish to execute the program:
This is because the object program stored on secondary storage is already in machine language. You
simply have to load the object program from the secondary storage into the
main memory of the computer, and execute it directly.

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2.Compilation is necessary whenever we need to modify the program: That is, to incorporate
changes in the program, you must load the original source program from secondary storage into the main
memory of the computer, carry out necessary changes in the source program, recompile the modified
source program, and create store an updated object program for execution.
3.Compilers also automatically detect and indicate certain types of errors in source programs.
These errors are referred to as syntax errors and are
typically of the following types:
1. Illegal characters
2. Illegal combination of characters
3. Improper sequencing of instructions in a program
4. Use of undefined variable names

Limitations
1. A compiler, however, cannot detect logic errors. It can only detect grammatical(syntax errors) in
the source program.
2. Programs containing logical errors will be successfully compiled and the object code will be
obtained without any error message.
3. It is necessary that each computer must have its own "personal" compiler for a particular
language.

2)Interpreter:
An interpreter analyses and executes the source code in line-by-line manner, without looking at the entire
product. In other words, an interpreter translates a statement in a program and execute the statement
immediately before translating the next source language statement. The advantage of interpreter is that
they can execute the program spontaneously.
Like compiler, interpreter also converts the source program written in high level language
program into machine language.
Unlike compiler, interpreter scans each line of code of source program for finding the error.
If error found, it will display on screen.
After rectifying the error, interpreter scans the next line of code in a program.

Difference between compiler and interpreter

1. Compiler scan the whole program at once for finding the syntax error but interpreter scan each
line of program.
2. Compiler is faster in execution while interpreter slow in execution.
3. Compiler is slow in debugging while interpreter fast in debugging.

3)Assembler

Assembler is a language translator that converts the assembly language program into object code
in machine language.

ASSEMBLY OBJECT CODE

ASSEMBLER
LANGUAGE

In assembly language we use mnemonic code like for addition we use ADD, for multiplication
we use MULT and so on.

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 Assembler recognizes the character string that makes up the symbolic names of various machine
operation and substitute the required machine code for each instruction.
At the same time, it also calculate the required address in memory for each symbolic name or
mnemonic code and substitute those address for the names resulting in a machine language
program that can run on its own at any time.
Example of Assembly Program
Each line of assembly program consists of four column called fields.
[LABEL] <OP CODE> <OPERAND> [COMMENT]
Bracket indicates that it is optional to use in program.
For example-
[LABEL] <OP CODE> <OPERAND> [COMMENT]
BEGIN ADD A,B ; Add B to A

LINKER AND LOADER

Linkers and loaders are utilities that function in the execution, or running, of programs.
A linker, which can also be called a link editor or a binder, is a program that combines object
modules together to form a program that can then be executed.
Modules are parts of programs. Until modules are combined, or linked, the program will not
function. An individual module can contain one or several routines, and so can be linked with
other modules to support programs of differing functionality.
A linker performs an important function. Without it, programs would have to be written
completely. The presence of the linker allows a large program to be broken into small, more
manageable pieces.
In addition to the combining function, a linker can replace a so-called symbolic address with a
real address. Even a program consisting entirely of one module may need to be linked, if address
replacement is done.

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 A loader is a utility of an operating system. It copies programs from a storage device to a
computer's main memory, where the program can then be executed. Like linkers, loaders can also
replace virtual addresses with real addresses. Most loaders function without user involvement.
They are invisible to the user, but are a recognizable utility to the operating system.
Loader perform 4 basic task:-
1. Allocation
It allocates memory space for the program.
2. Linking
It combines two or more separate object program and supplies the information
needed to allow references between them.
3. Relocation
It prepares a program to execute properly from its storage area.
4. Loading
It places the data and machine instruction into memory.
There are two types of Loader:-
1. Absolute Loader
2. Relocating Loader
Working of linker and loader:-

High Level Machine

language executable
Compile Linker
program Program

Utilities
These are a set of programs that help users in system maintenance tasks and in performing tasks of
routine nature. Some of the tasks commonly performed by utility programs include the following:
1. Formatting hard disks or floppy disks. Loader Library files
2. Reorganizing files on a hard disk to conserve storage space.
3. Taking backup of files stored on hard disk on to a tape or floppy disk.
4. Searching a particular file from a directory of hundreds of files.
5. Checking the amount of available memory.
6. Checking the amount of available storage space on hard disk.
7. Reducing the file size for more efficient transmission over a data communication
link.
Application Software
1. Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific
problem or do a specific task. Memory
2. Application software, also known as an application or an "apps", is computer software designed
to help the user to perform specific tasks.
3. The programs included in an application software package are called application programs and
the programmers who prepare application software are referred to as application programmers.

Examples
Some of the most commonly knownapplication software are briefly described below.

1.Word-Processing Software
Word-Processing is a term that describes the use of computers to create, edit, view,
format, store, retrieve and print documents (written material such as letters, reports,

49
books, etc.). A word-processing software is an application software that enables the user
to do all these on a computer system. The need to create documents is so common in
every walk of life, whether it is at work, at school, or at home, that word-processing
software is the most commonly used application software.

2.Graphics Software
A graphics software enables us to use a computer system for creating, editing, viewing,
storing, retrieving and printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything else that
can be drawn in the traditional manner.

3.Education Software
Education software allows computer systems to be used as a teaching and learning tool. A
few examples of such applications are:
1. Applications that teach young children to do mathematics, how to recognize the
alphabet, or how to read whole words and sentences. The use of a computer allows the
learning process to be made interesting by incorporating audio-visual effects in the
application.
2. For example, use of encouraging spoken words (like excellent, marvelous,
etc.) when the correct answer is given, and display of marks obtained leads to interesting
learning process.

4.Entertainment Software
Entertainment software allows computer systems to be used as an entertainment tool. A
few examples of such applications are:
1. Video Games. Today thousands of video game applications are available on
computer systems. Special audio and visual effects are used in these applications to make
the games thrilling and exciting for the users.
2. Interactive Television. These applications allow users to either use their computer
systems as an interactive television or to convert their conventional televisions into an
interactive television.
3. Game Partner. These applications allow computers to become a game partner of an
individual for playing conventional games that require two players. A good example of
such an application is the use of computers for playing chess.

Introduction to Programming Languages

In all over the world, language is the source of communication among human beings. Different
countries/regions have different languages. Similarly, in order to communicate with the computer user
also needs to have a language that should be understood by the computer. For this purpose, different
languages are developed for performing different types of work on the computer, such languages are
known as Programming Languages. Basically, languages are divided into two categories according to
their interpretation.
1. Low Level Languages.
2. High Level Languages.
Low Level Languages
Low level computer languages are machine codes or close to it. Computer cannot understand instructions
given in high level languages or in English. It can only understand and execute instructions given in the
form of machine language i.e. language of 0 and 1. There are two types of low level languages:
Machine Language.
Assembly Language

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First-Generation: Machine language
The first generation computer language was machine language, all the machine used machine
code which consisted of 0s and 1s. Machine language is highly efficient and allows direct
control of each operation; however programmers had to write computer programs using 0 and 1.
Originally, no translator was used to compile or assemble the first-generation language. The
first-generation programming instructions were entered through the front panel switches of the
computer system.
The main benefit of programming in a first-generation programming language is that the code a
user writes can run very fast and efficiently, since it is directly executed by the CPU. However,
machine language is a lot more difficult to learn than higher generational programming
languages, and it is far more difficult to edit if errors occur. In addition, if instructions need to be
added into memory at some location, then all the instructions after the insertion point need to be
moved down to make room in memory to accommodate the new instructions. Doing so on a
front panel with switches can be very difficult. Furthermore, portability is significantly reduced -
in order to transfer code to a different computer it needs to be completely rewritten since the
machine language for one computer could be significantly different from another computer.
Architectural considerations make portability difficult too. For example, the number of registers
on one CPU architecture could differ from those of another.
Advantages of first Generation language programs were:-
Translation free: - Since computer understand only machine language program, no
conversion is required.
High Speed: - Since no conversion is required, applications developed using machine
languages are fast.
Drawbacks of the first generations languages were:-
Complex Language :- Programs were difficult to write and debug
Tedious :- Programming process was tedious time consuming
Machine Dependent: - A program written in one computer cant be run on other
computer because each computer has different architecture.
Error Prone: - Programs were error prone because programmer has to remember all the
opcode and memory location which is very difficult task that leads to an error in program.
Second Generation Languages: Assembly language
These were developed in the early 1950s with the ability to use acronyms to speed
programming and coding of programs. Assembly languages are symbolic programming
languages that use symbolic notation to represent machine-language instructions. Symbolic
programming languages are strongly connected to machine language and the internal
architecture of the computer system on which they are used. They are called low-level
languages because they are so closely related to the machines.
It uses mnemonic codes, or easy-to-remember abbreviations, rather than numbers. Examples of
these codes include ADD for addition, CMP for compare, MULT for multiply, and STO for storing
information into memory. Like programs written in other programming languages, assembly
language programs consist of a series of individual statements or instructions that tell the
computer what to do.
Normally an assembly language statement consists of a label, an operation code, and one or
more operands. Labels are used to identify and reference instructions in the program. The
operation code is a symbolic notation that specifies the particular operation to be performed,
such as move, add, subtract, or compare. The operand represents the register or the location in
main memory where the data to be processed is located
Machine dependence is a significant disadvantage of assembly language. A program coded in
assembly language for one machine will not run on machines from a different or sometimes
even the same manufacturer.

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Advantages of Assembly Language:-
Easy to understand and use:- Program written in assembly language are much easier
to understand and use as compared to its machine language counterpart because of use
of mnemonics codes instead of codes in 0 & 1.
Less error prone: - bcoz of use of mnemonic codes and symbolic addresses.
Efficiency:- Assembly language program can run much faster and use less memory and
other resources compared to similar program written in machine language.
Disadvantages of Assembly Language:-
Machine Dependent: - Program written in these language cant run on other machine
because different computer architecture have their own machine and assembly
language.
Harder to learn: - Every type of computer architecture require different assembly
language, making it hard to remember and understand every dialect of assembly.
Slow Development Time: - for application development compared to high level
language.
Less Efficient
No Standardization: - Cant be standardized because each type of computer has a
different instruction set and therefore a different assembly language.

Third Generation Languages: High level language

A programming language in which the program statements are not closely related to the internal
characteristics of the computer is called a high-level language.
High-level programming languages were developed to make programming easier and less
error-prone.
High-level languages fall somewhere between natural languages and machine languages, and
were developed to make the programming process more efficient. Languages like FORTRAN
(FORmulaTRANslator) and COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language) made it possible
for scientists and business people to write programs using familiar terms instead of obscure
machine instructions.
Programs were written in an English-like manner, making them more convenient to use and
giving the programmer more time to address a client's problems.
Again, a translator is needed to translate the symbolic statements of a high-level language into
computer-executable machine language. The programs that translate high-level programs into
machine language are called interpreters and compilers.
Advantages of high level language:-
Readability: -High level languages are closer to natural languages so they are easier to
learn and understand.
Machine Independent: - program written in these languages can be run on other
machine with very little or no change.
Easy debugging
Low Development Cost
Easy Documentation
Disadvantages of high level language:-
Poor control on hardware: - HLL (High Level language) are developed to ease the
pressure on programmer so that they dont have to know the intricacies of hardware.
Less Efficient: - HLL applications are less efficient as far as computation time is
concerned.
Fourth Generation: 4 GL
With each generation, programming languages have become easier to use and more like
natural languages.4 GL are Non-Procedural where as 3 generation language is Procedural. In
non-procedural method we simply state the needed output instead of specifying each step one

52
after another to perform a task. In other words, the computer is instructed what it must do rather
than how a computer must perform a task. An example of a 4GL is the query language like SQL
that allows a user to request information from a database with precisely worded English-like
sentences.
Advantages of 4 GL:-
Instructions are written in English-like sentences.
They are nonprocedural, so users can concentrate on the "what" instead of the "how".
They increase productivity because programmers type fewer lines of code to get
something done.
Disadvantages of 4 GL:-
Programs written in 4 GL are quite lengthy so they need more disk space and large
memory capacity as compared to 3 GL.
5 GL cannot directly utilize the computer power available at hardware level as compared
to other level of languages.
Fifth Generation Programming Languages
5GL is an abbreviation for fifth-generation language. 5 GL are just the conceptual view of what
might be the future of programming languages. These languages will be able to process natural
languages. The users will be free from learning any programming language to communicate
with the computers. The programmers may simply type the instruction or simply tell the
computer by way of microphones what it needs to do. Since these languages are still in their
infancy, only a few are currently commercially available. They are closely linked to artificial
intelligence and expert systems.
SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS:
1. WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE: MS WORD
Definition:
Microsoft Word is a word processing program introduced by Microsoft Corporation. It
is a program of MS Office package. This program helps you to create professional
looking documents easily. A word processing program allows you to create different
kinds of documents. For example: resumes, reports, letters etc.. A word processor
allows a user to manipulate the text on your screen, add pictures, correct any
mistake that you made, and change the margins.

2. SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE :MS- EXCEL

Definition:
Microsoft Excel is a very powerful spreadsheet application that is designed,
primarily, to perform mathematical calculations. It also can be used to create a
simple (non-relational) database or to create charts and graphs. The power behind
Excel is that once formulas are entered into a worksheet, calculations can be
performed on data entered into the worksheet.

What is a spreadsheet (Worksheet)?

A spreadsheet is similar to working with tablesit has rows and columns, and the
space where these two intersect are called cells.

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 3. PRESENTATION SOFTWARE: MS-POWERPOINT
Microsoft PowerPoint is a slide show presentation program currently developed by Microsoft.
PowerPoint is the presentation graphics software in the Microsoft 2007 Office suite. With
PowerPoint, you can use its easy-to-use predefined layouts, themes, and templates to create
dynamic and professional presentations.

Operation

PowerPoint presentations consist of a number of individual pages or "slides". The "slide"

analogy is a reference to the slide projector. A better analogy would be the "foils" (or
transparencies/plastic sheets) that are shown with an overhead projector, although they are in
decline now. Slides may contain text, graphics, sound, movies, and other objects, which may be
arranged freely. The presentation can be printed, displayed live on a computer, or navigated
through at the command of the presenter. For larger audiences the computer display is often
projected using a video projector. Slides can also form the basis of webcasts.

PowerPoint provides three types of movements:

Entrance, emphasis, and exit of elements on a slide itself are controlled by what PowerPoint
calls Custom Animations.

Transitions, on the other hand, are movements between slides. These can be animated in a variety
of ways.

Custom animation can be used to create small story boards by animating pictures to enter, exit or
move.

4. GRAPHICS SOFTWARE: ADOBE PHOTOSHOP

In computer graphics, graphics software or image editing software is a program or collection

of programs that enable a person to manipulate visual images on a computer. These are the
application software which lets the user to create and manipulate any type of computer graphics
with the use of an operating system.

Computer graphics can be classified into two distinct categories: raster graphics and vector
graphics. Many graphics programs focus exclusively on either vector or raster graphics, but
there are a few that combine them in interesting ways. It is simple to convert from vector
graphics to raster graphics, but going the other way is harder. Some software attempts to do
this.

In addition to static graphics, there are animation and video editing software. The exact sources
of graphics may vary for different tasks, but most can read and write files.

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Most graphics programs have the ability to import and export one or more graphics file formats.
It also can export files to one or more files. Computer graphics also can be used by other editing
software such as Adobe Photoshop, Pizap, Microsoft Publisher, Picasa, etc.

Adobe Photoshop is a raster graphics editor developed and published by Adobe

Systems for Windows and OS X.

Photoshop was created in 1988

DATABASES
A database is an organized collection of data. It is the collection of schemes, tables, queries,
reports, views and other objects.Database management systems (DBMS) are computer
software applications that interact with the user, other applications, and the database itself to
capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation,
querying, update, and administration of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL and
ORACLE.

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 MODULE 5: OPERATING SYSTEM:
Operating System is system software, which makes a computer to actually work. It is the software the
enables all the programs we use. The OS organizes and controls the hardware. OS acts as an interface
between the application programs and the machine hardware. A program that controls the execution of
application programs. An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a
vital component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs require an operating
system to function. Operating system is a platform between hardware and user which is responsible for
the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of a computer. Examples:
Windows, Linux, UNIX.
STRUCTURE OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

OBJECTIVES OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

1) Makes the computer more convenient to use

2) Allows computer system resources to be used in an efficient manner
3) Ability to evolve: Permit effective development, testing, and introduction of new system
functions without interfering with service.
4) The user interacts with the operating systems through the user interface and usually interested in
the look and feel of the operating system.
5) An operating system controls how processes may access resources.

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FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

1. Resource Management: The resource management function of an OS allocates computer resources

such as CPU time, main memory, secondary storage, and input and output devices for use.

2. Data Management: The data management functions of an OS govern the input and output of the data
and their location, storage, and retrieval.

3. Job Management: The job management function of an OS prepares, schedules, controls, and monitors
jobs submitted for execution to ensure the most efficient processing. A job is a collection of one or more
related programs and their data

4. Process management:It deals with running multiple processes. Most operating system allows a process
to be assigned a priority which affects its allocation of CPU time. Interactive operating systems also
employ some level of feedback in which the task with which the user is working receives higher priority.
In many systems there is a background process which runs when no other process is waiting for the CPU.

5. Memory management: The memory manager in an OS coordinates the memories by tracking which one
is available, which is to be allocated or deallocated and how to swap between the main memory and
secondary memories. The operating system tracks all memory used by each process so that when a
process terminates, all memory used by that process will be available for other processes.

6. Disk and file systems: Operating systems have a variety of native file systems that controls
the creation, deletion, and access of files of data and programs.

7. Security: Most operating systems include some level of security.

8. Device drivers: A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow
interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with
the device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware
is connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and on the other
end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications.

TYPES OF OS

1. BATCH PROCESSING SYSTEMS:

In a batch processing operating system interaction between the user and processor is limited or
there is no interaction at all during the execution of work. Data and programs that need to be
processed are bundled and collected as a batch and executed together. Batch processing
operating systems are ideal in situations where:
- There are large amounts of data to be processed.
- Similar data needs to be processed.
- Similar processing is involved when executing the data.
The system is capable of identifying times when the processor is idle at which time batches
maybe processed. Processing is all performed automatically without any user intervention. In
Batch processing same type of jobs batch (BATCH- a set of jobs with similar needs) together
and execute at a time. The OS was simple, its major task was to transfer control from one job to
the next. The job was submitted to the computer operator in form of punch cards. At some later
time the output appeared. The OS was always resident in memory. Common Input devices were

57
card readers and tape drives. Common output devices were line printers, tape drives, and card
punches.

2. MULTI-TASKING OPERATING SYSTEM:

In this type of Operating System several applications maybe simultaneously loaded and used in the
memory. While the processor handles only one application at a particular time it is capable of switching
between the applications effectively to apparently simultaneously execute each application. This type of
operating system is seen everywhere today and is the most common type of OS, the Windows operating
system would be an example. Multitasking is a method where multiple tasks, also known as processes, are
performed during the same period of time. The tasks share common processing resources, such as a CPU
and main memory. In the case of a computer with a single CPU, only one task is said to be running at any
point in time, meaning that the CPU is actively executing instructions for that task. Multitasking solves
the problem by scheduling which task may be the one running at any given time, and when another
waiting task gets a turn. The act of reassigning a CPU from one task to another one is called a context
switch. When context switches occur frequently enough the illusion of parallelism is achieved. Even on
computers with more than one CPU (called multiprocessor machines), multitasking allows many more
tasks to be run than there are CPUs. Multitasking is an interleaved execution of multiple jobs (often
referred to as task of same user) in a single-user system. Typically computer systems used for such
purposes are uniprocessor system. For Example, while editing a file in foreground, sorting job can be
given in background.

3. TIME SHARING SYSTEMS:

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Time sharing, or multitasking, is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Multiple jobs are
executed by switching the CPU between them. In this, the CPU time is shared by different
processes, so it is called as Time sharing Systems. Time slice is defined by the OS, for
sharing CPU time between processes. Examples: Multics, UNIX, etc. Time-sharing is the
sharing of a computing resource among many users by means of multiprogramming and multi-
tasking. By allowing a large number of users to interact concurrently with a single computer,
time-sharing dramatically lowers the cost of providing computing capability, made it possible for
individuals and organizations to use a computer without owning one, and promoted the
interactive use of computers and the development of new interactive applications.
Example: Assume that there are four interactive users with the following memory requirements:

Job1 15K

Job2 20K

Job3 05K

Job4 10K

Initially the monitor loads in Job1 and transfers control to it. Later, the monitor decides to transfer control
to Job2. Because Job2 requires more memory than Job1, Job1 must be written out first, and then Job2 can
be loaded. Next Job3, is loaded in to be run. However, because Job3 is smaller than Job2, a portion of
Job2 can remain in the memory, reducing disk writ time. Later, the monitor decides to transfer control
back to Job 1. An additional portion of Job2 must be written out when Jb1 is loaded back into memory.
When Job4 is loaded, part of Job1 and the portion of Job2 remaining in memory are retained. At this
point, if either Job1 or Job2 is activated, only a partial load will be required. In this example, it is Job2
that runs next. This requires that Job4 and the remaining resident portion of Job1 be written out and that
the missing portion of Job2 is read in.

ADVANTAGES OF Time-Sharing System:

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1) Reduces Idle Time:
As User speed of typing & thinking is slower than processing speed of a computer, while a user is
engaged with these task, time-sharing system services many other user. Thus, reduces idle time of CPU &
provide higher system throughput.
2) Provide advantage of Quick response Time:
Time sharing system ensures quick response from every user.This feature helps in improving
programmers efficiency by making interactive Programming &debugging much simpler and quicker.
3) Offer good computing facility to users:
Users can gain direct access to more sophisticated hardware & software than they could otherwise just
afford. In time-sharing system, they merely pay a fee for the resource they use,& are relieved of
hardware, software & personnel problems associated with acquiring & maintaining their own installation.

4. REAL-TIME SYSTEMS:

Often used as a control device in a dedicated application such as controlling scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, and some display systems.
Well-defined fixed-time constraints Real-time systems are those systems in which the correctness of the
system depends not only on the logical result of computation, but also on the time at which the results are
produced. RTOS is therefore an operating system that supports real-time applications by providing
logically correct result within the deadline required. Basic Structure is similar to regular OS but, in
addition, it provides mechanisms to allow real time scheduling of tasks. Though real-time operating
systems may or may not increase the speed of execution, they can provide much more precise and
predictable timing characteristics than general-purpose OS.

RTOS is key to many embedded systems and provides a platform to build applications. All embedded
systems are not designed with RTOS. Embedded systems with relatively simple/small hardware/code
might not require an RTOS. Embedded systems with moderate-to-large software applications require
some form of scheduling, and hence RTOS.

RTOS CLASSFICATION:
RTOS specifies a known maximum time for each of the operations that it performs. Based upon the
degree of tolerance in meeting deadlines, RTOS are classified into following categories:

Hard real-time: Degree of tolerance for missed deadlines is negligible. A missed deadline can result in
catastrophic failure of the system

Firm real-time: Missing a deadly ne might result in an unacceptable quality reduction but may not lead
to failure of the complete system

Soft real-time: Deadlines may be missed occasionally, but system doesnt fail and also, system quality is
acceptable

For a life saving device, automatic parachute opening device for skydivers, delay can be fatal. Parachute
opening device deploys the parachute at a specific altitude based on various conditions. If it fails to
respond in specified time, parachute may not get deployed at all leading to casualty. Similar situation
exists during inflation of air bags, used in cars, at the time of accident. If airbags dont get inflated at
appropriate time, it may be fatal for a driver. So such systems must be hard real time systems, whereas
for TV live broadcast, delay can be acceptable. In such cases, soft real time systems can be used.

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 5. MULTIPROGRAMMING:

Multiprogramming is a technique to execute number of programs simultaneously by a single processor. In

Multiprogramming, number of processes resides in main memory at a time. The OS picks and begins to
execute one of the jobs in the main memory. If any I/O wait happened in a process, then CPU switches
from that job to another job. Computer multiprogramming is the allocation of a computer system and its
resources to more than one concurrent application, job or user. The use of multiprogramming was
enhanced by the arrival of virtual memory and virtual machine technology, which enabled individual
programs to make use of memory and operating system resources as if other concurrently running
programs were, for all practical purposes, non-existent and invisible to them. Multiprogramming should
be differentiated from multi-tasking since not all multiprogramming entailsor has the capability for--
"true" multi-tasking. This is the case even though the use of multi-tasking generally implies the use of
some multiprogramming methods. In this context, the root word "program" does not necessarily refer to a
compiled application, rather, any set of commands submitted for execution by a user or operator. Such
"program" could include a script or job control stream and any included calls to macro-instructions,
system utilities or application program modules. An entire, interactive, logged-in user session can be
thought of as a "program" in this sense. A program generally comprises numerous tasks, a task being a
relatively small group of processor instructions which together achieve a definable logical step in the
completion of a job or the execution of a continuous-running application program. A task frequently ends
with some request requiring the moving of data, a convenient opportunity to allow another program to
have system resources, particularly CPU time. Hence CPU is not idle at any time. The main memory
consists of 5 jobs at a time, the CPU executes one by one. Multiprogramming is interleaved execution of
multiple jobs (of same or different users) in a multi-user system.

6. MULTIPROCESSOR:
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a single
computer system. The idea of using I/O processor to improve system performance was carried
a step further by designing system with multiple CPUs. Such systems are called multiprocessing
Systems because they use multiple Processors (CPUs) and can execute multiprocessors
concurrently. Multiple CPUs of these Systems are used to process either instructions from
different and independent programs different instructins from same program simultaneously.
There are many variations on this basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary
with context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die, multiple
dies in one package, multiple packages in one system unit, etc.).Multiprocessing sometimes

61
refers to the execution of multiple concurrent software processes in a system as opposed to a
single process at any one instant. However, the terms multitasking or multiprogramming are
more appropriate to describe this concept, which is implemented mostly in software, whereas
multiprocessing is more appropriate to describe the use of multiple hardware CPUs. A system
can be both multiprocessing and multiprogramming, only one of the two, or neither of the two of
them.

Multiprocessing systems are of two type types- tightly-coupled systems and loosely-coupled
systems. In tightly-coupled systems, there is a single system-wide primary memory shared by
all processors. On the otherhand, in loosely-coupled systems, and each processor has its own
local memory.

7.EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEM:

It refers to the operating system that is self-contained in the device & resident in the ROM.
Since embedded system are usually not general purpose systems, these operating system are
lighter or less-resource intensive as compared to general-purpose OS. For Example: Household
appliances, traffic control system, car management system etc. Unlike a General purpose
operating system, the embedded operating system does not load and execute applications. This
means that the system is only able to run a single application.

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 BOOTING
Boot is the process of starting or resetting a computer. When first turning on, the computer executes the
software that loads and starts the computers OS and prepares it for use.
Boot Record refers to the section of disk that contains the operating system.
Boot sector is the portion of the disk reserved for self starting portion (boot strap loader) of an operating
system.
Boot strap loader is a program that is automatically run when computer is switched on. It first performs
few basic hardware tests then passes control to operating systems loader files to load the OS.
Startup Sequence of booting process:
1. The computer is switched ON.
2. Computer loads data from ROM and checks whether all the major components like processor and
hard disk are functioning properly.
3. Computer loads BIOS (basic input/output system) from ROM to determine the machines
fundamental configuration and environment which determines what peripherals can the system
support.
4. Computer loads the operating system into RAM.
5. When an application is opened, it is loaded into RAM and any file that is opened for use in that
application is also loaded into RAM.

MS DOS
MS-DOS is an operating system designed for the IBM PC by Microsoft in 1981. MS DOS is Microsoft
Disk Operating System. It was a command-line interface, meaning the user had to type in commands to
use it, unlike Windows which is a Graphical User Interface. MS DOS was released on IBM PCs when
they came out in the 1980s and continued in popular use until the mid 1990s, by which time the first of
the Windows operating systems, Windows 95, began to take over.
COMMON TERMINOLOGIES
1) DIRECTORY
A computer directory refers to the hierarchy of folders within folders that make up the computer
system. A directory in general is an approach to organizing information. In computer file systems,
a directory is named group of related files that are separated by the naming convention from other
group of files.
Files and folders are usually viewed in a hierarchical format: the top of hierarchy for any storage
medium is called the Root directory. A directory that is below another directory is called a
subdirectory. A directory above a sub directory is called a parent directory.

2) FILE
It is a string used to uniquely identify a file stored on the file system. Different file systems
impose different restrictions on length and allowed characters on filenames. A filename includes
one or more of these components:
Directory (or path) directory tree (e.g., /usr/bin etc.)
file base name of the file
type (format or extension) indicates the content type of the file (e.g., .txt, .exe, .COM,
etc.)
There are many different types of files: data files, text files, program files, directory files and
so on. Different types of files store different types of information. For example program files

63
 store programs, whereas text files store text. There can only be one file with exact same file
name in any particular folder.

3) VOLUME:
Volume refers to tape or disk that stores computer data. A volume or logical drive is a single
accessible storage area with a single file system Sometimes large hard disk are divided into
several volumes called partitions, each of which is treated as separate disk.

4) VOLUME LABEL:
Volume label refers to a name for disk or tape. For mass volume storage devices, a label is the
name of a storage volume.

5) DRIVE NAME:
Drive name is name assigned to a storage unit such as a hard disk, floppy disk or CD-ROM when
the disk is first created.

DOS commands are categorized into 2 types:

1. Internal Commands
2. External Commands

1. Internal Commands
Internal Commands are those commands that are automatically loaded in the memory when the operating
system DOS is loaded into the memory (RAM). The instructions associated with these commands are
always available in the memory as they are part of COMMAND.COM file.
Some of the internal commands are discussed as given below:
CLS

o The purpose of this command is to clear the displayed screen & redisplay the DOS
Prompt at the upper left corner of screen.
o The command used is C:\> CLS

DIR
o It displays the list of directories and files along with creation date and time on the screen.
Directories stores group of files.
o It can be of three types:
Current directory:It is the directory in which user is working. Ex. C:\DOS>
Here Dos is the current directory.
Sub directory:A directory can contain other directories in it. A directory within
other directory is called sub directory. These directories are also called child
directories.
Root directory:Root directory is the starting point from where all other
directories branch out. It is represented by a backslash (\). It is also called parent
directory.

o Files:A file is the primary unit of storage on the computer. A file is a collection of text
data. Different types of documents like letter, invoices, memos etc are stored in a text file
whereas databases are stored in a database file.

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 DATE
o It displays the current systems date. User can also change the current date with new date.
o The command used is C:\> DATE

TIME
o It displays the current systems time. User can also change the current time with new
time.
o The command used is C:\> TIME

VOL
o The purpose of this command is to display the volume label or name of the disk. The
length of the name of disk does not exceed 11 characters.
o The command used is C:\> VOL

VER
o It displays the version of XP being currently used
o The command used is C:\> VER

COPY CON
o It is used to create new file. The file created by this command cannot be modified. If user
tries to modify the contents of the file using Copy con, it will display the message File
already exists. Overwrite it (Y/N)?
o The command used is C:\> COPY CON<filename.ext>
o Here ext is the extension of the file and filename is the name of the file.

TYPE
o It is used to view the contents of the file. This only displays the information in the file. If
it is longer than the screen, it scrolls upward till the last line of the file is displayed.
o However user can pause the movement of scrolling by pressing Ctrl-S keys of Pause key
button from keyboard.
o The command used is C:\> TYPE<filename.ext>

REN
o It is used to rename an old file name with new file name. Renames a file / directory or
files / directories.
o The command used is C:\> REN <oldfile.ext><newfile.ext>

DEL
o This command is used to delete a single file.
o The command used is C:\> DEL <filename.ext>

MD
o It is used to create a new directory of subdirectory
o The command used is C:\> MD<directoryname>

COPY

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 o It is used to copy files from one directory to the same directory or another directory or
disk.
o The command used is C:\> COPY<existing_file.ext><target_file.ext>

RD
o This is used to remove a directory or subdirectory. If user wants to remove a directory or
subdirectory, then first delete all the files and subdirectory in it. User can remove only
empty directory or subdirectory.
o The command used is C:\> RD <subdirname>

2. External Commands
External commands are those commands that reside on disk and have extension of .com, .exe or .bat.
To run these commands they should be brought up into memory. Some of the external commands are
discussed below:

ATTRIB
o This command is used to change the attribute of a file i.e. user can use ATTRIB command to
make a file read only which prevents the file from the change of contents.
o The command used is
C:\> ATTRIB <filename> attributes
+R Read only
-R Remove read only
+H Hide the file
-H Dehide the hidden file

CHKDSK
o It returns the configuration status of the selected disk. It returns the information about Volume
serial number, Total disk space, space in hidden files, space in directories, total memory and
free memory space.
o The command used is C:\> CHKDSK <<drive name>>

DISKCOPY
o It is used to make duplicate copy of a disk like Xerox copy. It first formats the target disk the
copies files from source disk to target disk.
o The command used is C:\>DISKCOPY <source drive><destination drive>

FORMAT

o Formats command is used to make a disk usable for operating system by

dividing the disk into tracks and sectors.
o The command used is FORMAT <<drive name/switches>>

LABEL
o Creates, changes, or deletes the volume label of a disk
o The command used is C:\> Label <Drive name>

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 MORE

o It displays output one screen (page by page) at a time. This command is

used with DIR and TYPE command.
o The command used is C:\> Type <Filename>| more

XCOPY
o It is used to copy files as well as directories from source to destination.
o The command used is C:\>Xcopy<<source path>><<destination path>> /switches
/E Copies the directory even if they are empty.
/P Prompts (Y/N) before copying the files to destination.
/S Copies all files & subdirectories source to destination.
/D Copies files changed on or after the specified date.
/Y Overwrites existing files without prompting.
/-Y Prompts you before overwriting existing files.

The DISKCOMP Command

Description:
Compares the contents of two floppy disks.
Command Syntax:
DISKCOMP [drive1: [drive2:]] [/1] [/8]
Explanation of Syntax:
[/1] compares the first side of the disks.
[/8] compares only the first eight sectors of each track.
Doskey

Displays a history of previously entered commands

SYS:
Sys is used to copy the system files from one drive to another drive, allowing that drive to be
bootable.
When running sys, the below files will be copied.
command.com
io.sys
msdos.sys
drvspace.bin

SYS [drive1:][path] drive2:

[drive1:][path] Specifies the location of the system files.
drive2: Specifies the drive the files are to be copied to.
Wild cards:It is a set of special characters that are used with some commonly used dos commands. There
are two types of wild cards.

a) Asterisk or Star (*)

b) Question mark (?)

Asterisk or Star (*):

It matches for any number of character. Ex. C:\>DIR *.* will display list of all the files in directory.

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C:\> DIR *.DOC will display all the files having extension .DOC.

Question mark (?): This wild card matches for a any single character that a group of files have in
common.

Ex. C:\> DIR ?AM.TXT will display all the text files having any first character and remaining is given in
command.
C:\> DIR ???R.DBF will display all the database files having first three letter and fourth letter is R.

MS WINDOWS
GUI

A Graphical user interface (GUI) is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic
devices using images rather than text commands. GUIs can be used in computers, hand-held devices such
as MP3 players, portable media players or gaming devices, household appliances and office equipment. A
GUI represents the information and actions available to a user through graphical icons and visual
indicators such as secondary notation, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels or text
navigation.
Elements of a GUI include such things as: windows, pull-down menus, buttons, scroll bars, iconic
images, wizards, the mouse. With the increasing use of multimedia as part of the GUI, sound, voice,
motion video, and virtual reality interfaces seem likely to become part of the GUI for many applications.
A system's graphical user interface along with its input devices is sometimes referred to as its "look-and-
feel."

Microsoft Windows is a series of operating systems and environments developed and marketed by
Microsoft Corporation. The first version of Windows was released in 1985 as a graphical user interface to
MS-DOS, providing multiple document support, mouse support, drop down menus, and color video
drivers.
Windows 3.1
First widely used successful version of Windows
Replaced MS-DOS
Windows 95
Introduced Start button, taskbar for multitasking, and My Computer for easier file
management
Windows NT
Intended for business computing
Increased reliability and security
Windows 98
Active desktop displays Web content
Enables Web conventions on the desktop
Windows 2000
Security of NT with Windows 98 Interface
Windows 2000 Professional and Windows 2000 Server
Windows Me (Millennium Edition)
Successor to Windows 98 for home computing

Screen Shots of Various Windows Screens, Popoups& Dialog Box

The Windows Desktop in Fig 33.1

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Fig 33.1
Pull-down Menus on Right click of Mouse in Fig 33.2

Deleting files:
1)Select the file.
2)Right-Click on it.
3)Select Delete Option & File is deleted.
Renaming files:
1)Select the file.
2)Right-Click on it.
3)Select Rename Option & Type the name you want to give your file..
To Create A Folder

1. Get to the Windows Desktop.

2. Right-click on any blank portion of the Desktop.

3. In the menu that appears (like that shown in the picture to the right) click New and the Folder.

4. A new folder will appear, type the name of the folder you want to use and then press enter as
shown in Fig 33.3

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 MODULE 6: COMPUTER NETWORKS
As a result of rapid technological progress, these areas are rapidly converging and the differences between
collecting, transporting, storing, and processing information are quickly disappearing. Organizations with
hundreds of offices spread over a wide geographical area routinely expect to be able to examine the
current status of even their most remote outpost at the push of a button. As our ability to gather, process,
and distribute information grows, the demand for ever more sophisticated information processing grows
even faster.
The merging of computers and communications has had a profound influence on the way computer
systems are organized. The concept of the ''computer center'' as a room with a large computer to which
users bring their work for processing is now totally obsolete. The old model of a single computer serving
all of the organization's computational needs has been replaced by one in which a large number of
separate but interconnected computers do the job. These systems are called computer networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a distributed system.
The key distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of independent computers appears to its
users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or paradigm that it presents to the users.
Often a layer of software on top of the operating system, called middleware, is responsible for
implementing this model. A well-known example of a distributed system is the World Wide Web, in
which everything looks like a document (Web page).
In a computer network, this coherence, model, and software are absent. Users are exposed to the actual
machines, without any attempt by the system to make the machines look and act in a coherent way. If the
machines have different hardware and different operating systems, that is fully visible to the users. If a
user wants to run a program on a remote machine, he has to log onto that machine and run it there.

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS:

1. BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
Many companies have a substantial number of computers. For example, a company may have separate
computers to monitor production, keep track of inventories, and do the payroll. Initially, each of these
computers may have worked in isolation from the others, but at some point, management may have
decided to connect them to be able to extract and correlate information about the entire company.
Put in slightly more general form, the issue here is resource sharing, and the goal is to make all programs,
equipment, and especially data available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location
of the resource and the user. An obvious and widespread example is having a group of office workers
share a common printer. None of the individuals really needs a private printer, and a high-volume

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networked printer is often cheaper, faster, and easier to maintain than a large collection of individual
printers.
In the simplest of terms, one can imagine a company's information system as consisting of one or more
databases and some number of employees who need to access them remotely. In this model, the data are
stored on powerful computers called servers. Often these are centrally housed and maintained by a system
administrator. In contrast, the employees have simpler machines, called clients, on their desks, with which
they access remote data, for example, to include in spreadsheets they are constructing. (Sometimes we
will refer to the human user of the client machine as the ''client,'' but it should be clear from the context
whether we mean the computer or its user.) The client and server machines are connected by a network, as
illustrated in Fig. 1-1. Note that we have shown the network as a simple oval, without any detail. We will
use this form when we mean a network in the abstract sense. When more detail is required, it will be
provided.

2 HOME APPLICATIONS
Some of the more popular uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
1. Access to remote information.
2. Person-to-person communication.
3. Interactive entertainment.
4. Electronic commerce.
Access to remote information comes in many forms. It can be surfing the World Wide Web for
information or just for fun. Information available includes the arts, business, cooking, government, health,
history, hobbies, recreation, science, sports, travel, and many others. Fun comes in too many ways to
mention, plus some ways that are better left unmentioned.
The second broad category of network use is person-to-person communication, basically the 21st
century's answer to the 19th century's telephone. E-mail is already used on a daily basis by millions of
people all over the world and its use is growing rapidly. It already routinely contains audio and video as
well as text and pictures. Smell may take a while.
Any teenager worth his or her salt is addicted to instant messaging. This facility, derived from the UNIX
talk program in use since around 1970, allows two people to type messages at each other in real time. A
multi person version of this idea is the chat room, in which a group of people can type messages for all to
see.
Our third category is entertainment, which is a huge and growing industry. The killer application here (the
one that may drive all the rest) is video on demand. A decade or so hence, it may be possible to select any
movie or television program ever made, in any country, and have it displayed on your screen instantly.
New films may become interactive, where the user is occasionally prompted for the story direction
(should Macbeth murder Duncan or just bide his time?) with alternative scenarios provided for all cases.
Live television may also become interactive, with the audience participating in quiz shows, choosing
among contestants, and so on.

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On the other hand, maybe the killer application will not be video on demand. Maybe it will be game
playing. Already we have multi person real-time simulation games, like hide-and-seek in a virtual
dungeon, and flight simulators with the players on one team trying to shoot down the players on the
opposing team. If games are played with goggles and three-dimensional real-time, photographic-quality
moving images, we have a kind of worldwide shared virtual reality.
Our fourth category is electronic commerce in the broadest sense of the term. Home shopping is already
popular and enables users to inspect the on-line catalogs of thousands of companies. Some of these
catalogs will soon provide the ability to get an instant video on any product by just clicking on the
product's name. After the customer buys a product electronically but cannot figure out how to use it, on-
line technical support may be consulted.
Another area in which e-commerce is already happening is access to financial institutions. Many people
already pay their bills, manage their bank accounts, and handle their investments electronically. This will
surely grow as networks become more secure.

3) Mobile Users
Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), are one of the
fastest-growing segments of the computer industry. Many owners of these computers have desktop
machines back at the office and want to be connected to their home base even when away from home or
en route. Since having a wired connection is impossible in cars and airplanes, there is a lot of interest in
wireless networks
People on the road often want to use their portable electronic equipment to send and receive telephone
calls, faxes, and electronic mail, surf the Web, access remote files, and log on to remote machines. And
they want to do this from anywhere on land, sea, or air. For example, at computer conferences these days,
the organizers often set up a wireless network in the conference area. Anyone with a notebook computer
and a wireless modem can just turn the computer on and be connected to the Internet, as though the
computer were plugged into a wired network. Similarly, some universities have installed wireless
networks on campus so students can sit under the trees and consult the library's card catalog or read their
e-mail.
Wireless networks are of great value to fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery vehicles, and repairpersons for
keeping in contact with home. For example, in many cities, taxi drivers are independent businessmen,
rather than being employees of a taxi company. In some of these cities, the taxis have a display the driver
can see. When a customer calls up, a central dispatcher types in the pickup and destination points. This
information is displayed on the drivers' displays and a beep sounds. The first driver to hit a button on the
display gets the call.
Wireless networks are also important to the military. If you have to be able to fight a war anywhere on
earth on short notice, counting on using the local networking infrastructure is probably not a good idea. It
is better to bring your own

4 Social Issues
The widespread introduction of networking has introduced new social, ethical, and political problems.
popular feature of many networks are newsgroups or bulletin boards whereby people can exchange
messages with like-minded individuals.
The trouble comes when newsgroups are set up on topics that people actually care about, like politics,
religion, or sex. Views posted to such groups may be deeply offensive to some people. Worse yet, they
may not be politically correct. Furthermore, messages need not be limited to text. High-resolution color
photographs and even short video clips can now easily be transmitted over computer networks. Some
people take a live-and-let-live view, but others feel that posting certain material (e.g., attacks on particular
countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply unacceptable and must be censored. Different
countries have different and conflicting laws in this area.

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Another fun area is employee rights versus employer rights. Many people read and write e-mail at work.
Many employers have claimed the right to read and possibly censor employee messages, including
messages sent from a home computer after work.

All Uses of Computer Network

File sharing: Have you ever needed to access a file stored on another computer? A network makes it
easy for everyone to access the same file.
Printer sharing: If you use a computer, chances are you also use a printer. With a network, several
computers can share the same printer.
Communication and collaboration: It's hard for people to work together if no one knows what other
one is doing. A network allows employees to share files, view other people's work, and exchange
ideas more efficiently.
Data protection: A network makes it easier to back up all of your company's data on an offsite server
Business Applications: As resourse sharing ex an network with 2 client and 1 server
Access to remote information:
Home reservations for airplanes, trains, hotels, restaurants, theaters, and so on, anywhere in the
world with instant confirmation.
Online banking and shopping.
On-line and personalized electronic newspapers, journals, and libraries.
Access to WWW (World Wide Web) which contains information about many topics.
Person-to-person communication:
Electronic mails or emails for everyone. Emails may contain digitized voice, pictures, moving
TV and video images (and even smell !).
Real-time video conferencing and virtual meeting environments, allow remote users to
communicate with no delay, possibly seeing and hearing each others as well.
Interactive entertainment:
Video on demand (the killer application): the user can select any movie or TV program ever
made, in any country, and have it displayed on his screen instantly.
Live and interactive TV: audience may participate in quiz shows, and so on.
Multiperson real-time games (maybe the alternative killer application): hide-and-seek, flight
simulators, etc.

Data Communication
When we communicate we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote. Between
individuals, local communicate usually occurs face to face, while remote communicate takes place over
distance. These are exchange of data between 2 devices via Some form of transmission medium such as
wire cable. 4 characteristics:-
Delivery The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or that user.
Accuracy The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission
and left uncorrected are unusable.
Timelyness The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
Jitter Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

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Data Communication has 5 components:-
1. Message: - Information to be communicated. Like text, pictures, audio.
2. Sender:- Device that sends the data message, like comp. telephone, workstation.
3. Receiver:- That receives d massage use handset, computer.
4. Transmission medium: physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Like radio
waves, coaxial cables.
5. Protocol :- Set of rules that govern data communicate without this 2 devices may be connected
between but not communicating, just as person speaking French cannot be understand by person
who speaks only Japanese.

Distributed processing
Distributed processing is a phrase used to refer to a variety of computersystems that use more than one
computer (or processor) to run an application. This includes parallelprocessing in which a single
computer uses more than one CPU to executeprograms.
More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-areanetworks (LANs) designed so that a single
program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing systems contain
sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out programs to utilize them.
Distributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In
distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more
computers
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead
of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

//Standards and organization.

Line Configuration
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communication pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur , two devices must be connected in

74
some way to the link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections:point to point and
multipoint.

Point to Point: It provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point to point connections use an actual length
of wire or cable to connect the two ends. When you change television channels by infrared remote
control, you are establishing a point to point connection between remote control and television control
system.

Multipoint: This connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared ,wither spatially or temporally.

Physical Topology :
Way in which network is laid out physically, two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links
form a topology. Topology is geometric representation of relationship of all the links & nodes to one
onther.

1. Mesh topology-:
Every device has a dedicated pt 2 pt link to every other device. Dedicated means that link carries traffic
only between two devices it connects. In mesh topology to find no of physical links in fully connected
mesh network with n nodes we must consider that each mode is connected to every other node. We need
n(n-1)/2 duplex mode links.

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Adv :- Eliminates traffic problem, it is robust, privacy.
Disadv.:- Amt. of cabling & no. of I/O parts reqd. installation & reconnection are difficult. Bulk of wiring
can be greater than available space. Hardware reqd. to connect each link can be expensive.
2Star Topology: Each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller, usually called
a hub.The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology a star topology doesn't
allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data
to one another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.

Advantages:
It is less expensive than mesh topology.
In star each device needsonly one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This makes
it easy to install and reconfigure.
Far less cabling needs to be housed,andadditions,moves, and deletions involove only
oenconnection:between the device and the hub.
It is robust.If one link fails, only that link is affected
Disadvantage:
It is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point,the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.

3Bus Topology :
Bus Topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network. Nodes
are connected running between the device & the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with metallic core. As a signal travels
along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. It becomes weaker & weaker as it travels

76
further & further. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support & on the
distance between those tops.

Advantage :-
Ease of installation, bus uses less cabling than mesh or star, redundancy is eliminated.
Disadvantage:-
Difficult reconnection & fault isolation.
Difficult to add new devices.
4Ring topology: Each device has a dedicated point to point connection with only the two devices on
either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches
its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended
for a device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

Figure:- Ring topology with six station

Advantages:
A ring is easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors.
To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
Fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantage:
Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
In a simple ring, a break in the ring can disable the entire network.

5Tree or Expanded Star

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups
of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree
topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.

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Fig. 3. Tree topology
Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

6Hybrid Topology:-

A network can be Hybrid for ex we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting several
stations in a bus topology as shown in the fig. below.

Data Flow/Transmission mode

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half duplex or full duplex

1Simplex

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In simplex mode, communication is unidirectional, as on a one way street. Only one of the two devices on
a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Keyboards and monitors are the examples of simplex devices.Simplex mode can use the entire capacity of
the channel to send data in one direction.
Advantages of Simplex
Cheapest communication method.
Disadvantage of Simplex
Only allows for communication in one direction.

2 Half Duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending other
can only receive, and vice versa
Half duplex is like one lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. Walky Talkies and CB are both
examples of half duplex.
It is used in the cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time.

Advantages of Half Duplex

Costs less than full duplex.
Enables for two way communications.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex
Costs more than simplex.
Only one device can transmit at a time.

3Full Duplex
In full duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The full duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
Example of full duplex is the telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone
line, both can talk and listen at the same time. Full duplex is used when communication in both direction
is required all the time.
Advantage of Full Duplex.
Enables two-way communication simultaneously.

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Disadvantage of Full Duplex.
The most expensive method in terms of equipment because of two bandwidth channels is
required.

Categories of Networks

1 Local Area Networks

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single building or
campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and
workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics: (1) their size,
(2) their transmission technology, and (3) their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and known in
advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that would not otherwise
be possible. It also simplifies network management.
LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the machines are attached,
like the telephone company party lines once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10
Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer
LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.

ADVANTAGES OF LAN
1.It allows sharing of expensive resources such as Laser printers, software and mass storage devices
among a number of computers.
2.LAN allows for highspeed exchange of essential information.
3.It contributes to increased productivity. A LAN installation should be studied closely in the context of
its proposed contribution to the long range interest of the organization.

DISADVANTAGES OF LAN
1.The financial cost of LAN is still high in comparison with many other alternatives.
2.It requires memory space in each of the computers used on the network. This reduces the memory
space available for the users programs.

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3. Some type of security system must be implemented if it is important to protect confidential data.
4.Some control on the part of the user is lost. You may have to share a printer with other users. You may
face a situation like, for example, the entire network suddenly locking up because one user has made a
mistake.

2 Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable
television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community antenna systems
used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was
placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses.
At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping into the business,
getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire city. The next step was television
programming and even entire channels designed for cable only. Often these channels were highly
specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all gardening, and so on. But from their inception
until the late 1990s, they were intended for television reception only.
Starting when the Internet attracted a mass audience, the cable TV network operators began to realize that
with some changes to the system, they could provide two-way Internet service in unused parts of the
spectrum. At that point, the cable TV system began to morph from a way to distribute television to a
metropolitan area network.
1) The network size falls intermediate between LAN and WAN. A MAN typically covers an area of
between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases
MANs may be as small as a group of buildings or as large as the North of Scotland.
2) A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources. It is also frequently
used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.

Characteristics of MAN
1) It generally covers towns and cities (50 kms)
2) It is developed in 1980s.
3) Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
4) Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

3 Wide Area Networks

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It contains a
collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We will follow traditional
usage and call these machines hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet
for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers), whereas the
communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a telephone company or Internet service
provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone system carries
words from speaker to listener. Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet)
from the application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network design.
In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and
switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper wire,
optical fiber, or even radio links. Switching elements are specialized computers that connect three or more
transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an outgoing
line on which to forward them. These switching computers have been called by various names in the past;
the name router is now most commonly used
Characterstics of WAN
1) It generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
2) Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected by routers.
3) Routers forward packets from one to another (Table 1) a route from the sender to

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the receiver.

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 Transmission/Communication media
GUIDED MEDIA
The guided transmission media includes cables/wires to transmit the information from source to
destination. The wire may be made up of copper or other metal or may be of glass/fiber. It includes
electrical and light signals to flow in these wires. But these cables are very sensitive to noise and this
degrades the signal also called as attenuation. There are three types of guided media transmission cables.

I. Twisted Pair Cables:

It has two copper wires and twisted with one another to form a helical structure. It is twisted because to
lower the attenuation and crosstalk from the noise. Cross talk is also known as bleeding of signals. It is
common wire used in telephone lines .

Advantages:
1. It is simple and flexible.
2. It is easy to install and maintain.
3. Lower in weight and inexpensive.
Disadvantages :
1. It possesses high attenuation, so we have to use repeater for long distances.
2. It has low bandwidth, so we can't use broadband applications.
3. Maximum data rate is of 1 Mbps, which is quite lower.

II. Co-axial Cable :

This cable consists of a solid wire core and it is surrounded by one or more wire shield (fishnet), these are
separated by a plastic insulator. The inner core carries signals and shield provides the ground and protect
from electro-magnetic interference. It is used in cable-TV.

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Advantages :
1. It offers higher bandwidth upto 400 MBPS
2. Transmission is better than twisted pair cable.
3. We can have several channels (frequencies) through one cable, simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive as compared to twisted pair.
2. Not compatible with any other cable.
3. Only one use in cable TV.
Types:
i. Thick net: The thick net coaxial cable segments can up to 500 meters ling.
ii. Thin net: The thin net coaxial cable segments up to 185 meters long.

III. Optical Fiber :

These cables are made up of glass or plastic fibers. Its sources are LED or laser diodes. It uses light beam
to transmit the signals. Firstly, the signal converted in to light signal from electrical signal. It has core and
cladding, core is under the cladding. The refractive index of cladding is lower than that of core.
Advantages :
1. It is immune to electro-magnetic interference, as it used light signals.
2. It is suitable in all types of environment.
3. It guarantees the secure transmission of information.
Disadvantages :
1. It is quite tough to install the equipment of optical fibers.
2. It is expensive.
3. Connection losses are common problems in optical fiber.
Types :
i. Single node: It supports the segment length of up to 2 kilometers.
ii. Multi node: It supports the segment length of up to 100 kilometers.

UNGUIDED MEDIA
1. Radio Waves

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Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the
speed of light. Naturally-occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by astronomical objects
Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio
communication,broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication,
computer networks and innumerable other applications.
Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's
atmosphere; long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves can
reflect off the ionosphere and travel around the world, and much shorter wavelengths bend or
reflect very little and travel on a line of sight.
Range:
o 2GHz-6GHz: 70km
o 18GHz-45GHz: 1.6-8km

2 Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible
contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on
the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to the
horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the
country.

Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry
large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.
Advantages:
a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.
d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.
Disadvantages:
a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects.
d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.

3 Satellite

Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on another) that
are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. These geostationary orbits are 36,000
km from the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal
force of Earth's rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force is the
rotational force placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out into space.

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The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the receiver of data. Uplinks
and downlinks are also called Earth stations because they are located on the Earth. The
footprint is the "shadow" that the satellite can transmit to, the shadow being the area that can
receive the satellite's transmitted signal.

4 Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths
from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication.
Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system
and another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be
affected by another system in the next room. When we use our infrared
remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals
useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared

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 waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves
that can interfere with the communication.
Applications
The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission.
Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data
rate. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of
infrared waves, has established standards for using these signals for communication
between devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. For example, some
manufacturers provide a special port called the IrDA port that allows a wireless
keyboard to communicate with a PC. The standard originally defined a data rate of
75 kbps for a distance
up to 8 m. The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.
Infrared signals defined by IrDA transmit through line of sight; the IrDA port on the
keyboard needs to point to the PC for transmission to occur.

S.No.
Guided Media Unguided Media

The signal energy propagates within the The signal energy propagates
1.
guided media .i.e. through wires. through air.

It is mainly suited for point to point line It is mainly used for broadcasting
2.
configurations. purpose.

The signal propagates in the form of The signal propagates in the form of
3.
voltage, current or photons. electromagnetic waves.

Examples of guided media are:-

Examples are:-
=>Twisted Pair Cable
4. =>Microwave or Radio Links
=>Co-axial Cable
=>Infrared
=>Optical Fiber Cable

Digital and Analog Data Transmission

Data is propagated from one point to another point by means of electrical signals, which may
be in digital or analog form.

Analog Signals

87
Analog signals are continuous electrical signals that vary in time as shown in figure 4a. Most of the time,
the variations follow that of the non-electric (original) signal. Therefore, the two are analogous hence the
name analog.

Analog Signal

Not all analog signals vary as smoothly as the waveform shown in Figure 4a. Analog signals represent
some physical quantity and they are a MODEL of the real quantity.

Example:Telephone voice signal is analog. The intensity of the voice causes electric current variations.
At the receiving end, the signal is reproduced in the same proportion. Hence the electric current is a
MODEL but not ones voice since it is an electrical representation or analog of ones voice.

Digital Signals

Digital signals are non-continuous, they change in individual steps. They consist of pulses or digits with
discrete levels or values. The value of each pulse is constant, but there is an abrupt change from one digit
to the next. Digital signals have two amplitude levels called nodes. The value of which are specified as
one of two possibilities such as 1 or 0, HIGH or LOW, TRUE or FALSE and so on. In reality, the values
are anywhere within specific ranges and we define values within a given range.

Analog verses Digital transmission

In todays world Signals are also sent in digital mode.In this case modems are not nedded. When digital
mode of transmission is used over long distances a repeater is used to receive and then transmit the signal.

Digital transmission of digital data is preferred to analog transmission of digital data due to the following
reasons:

Lower cost

No modems required

88
 Higher transmission speed possible

Lower error rate(higher reliability)

TRANSMISSION MODES
Of primary concern when we are considering the transmission of data from one device to another is the
wiring, and of primary concern when we are considering the wiring is the data stream. Do we send 1 bit at
a time; or do we group bits into larger groups and, if so, how? The transmission of binary data across a
link can be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with
each clock tick.
In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick. While there is only one way to send parallel data, there
are three subclasses of serial transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous (see Figure
4.31).

DATA TRANSMISSION

Data transmission and modes

Parallel Transmission
Binary data, consisting of Is and Os, may be organized into groups of n bits each. Computers produce and
consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of and use spoken language in the form of words
rather than letters. By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel
transmission.
The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one: Use n wires to send n bits at one
time. That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock
tick from one device to another. Figure 4.32 shows how parallel transmission works for n =8. Typically,
the eight wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.
The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel transmission can increase
the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission.

89
But there is a significant disadvantage: cost. Parallel transmission requires n communication lines (wires
in the example) just to transmit the data stream. Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually
limited to short distances.

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel rather than n
to transmit data between two communicating devices (see Figure 4.33).

The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication channel, serial
transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.
Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the interface between
the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the receiver (serial-to-parallel).
Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a signal is unimportant. Instead,
information is received and translated by agreed upon patterns. As long as those patterns are followed, the
receiving device can retrieve the information without regard to the rhythm in which it is sent. Patterns are
based on grouping the bit stream into bytes. Each group, usually 8 bits, is sent along the link as a unit.
The sending system handles each group independently, relaying it to the link whenever ready, without
regard to a timer.

Without synchronization, the receiver cannot use timing to predict when the next group will arrive. To
alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra bit is added to the beginning of each
byte. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit.

To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, 1 or more additional bits are appended to the end of the
byte. These bits, usually I s, are called stop bits. By this method, each byte is increased in size to at least
10 bits, of which 8 bits is information and 2 bits or more are signals to the receiver. In addition, the

90
transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying duration. This gap can be represented
either by an idle channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.

In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (Is) at the
end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.

The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the beginning and end of each byte and allow it to
synchronize with the data stream. This mechanism is called asynchronous because, at the byte level, the
sender and receiver do not have to be synchronized.

But within each byte, the receiver must still be synchronized with the incoming bit stream. That is, some
synchronization is required, but only for the duration of a single byte. The receiving device
resynchronizes at the onset of each new byte.

When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a timer and begins counting bits as they come in. After n bits,
the receiver looks for a stop bit. As soon as it detects the stop bit, it waits until it detects the next start bit.

Asynchronous here means "asynchronous at the byte level;' but the bits are still synchronized; their
durations are the same.

Figure 4.34 is a schematic illustration of asynchronous transmission. In this example, the start bits areas,
the stop bits are 1s, and the gap is represented by an idle line rather than by additional stop bits.

The addition of stop and start bits and the insertion of gaps into the bit stream make asynchronous
transmission slower than forms of transmission that can operate without the addition of control
information. But it is cheap and effective, two advantages that make it an attractive choice for situations
such as low-speed communication.

For example, the connection of a keyboard to a computer is a natural application for asynchronous
transmission. A user types only one character at a time, types extremely slowly in data processing terms,
and leaves unpredictable gaps of time between each character.

Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer "frames," which may contain
multiple bytes. Each byte, however, is introduced onto the transmission link without a gap between it and
the next one. It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purposes. In other
words, data are transmitted as an unbroken string of 1s and Os, and the receiver separates that string into
the bytes, or characters, it needs to reconstruct the information.

91
In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps. It is the
responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.

Figure 4.35 gives a schematic illustration of synchronous transmission. We have drawn in the divisions
between bytes. In reality, those divisions do not exist; the sender puts its data onto the line as one long
string. If the sender wishes to send data in separate bursts, the gaps between bursts must be filled with a
special sequence of Os and Is that means idle. The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups them
in 8-bit units.

Without gaps and start and stop bits, there is no built-in mechanism to help the receiving device adjust its
bit synchronization midstream. Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the
received information is completely dependent on the ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate
count of the bits as they come in. The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. With no extra bits
or gaps to introduce at the sending end and remove at the receiving end, and, by extension, with fewer
bits to move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission. For this
reason, it is more useful for high-speed applications such as the transmission of data from one computer
to another. Byte synchronization is accomplished in the data link layer.

We need to emphasize one point here. Although there is no gap between characters in synchronous serial
transmission, there may be uneven gaps between frames.

Isochronous
In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are not acceptable, synchronous
transmission fails. For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must
be viewed at the same rate. If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there should be no delays
between frames. For this type of application, synchronization between characters is not enough; the entire
stream of bits must be synchronized. The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a
fixed rate.

**Computer protocols: book: Computer fundamentals by P.K. Sinha: pg 343

92
MODULE 7: BUSINESS DATA PROCESSING; TO BE DONE FROM SLIDES

MODULE 8: COMPUTER ARITHMETIC

Number system

Number Systems are two types:

1.NonPositionalNumberSystem
2. Positional Number System

Non-Positional Number Systems

In early days, human begins counted on fingers. When ten fingers were not adequate, stones, pebbles, or
sticks were used to indicate values. This method of counting uses an additive approach or the non-
positional number system. In this system, we have symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII for 4,
IIIII for 5, etc. Each symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in the number and the
symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number. Since it is very difficult to perform
arithmetic with such a number system, positional systems were developed.

Positional Number Systems

In a positional number system, there are only a few symbols called digits, and these symbols represent
different values depending on the position they occupy in the number. The value of each digit in such a
number is determined by three considerations:

5. The digit itself,

2. The position of the digit in the number, and
3. The base of the number system.

Example:
Decimal, Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal number system.

Note:-Following 2 characteristic are suggested by the value of base in all positional system:-

1. The value of base determines the total number of different symbol or digit available in the
number system. The first digit is always 0.
2. Maximum value of single digit is always equal to one less than the value of the base.

93
Decimal Number System

We use decimal number system in everyday work.

Decimal number system has base 10.So there are 10 digits or symbols in this system and first
digit is 0.

Maximum value of digit is (10-1) =9.

Therefore 10 digits or symbols in Decimal number system are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.

Each position of digit or symbol has some value associated with it which called as Positional
Weight and it is represented by some power of base (10 x) where x is position value of digit that it
occupy in the number starting with 0 from rightmost side of number and increase it by 1 going
towards left of number.(applicable for number with no fractional part).

For number with fractional part value of x start with -1 after the decimal point.

Base is used as subscript to indicate the particular number system. Here 10 is used to indicate
that this number is in Decimal number system.

For Example take a number 4598.We write it as (4598)10 to indicate that it is in Decimal Number
System.

Here digit 8 has positional weight of 100 because it is at rightmost position in number.

Here digit 9 has positional weight of 101because it is at 2nd position in number.

Here digit 5 has positional weight of 102because it is at 3rd position in number.

Here digit 4 has positional weight of 103because it is at 4th position in number.

By summing the product of digit and its associated positional value we get the corresponding
number in decimal system.

Example:
(4598.24)10 = 4 103 + 5 102 + 9 101 + 8 100 +2 10-1 + 4 10-2
= 4000 + 500 + 90 + 8 + 0.2 + 0.04
= 4598.24

.(decimal
4 5 9 8 2 4
point)

103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2

94
 Fig:-Decimal Number System With Positional Weight

Binary Number system

It has base 2.So we have only 2 symbols or digits. First digit is 0.

Maximum vale is (base-1) i.e. (2-1) =1.

Therefore in binary system symbols or digits are 0 & 1.

Positional weight of each digit is some power of 2 i.e. 2x.

For example take 10101.11 as binary number. We write it as (10101.11) 2 to indicate that it is
Binary System.

Here digit 1 has positional weight of 20 because it is at rightmost position in number.

Here digit 0 has positional weight of 21because it is at 2nd position in number.

Here digit 1 has positional weight of 22because it is at 3rd position in number.

Here digit 0 has positional weight of 23because it is at 4th position in number.

Here digit 1 has positional weight of 24because it is at 4th position in number.

In Fractional part

digit 1 after decimal point has positional weight of 2-1 because it is at 1st position after decimal
point.

digit 1 after decimal point has positional weight of 2-2 because it is at 2nd position after decimal
point.

Binary digits are often refferedas a BITS.

Bits means either 0 or 1.

With n-bit we can have 2n different patterns of 0 and 1.

.(decimal
1 0 1 0 1 1
point)

23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
F IG :-BINARY N UMBER SYSTEM WITH POSITIONAL WEIGHT

Octal Number System

95
 It has a base of 8. So we have only 8 symbols or digits. First digit is 0.

Maximum vale is (base-1) i.e. (8-1) =7.

Therefore in octal system symbols or digits are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.

Positional weight of each digit is some power of 8 i.e. 8x.

For example take 5261.34 as octal number. We write it as (5261.34) 8 to indicate that it is Octal
System.

.(decimal
5 2 6 1 3 4
point)

83 82 81 80 8-1 8-2
F IG :-O CTAL N UMBER SYSTEM WITH POSITIONAL WEIGHT

Hexadecimal Number System

It has a base of 16. So we have only 16 symbols or digits. First digit is 0.

Maximum vale is (base-1) i.e. (16-1) =15.

Therefore in Hexa system symbols or digits are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

In hexadecimal letter A to F are equivalent to decimal value 10 to 15 meana A is equivalent to

10,B is equivalent to 11,C is equivalent to 12,D is equivalent to 13,E is equivalent to 14,F is
equivalent to 15.

Positional weight of each digit is some power of 16 i.e. 16x.

For example take 4B10.A4 as octal number. We write it as (5261.34) 8 to indicate that it is in
Hexadecimal System.

.(decimal
4 B 1 0 A 4
point)

163 162 161 160 16-1 16-2

F IG:-HEXADECIMAL N UMBER SYSTEM WITH POSITIONAL WEIGHT

96
//Below is a chart of the digits or characters each number system uses:

Binary: 0|1

Octal: 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7

Decimal: 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9

Hexadecimal: 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|A|B|C|D|E|F
Where A = 10; B = 11; C = 12; D = 13; E = 14; F = 15

// Here is a chart showing some decimal numbers and their equivalent representations in each of the
mentioned number systems:

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Rules of Conversion From Decimal to Binary
To convert a number from decimal to Binary, we follow a standard procedure:

The rule is to divide a given decimal number by 2 and make a note of the remainder. Continue dividing,
until you cannot divide by 2 anymore. When you note down the remainders starting from the bottom, you
get the binary number. The rule is simple and you will get a hold of it by the help of the following
examples.

Convert the Following Decimals Numbers To their Binary Forms:

Fixed Part:

1) 10

10 2 = 5, remainder is 0
5 2 = 2, remainder is 1
2 2 = 1, remainder is 0

97
 1 2 = 0, remainder is 1

Now the division stops here, as there is nothing to divide further by 2. So, as I said, starting from
the bottom, write down the remainders and work your way up the list. In this case, it will be 1010
(starting from the bottom remainder).

2) 356

356 2 = 178, remainder is 0

178 2 = 89, remainder is 0
89 2 = 44, remainder is 1
44 2 = 22, remainder is 0
22 2 = 11, remainder is 0
11 2 = 5, remainder is 1
5 2 = 2, remainder is 1
2 2 = 1, remainder is 0
1 2 = 0, remainder is 1

So, 356 = 101100100.

Fractional Part
(0.182)10 -> (?)2
Div Product Remainder Binary Number ()
0.182 * 2 0.364 0 0.0
0.364 * 2 0.728 0 0.00
0.728 * 2 1.456 1 0.001
0.456 * 2 0.912 0 0.0010
0.912 * 2 1.824 1 0.00101
0.824 * 2 1.648 1 0.001011
0.648 * 2 1.296 1 0.0010111
(0.182)10 -> (0.0010111)2 (After we round and cut the number)

Rules of Conversion from Binary to decimal

At first, we count the number of digits that our number to convert consists of starting from 0 and
going from right to left when the number is an integer. However, when the number is
decimal, then we count the digits of the number right after the decimal point, starting from left
and going to the right, indexing them starting from -1. So, in order to convert a number from
Binary to decimal follow these two steps:-
Step 1:- Determine the positional value of each digit in the number
Step 2:- Multiply each digit with its corresponding positional value then add all the multiplied
values.
Convert from binary to decimal :
Fixed Part:
1) (1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1)2 = (?)10
1*27 + 0*26 + 0*25 + 1*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*20
= 128 + 16 + 4 + 1
= 149
Fractional Part:
2) (101101.0010111)2 -> (?)10
Determine positional value of each digit

98
 1 0 1 1 0 1 . 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2-7
Multiply and sum each digit with its corresponding positional value
1 * 25 + 0 * 24 + 1 * 23 + 1 * 22 + 0 * 21 + 1 * 20 + 0 * 2-1 + 0 * 2-2 + 1 * 2-3 + 0 * 2-4 + 1 * 2-5 + 1 * 2-6
+ 1 * 2-7 =
32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 0.125 + 0 + 0.03125 + 0.015625 + 0.007813
= (45.179688)10

Rules of conversion from Decimal to Octal:

1. Divide the number by 8.
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. REPEAT UNTIL the number cannot be divided
into anymore.
4. With the remainder bits, record them in order from Bottom to Top.
E.g.:
i)Integer Part:
1) (45)10 -> (?)8
Div Quotient Remainder
45 / 8 5 5
5/8 0 5
(45.10 -> (55)8
ii)Fractional Part
1) (0.182)10 -> (?)8
Mul Product Integer Binary Number ()
0.182 * 8 1.456 1 0.1
0.456 * 8 3.648 3 0.13
0.648 * 8 5.184 5 0.135
0.184 * 8 1.472 1 0.1351
0.472 * 8 3.776 3 0.13513
0.776 * 8 6.208 6 0.135136
(0.182)10 -> (0.135136)8 (After we round and cut the number)

Rules of conversion from Decimal to Hexadecimal:

1. Divide the number by 16.
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. REPEAT UNTIL the number cannot be divided
into anymore.
4. With the remainder bits, record them in order from Bottom to Top.

i)Integer Part:
1) (45)10 -> (?)16
Div Quotient Remainder Hex Number()

45 / 16 2 13 D
2 / 16 0 2 2D

99
 (45)10 -> (2D)16
ii)Fractional Part:
2) (0.182)10 ->(?)16
Mul Product Integer Binary Number()
0.182 * 16 2.912 2 0.2
0.912 * 16 14.592 14 0.2
0.592 * 16 9.472 9 0.29
0.472 * 16 7.552 7 0.297
0.552 * 16 8.832 8 0.2978
0.832 * 16 13.312 13 0.2978D
(0.182)10 -> (0.2E978D)16 (After we round and cut the number)

Rules of conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal:

1) Begin at the rightmost 4 bits. If there are not 4 bits, pad 0s to the left until you hit 4. Repeat the
steps until all groups have been converted.
i)Integer Part:
1) (1000101)2= ( ? )16
0100 | 0101 //Note that we needed to pad a 0 to the left.
4|5

Answer: (45)16
ii)Fractional Part:
2) (110101000.101010)2 -> (?)16
|4 | | 4| | 4| | 4| | 4|
0001 1010 1000 . 1010 1000
1 8 . 8
(110101000)2 ->(18.8)16

Rules of conversion from Hexadecimal to Binary:

Given a hexadecimal number, simply convert each digit to its binary equivalent. Then,
combine each 4 bit binary number and that is the resulting
answer.
i)Integer Part:
1) (A2F)16 = ( ?)2
A| 2 |F
1010 | 0010 | 1111

Answer:(1010 0010 1111)2

ii) Fractional Part:

2) (18.8)16 -> (?)2

1 8 . 8
0001 1010 1000 . 1010 1000
(18.8)16 -> (000110101000.10101000)2

Rules of conversion from Hexadecimal to Decimal:

Step 1:- Determine the positional value of each digit in the number

100
 Step 2:- Multiply each digit with its corresponding positional value then add all the
multiplied values
i)Integer Part:
(F4C)16->( ?)10
(F x 162) + (4 x 161) + (C x 160)
(15 x 256) + (4 x 16) + (12 x 1)
3840+64+12=(3916)10

ii) Fractional Part:

(2D.2E978D)16 ->(?)10
Determine positional value of each digit
2 D . 2 E 9 7 8 D
161 160 16-1 16-2 16-3 16-4 16-5 16-6
Multiply and sum each digit with its corresponding positional value
2 * 161 + 13 * 160 + 2 * 16-1 + 14 * 16-2 + 9 * 16-3 + 7 * 16-4 + 8 * 16-5 + 13 * 16-6 =
32 + 13 + 0,125 + 0.0546875 + 0.00219727 + 0.00010681 + 0.00000762 + 0.00000077
= (45.18199997)10

Rules of conversion from Octal to Binary:

Simply look up each octal digit to obtain the equivalent group of three binary digits.

Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 1 11

i)Integer Part:
1) (345)8 = (?)2

Octal = 3 4 5

Binary = 001 100 101 =(001100101)2

ii) Fractional Part:
1) (650.52)8-> (?)2
6 5 0 . 5 2
110 101 000 . 110 010
(650.52)8 ->(110101000.110010)2

Rules of conversion from Octal to Decimal:

Step 1:- Determine the positional value of each digit in the number
Step 2:- Multiply each digit with its corresponding positional value then add all the
multiplied values
i)Integer Part:
1) (85)8 = ( ? )10
8 * 81 + 5 * 80 = (69)10

ii) Fractional Part:

101
 (55.135136)8 -> (?)10

5 5 . 1 3 5 1 3 6
81 80 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-4 8-5 8-6
Multiply and sum each digit with its corresponding positional value
5 * 81 + 5 * 80 + 1 * 8-1 + 3 * 8-2 + 5 * 8-3 + 1 * 8-4 + 3 * 8-5 + 6 * 8-6 =
40 + 5 + 0,125 + 0.03125 + 0.009766 + 0.000244 + 0.0001 + 0.0000229
= (45.1663829)10

Rules of conversion from Octal to Hexadecimal:

Converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first convert the octal number into
binary and then from binary into hexadecimal. For example, to convert 345 octal into hex:

Octal = 3 4 5

Binary= 011 100 101

Drop any leading zeros or pad with leading zeros to get groups of four binary digits (bits):
Binary 011100101 = 1110 0101

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex

Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals binary 011100101 equals
hexadecimal E5.

BINARY ARITHMETIC

When arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division performed on the
binary numbers then it is called as binary arithmetic.

1. BINARY ADDITION

Addition is done exactly like adding decimal numbers, except that you have only two
digits (0 and 1).
Rules of Binary Addition

0+0=0

0+1=1

1+0=1

1 + 1 = 0,and carry 1 to the next more significant bit

102
For example,
00011010 + 00001100 = 00100110 1 1 carries
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 = 26(base 10)
+0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 = 12(base 10)

0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 = 38(base 10)

00010011 + 00111110 = 01010001 1 1 1 1 1 carries

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 = 19(base 10)
+0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 = 62(base 10)

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 81(base 10)

2. BINARY SUBTRACTION
Rules of Binary Subtraction

0-0=0

0 - 1 = 1, and borrow 1 from the next higher significant bit

1-0=1

1-1=0
for example,
00100101 - 00010001 = 00010100 0 borrow
s
1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 = 37(base 10)
- 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 = 17(base 10)

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 20(base 10)

00110011 - 00010110 = 00011101 0 10 1 borrow

s
0 0 1 1 0 10 1 1 = 51(base 10)
- 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 = 22(base 10)

0 0 01 1 1 0 1 = 29(base 10)

Subtraction using the method of borrow is less efficient for computer system.
Computer uses additive method for subtraction.
This additive approach is known as COMPLEMENTRY SUBTRACTION.

Steps to obtain the result using complementary subtraction:-

Here we take the complement of the number which we subtract from other number.
Then add this to other number from which we want to subtract.
If there is a carry of 1 add it to the LSB and obtain result

103
 If no carry, recomplement the sum and attach (-)ve sign to obtain the result

1s Complement

1s complement is obtained by subtracting each digit from 1.

Example:-

Q. Find 1s complement of (101001)2.

111111
101001 (-)
010110

Subtracting from 1 causes the bit to change from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0. i.e. Reversing the bit
value.

Q1.Do the subtraction using 1s complement on

(1010100-1000011)2

Answer:-

Here we do the subtraction by addition by writing like this

1010100 + (-1000011)

Now take the 1s complement of negative number i.e. 1000011 by reversing the each bit value. So

1s complement of 1000011 is 0111100.Now add this number with 1010100.

1010100
0111100 (+)
Carry 1 0010000

Now add the carry to the obtained sum to get the final result

0010000
1 (+)
0010001

So, (1010100-1000011)2 = (0010001)2.

Q2. Do the subtraction using 1s complement on

(1000011-1010100)2

Here we do the subtraction by addition by writing like this

1000011 + (-1010100)

104
Now take the 1s complement of negative number i.e. 1000011 by reversing the each bit value. So

1s complement of 1010100 is 0101011.Now add this number with 1000011.

1000011
0101011 (+)
1101110

Because there is no carry so recomplement the obtained sum and attach (-)ve sign to it.

So, (1010100-1000011)2 = (-0010001)2.

Binary multiplication
Is actually much simpler than decimal multiplication. In the case of decimal multiplication, we need to
remember 3 x 9 = 27, 7 x 8 = 56, and so on. In binary multiplication, we only need to remember the
following,
0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1
Note that since binary operates in base 2, the multiplication rules we need to remember are
those that involve 0 and 1 only. As an example of binary multiplication we have 101 times 11,
101
x11
First we multiply 101 by 1, which produces 101. Then we put a 0 as a placeholder as we would
in decimal multiplication, and multiply 101 by 1, which produces 101.
101
x11
101
1010<-- the 0 here is the placeholder
The next step, as with decimal multiplication, is to add. The results from our previous step
indicate that we must add 101 and 1010, the sum of which is 1111.
101
x11
101
1010
1111
Q. 1101
x1110
0000
11010
110100
+1101000
10110110

Binary Division

Binary division is simple. As in any number system division by 0 is meaningless. The complete table for
binary division is as follows:

105
0/1=0
1/1=1
The rules of binary division are as follows:

1) Start from left of the dividend.

2) Perform a series of subtraction in which the divisor is subtracted from the dividend.
3) If subtraction is possible put a 1 in the quotient and subtract the divisor from the
Corresponding digits of dividend.
4) If subtraction is not possible I.e., the divisor is greater than the remainder record a 0 in the quotient.
5) Bring down the next digit to add the remainder digit. Proceed as before if the division is remaining.
Example: Divide 100001 by 110

Notes

Binary Number System

System Digits: 0 and 1

Bit (short for binary digit): A single binary digit
LSB (least significant bit): The rightmost bit
MSB (most significant bit): The leftmost bit
Upper Byte (or nibble): The right-hand byte (or nibble) of a pair
Lower Byte (or nibble): The left-hand byte (or nibble) of a pair

Binary Equivalents

1 Nibble (or nibble) = 4 bits

1 Byte = 2 nibbles = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 kilobytes = 1,048,576 bytes
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 megabytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes

106
 Fundamentals of Information Technology

Assignment-1

Name of the student: __________________________________

Class-_________________________________________________

Sem___________________________________________________

ERPID_________________________________________________

Date of submission_____________________________________

Mark Obtained (out of 20)_______________________________

Signature of Faculty___________________________________

Note:-

1. Write only one side of the paper

2. Use A4 sheet.
3. Tag all sheet with a tag

FIT Assignment-1

Note: All question are compulsory. Each question carries 4 marks

Q1. Briefly explain Primary and Secondary storage devices.

Q2. Explain the types of Magnetic and Optical Devices.

107
 Q3. What is a Software. What are the different types of Software.

Q4. Explain different types of Computer Languages.

Q5. Define assemblers, compilers and interpreters.

Q6. Explain word processor, presentation software and graphics software with
examples.

FIT Assignment no. 2

Q1. Differentiate between the FIVE generations of computer using a table.

Q2. Describe the various components of a computer system.

Q3. Make a diagrammatic description of the various available input and output devices.

Q4. Solve the following:-

108
 1. Convert 70 from decimal to base 2

Convert (0101 1111 1111 1010) from base 2 to

hexadecimal

Convert (0111 0111) from base 2 to decimal

2. (1D9)16 = (X)10
(80E1)16 = (X)10
(10CE)16 = (X)10

3. (1E3)16 = (X)2
(0A2B)16 = (X)2
(7E0C)16 = (X)2

4. Convert 57468 to decimal number

Convert 2018 to decimal number
Convert 548 to decimal number

5. Convert (X) from decimal to base octal and base Hexadecimal as

well :-
1) 987
2) 4125
3) 6879

6. Convert 418 to a binary number

Convert 278 to a binary number.
Convert 108 to a binary number
Convert 778 to a binary number

7. 1. 101 + 11 =
2. 111 + 111 =
3. 1010 + 1010 =
4. 11101 + 1010 =
5. 11111 + 11111 =
6. 110 - 10 =

109
7. 101 - 11 =
8. 1001 - 11 =
9. 1101 - 11 =
10. 10001 - 100 =
11. 10 x 10 =
12. 100 x 11 =
13. 101 x 10 =
14. 1011 x 11 =
15. 11011 x 101 =
16. 100 / 10 =
17. 111 / 11 =
18. 1010 / 100 =
19. 1101 / 11 =
20. 10111 / 10 =

110