(Sem1) English Language Proficiency 1

WAJ3022 ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY I
TOPIC 1: PARTS OF SPEECH/WORD CLASSES which have no physical reality, e.g. truth, danger, happiness, time,
friendship, humour.
Collective nouns
NOUNS
Collective nouns refer to groups of people or things, e.g. audience,
A noun is a word that identifies:
family, govemment, team, jury. Collective nouns can usually be
A person (woman, boy, doctor, neighbour) treated as singular or plural, with either a singular or plural verb.
Both the following sentences are grammatically correct.
A thing (dog, building, tree, country)
The whole family was at the table.
An idea, quality, or state (truth, danger, birth, happiness)
The whole family were at the table.
There are several different types of noun, as follows:
A noun may belong to more than one category. For example,
Common noun happiness is both a common noun and an abstract noun, while
Tower Bridge is both a concrete noun and proper noun.
A common noun is a noun that refers to people or things in general,
e.g. boy, country, bridge, city, birth, day, happiness. Countable and uncountable nouns
Proper noun Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns
(or count nouns) are those that refer to something that can be
A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular persons, place,
counted. Uncountable nouns (or mass nouns) do not typically refer
or thing, e.g. Steven, Africa, Tower Bridge, London, Monday.
to things that can be counted and so they do not regularly have a
In written English, proper nouns begin with capital latters.
plural form.
Concrete noun
A concrete noun is a noun which refers to people and to things that

PRONOUNS
exist physically and can be seen, touched, smelled, heard, or tasted.
Example include dog, building, tree, rain, beach, tune, Tower Bridge Pronouns are used in place of a noun that is already known or has already
been mentioned.
Abstract noun
This is often done in order to avoid repeating the noun. For example:
An abstract noun is a noun which refers to ideas, qualities, and
conditions - things that cannot be seen or touched and things Laura left early because she was tired.
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Antony brought the avocados with him. Heres a table setting out the different forms:
That is the only option left. SINGULAR PLURAL
Something will have to change. Subjective Objective Subjective Objective

Personal pronouns are used in place of nouns referring to specific people or First person i me we us
things, for example I, me, mine, you, yours, his, her, hers, we they, or them.
They can be divided into various different categories according to their role in Second you you you you
a sentence, as follows: person
Subjective pronouns Third person He/she/it Him/her/it They them
The personal pronouns I, you, we she, he, it, we and they are
known as subjective pronouns because they act as the subjects of
verbs: Notice that the personal pronouns you and it stay the same,
whether they are being used in the subjective or objective roles.
She saw Catherine
Possessive pronouns
We drove Nick home
The personal pronouns mine, yours, hers his, ours and theirs are
I waved at her known as possessive pronouns: they refer to something owned by
the speaker or by someone or something previously
Objective pronouns
mentioned. For example :
The personal pronouns me, you, us, him, it and them are called
That book is mine
objective pronouns because they act as the objects of verbs and
Johns eyes met hers.
Prepositions:
Ours is a family farm.
Chaterine saw her.
Reflexive pronouns
Nick drove us home.
Reflexive personal pronouns include myself, himself, herself, itself,
She waved at me.
ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. These are used to refer back
to the subject of the clause in which they are used:
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I fell and hurt myself Subject active verb

Daisy prepared herself for the journey.
The children had to look after themselves.

France beat Brazil in the final.
VERBS More than 300 million people speak Spanish.
A verb describes what a person or thing does or what happens. For example,
Jack will take the matter forward.
verb describe:
An action - jump, stop, explore When the verb is passive, the subject undergoes the action rather than
doing it:
An event - snow, happen
Subject active verb
A situation - be, seem, have
A change - evolve, shrink, widen
The basic form of a verb is known as the infinitive. Its often preceded by the Brazil was beaten in the final.
word to:
is spoken by more than 300
Molly decided to follow him. Spanish
million people worldwide.
He began to run back.
The matter will be taken forward by Jack.
Active and passive verbs Here, the sentences points of view have changed: Brazil, Spanish,
and the matter have become the subjects of the passive verbs were
Depending on the way in which you word a sentence, a verb can be beaten, is spoken, and will be taken. In the first example, you can see
either active or passive. that the subject of the active verb (France) does not appear in the
When the verb is active, the subject of the verb is doing the action, as in corresponding passive version of the sentence. In the other two passive
these examples: examples, the former subjects of the active verbs (more than 300 million
people; Jack) are now introduced with the word by.
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The person or thing in a passive sentence that does or causes something have/has
is called the agent: more than 300 million people and Jack are the agents Have you been
present been +
of the second and third passive examples. interviewed for many
perfect past
jobs?
These two different ways of using verbs are known as voices. In participle
everyday writing, the active voice is much more common than the
passive. The passive tends to be used in formal documents such as was/were
past We were told not to
official reports or scientific papers, often where an action or situation is + past
simple touch anything.
regarded as more significant than who or what did or caused it: participle
The results were published in the Journal of the American Medical

was/were
Association. past Our computers were
being +
continu being attacked by
A fair grading system was found to be important to all students. past
ous hackers.
participle
Passive verb forms
The passive is formed with tenses of the auxiliary verb to be and the had been +
past His mother had been
past participle of the main verb. Here is a table showing the passive past
perfect brought up in India.
forms for most English verbs: participle
Tense Passive Example will be + Arrangements will be

future past made to move them to
am/are/is participle other locations.
present He is taken to school by
+ past
simple his mum.
participle will have
All the merchandise will
future been +
have been shipped by
am/are/is perfect past
present tomorrow.
being + participle
continu They are being bullied.
past
ous
participle
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ADVERBS Shed been travelling for three days.
An adverb is a word thats used to give information about a verb, adjective, or the way in which someone does something or something happens
other adverb: or exists(manner):
they sang loudly The abbey now lies in ruins.
shes very pretty Youre acting as if you were still a teenager.
he writes really well These shirts come in three sizes.
Adverbials and adjuncts Adjuncts
An adverbial is a word (an adverb), phrase, An adverbial adjunct is a type of adverbial which adds more
or clause which modifies (changes, restrictsor adds to the meaning of) a information to a sentence. It differs from other adverbials because if
verb. An adverbial can be a noun phrase (we met that afternoon), it is left out of a sentence, the rest of the sentence still makes sense.
a prepositional phrase (we met in the cafe), or a clause (we met because Adverbial adjuncts provide extra but optional information, whereas
we needed to talk) as well as an adverb, but always functions to modify adverbials offer information that is integral to the meaning of the
the meaning of a verb. A sentence can contain just one adverbial or sentence. Compare these two examples:
several.
I put my bag on the floor.
We typically use adverbials to talk about:
I put my bag
where something happens (place):
[on the floor is an adverbial: the sentence
I put my bag on the floor. isn't meaningful without it]
Dont just sit there! I dropped my bag next to my seat and sat down.
Could you let the cat out? I dropped my bag and sat down.
when something happens (time): [next to my seat is an adverbial adjunct; the sentence makes
sense without it]
Were in Paris today, but where will we be tomorrow?
Adverbial adjuncts can provide extra information about:
The rain lasted all night.
where things happen:
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At low tide you can cross the bays on the beach. mid (she hardly knew him)
The children were playing upstairs. end (I left the bedroom and ran downstairs)
when things happen: Different types of adverbs go in different positions. Here are some
general guidelines:
I cant sleep at night.
Front position
She visited her family yesterday.
The main types of adverbs that can be used in this position are
how things happen:
those that:
I found out how to do this by accident.
begin a sentence or clause thats linked in meaning to another:
why things happen or are done:
People tend to put on weight in middle age. However, gaining
No one is turned away because of a lack of means. weight is not inevitable.
I still send her a Christmas card each year for old times' sake. Ill begin with an overview of the product. Secondly, Ill talk
about projected sales.
condition (i.e. if this happens, then that happens):
refer to time or frequency:
Leslie had left no letter for me to read in the event of his
death. Afterwards, we went out for a walk.
concession (i.e. even if this happens, still that happens): Sometimes she wonders what lifes all about.
Despite all their efforts, the dishwasher is still broken. refer to place:
degree (i.e. answering the question how much?): There goes my bus!
I wouldnt worry at all. Up he ran, soon disappearing from view.
Positions of adverbs comment on the rest of the sentence or clause (sentence adverbs):
Adverbs can be used in three positions in a sentence or clause: Luckily, our meal lived up to expectation.
front (perhaps theyll arrive this evening) Clearly, more research is needed.
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Mid position The main types of adverbs which can be used at the end of a
sentence of clause are those that:
This term refers to adverbs that can be used in the middle of a
sentence or clause. The main kinds of adverbs found in this position refer to manner:
are those that:
It's an interesting plot twist, and one that works well.
refer to frequency:
For some reason, his career progressed slowly.
We always meet for coffee on Saturday.
refer to time or frequency:
Shes never been to Sweden.
The troops flew home yesterday.
refer to manner:
Theyre sending hundreds of texts to each other monthly.
He carefully avoided my eye.
refer to place:
I slowly walked into town.
Theyre sitting at the table over there.
make the meaning of a verb, adjective, or other adverb stronger or
There was a sudden burst of laughter from the people who
weaker:
could see outside.
She nearly fell asleep at her desk.
Position of adverbs and verbs
These ideas are very complicated.
Adverbs are often found between the subject and its verb:
comment on the rest of the sentence or clause:
We always meet for lunch at 1 p.m.
When we first heard this story, frankly, we couldnt believe it.
I completely forgot his name.
focus on part of a sentence or clause:
They can also come between an auxiliary verb (such as be or have)
Im only going to stay in New York for a week. and a main verb:
Tina cant just drop all her commitments. The concert was suddenly cancelled.
End position He had quickly eaten his dinner.
Sentence adverbs
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Some adverbs refer to a whole statement and not just a part of it. (= He looked at her in a curious/inquisitive way.)
They are called sentence adverbs and they act as a comment,
Sentence adverbs
showing the attitude or opinion of the speaker or writer to a
particular situation. Some adverbs refer to a whole statement and not just a part of it. They
are called sentence adverbs and they act as a comment, showing the
Sentence adverbs often stand at the beginning of the sentence.
attitude or opinion of the speaker or writer to a particular situation.
Here are some examples:
Sentence adverbs often stand at the beginning of the sentence. Here are
Clearly, there have been unacceptable delays.
some examples:
(= It is clear that there have been unacceptable delays.)
Clearly, there have been unacceptable delays.
Sadly, the forests are now under threat.
(= It is clear that there have been unacceptable delays.)
(= It is sad that the forests are now under threat.)
Sadly, the forests are now under threat.
Curiously, he never visited America.
(= It is sad that the forests are now under threat.)
(= It's curious that he never visited America.)
Curiously, he never visited America.
The sentence adverbs are used to convey the writer or speaker's
(= It's curious that he never visited America.)
opinion that it is clear/sad/curious that something happened or is
the case. If you compare the way clearly, sadly, and curiously are The sentence adverbs are used to convey the writer or speaker's opinion
used in the next three sentences, you can easily see the difference that it is clear/sad/curious that something happened or is the case. If
between the meaning of the sentence adverbs and the 'ordinary' you compare the way clearly, sadly, and curiously are used in the next
adverbs: three sentences, you can easily see the difference between the meaning
of the sentence adverbs and the 'ordinary' adverbs:
He spoke clearly and with conviction.
He spoke clearly and with conviction.
(= He spoke in a clear way and with conviction.)
(= He spoke in a clear way and with conviction.)
She smiled sadly.
She smiled sadly.
(= She smiled in a sad way.)
(= She smiled in a sad way.)
He looked at her curiously.
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He looked at her curiously. The journey seemed slow.
(= He looked at her in a curious/inquisitive way.) They were growing tired.
There are some adjectives that can only be used in one position or the
other. For example, these two sentences are grammatically correct:
ADJECTIVES
She was alone that evening. [alone = predicative ]
An adjective is a word that describes a noun, giving extra information about it.
For example: It was a mere scratch. [mere = attributive]
a sweet taste These sentences, on the other hand, are not correct:
a red apple I saw an alone woman. [alone cannot be used in the attributive
position]
a technical problem
The scratch was mere. [mere cannot be used in the predicative
an Italian woman
position]
Attributive and predicative adjectives
Comparative and superlative adjectives
Most adjectives can be used in two positions. When they are used
Most adjectives have three different forms, the positive,
before the noun they describe, they are called attributive:
the comparative, and the superlative:
a black cat
a gloomy outlook positive comparative superlative

a slow journey
sad sadder saddest
a large suitcase
When they are used after a verb such happy happier happiest
as be, become, grow, look, or seem, theyre called predicative:
unusual more unusual most unusual
The cat was black.
The future looks gloomy.
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The comparative form is used for comparing two people or things:
He is taller than me.
This puzzle is easier than the last one.
The book was more interesting than the film.
The superlative is used for comparing one person or thing with every
other member of their group:
He was the tallest boy in the class.
This puzzle is the easiest in the whole book.
Its the most interesting book Ive ever read.
As you can see, some adjectives change their spelling when forming
their comparative and superlative forms. For more information about
this, see Spelling rules and tips.
Youll find that most dictionaries will show you the spellings of adjectives
that change their form. For example, if you look up 'happy' in Oxford
Dictionaries, youll see that the comparative and superlative forms are TOPIC 2: TENSES
given in brackets directly after the part of speech:
happy adjective (happier, happiest)

SIMPLE
Always look up an adjective if you are unsure about how to spell its
The simple tenses are used to show permanent characteristics of people and
comparative or superlative form.
events or what happens regularly, habitually or in a single completed action.
THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE IS USED:
To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging

situations, emotions and wishes:
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I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation); London is An activity that is in progress, although not actually occurring at the time
a large city (general truth) of speaking.
To give instructions or directions: Sara is learning English at CEC.
You walk for two hundred meters, then you turn left. Past progressive = was + (base form + -ing) : I was working. OR were +
(base form + -ing) : They were eating.
To express fixed arrangements, present or future:
A past activity in progress while another activity occurred.
Your exam starts at 09.00
At 6:00 yesterday I was eating dinner.
To express future time, after some conjunctions: after, when, before, as
soon as, until: The phone rang while I was eating.
He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday. Two past activities in progress at the same time.
The simple past tense, sometimes called the preterite, is used to talk about a While I was answering the phone, my wife was cooking dinner.
completed action in a time before now. The simple past is the basic form of
Future progressive = will be + (base form + -ing): I will be working. He will be
past tense in English. The time of the action can be in the recent past or the
eating.
distant past and action duration is not important.
An activity that will be in progress.
Tomorrow Sam will be studying for the test on Unit 1.

PROGRESSIVE
Present progressive = am + (base form + -ing) : I am working. OR is +

(base form + -ing) : She is eating. OR are + (base form + -ing) : We are PERFECT
studying.
The three perfect tenses in English are the three verb tenses which show
A planned activity. action already completed. (The word perfect literally means "made complete"
or "completely done.")
Sofia is starting school at CEC tomorrow
They are formed by the appropriate tense of the verb to have plus the past
An activity that is occurring right now.
participle of the verb.
Jan is watching TV right now.
Present Perfect: I have seen it.
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(Present tense of to have plus participle. Action is completed with Joe waited for the train.
respect to the present.)
"Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb
Past Perfect: I had seen it.
The train was late.
(Past tense of to have plus participle. Action is completed with
"The train" = subject, "was" = verb
respect to the past.)
Mary and Samantha took the bus.
Future Perfect: I will have seen it.
"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb
(Future tense of to have plus participle. Action is completed with
respect to the future.) I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.
Some authorities consider the passive voice of certain verbs that are always "I" = subject, "looked" = verb
intransitive to be the perfect tense also.
Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station early but waited until
Example: They are gone. noon for the bus.
Example: He is risen. "Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and "waited"
= compound verb
The use of compound subjects, compound verbs, prepositional phrases (such

as "at the bus station"), and other elements help lengthen simple sentences,
but simple sentences often are short. The use of too many simple sentences
can make writing "choppy" and can prevent the writing from flowing
TOPIC 3: SENTENCE TYPES
smoothly.
A simple sentence can also be referred to as an independent clause. It is

SIMPLE referred to as "independent" because, while it might be part of a compound
or complex sentence, it can also stand by itself as a complete sentence.
A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a
subject, a verb, and a completed thought.
Examples of simple sentences include the following:

COMPOUND
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A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent in the sentence, they sometimes do not indicate much of a relationship. The
clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a word "and," for example, only adds one independent clause to another,
coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if without indicating how the two parts of a sentence are logically related. Too
you think of the words "FAN BOYS": many compound sentences that use "and" can weaken writing.
Clearer and more specific relationships can be established through the use of
complex sentences.
For
And
COMPLEX
Nor
A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more
But
dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an
Or independent clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements
that would make it a complete sentence.
Yet
Examples of dependent clauses include the following:
So
because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon
Examples of compound sentences include the following:
while he waited at the train station
Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.
after they left on the bus
I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at
the station before noon and left on the bus before I arrived. Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but
they can be added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence.
Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left
on the bus before I arrived. Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of
the most common subordinating conjunctions:
Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see
them at the bus station. after
Coordinating conjunctions are useful for connecting sentences, but although

compound sentences often are overused. While coordinating conjunctions
as
can indicate some type of relationship between the two independent clauses
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because After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was
waiting at the train station.
before
Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by
even though
the dependent clause, as in the following:
if
I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at
since the bus station before noon.
though Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train station.
unless Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station
after they left on the bus.
until
Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences
when because a complex sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships
between the main parts of the sentence. The word "before," for instance,
whenever
tells readers that one thing occurs before another. A word such as "although"
whereas conveys a more complex relationship than a word such as "and" conveys.
wherever
while TOPIC 4: TYPES OF QUESTIONS
A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent

clauses.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the
Dichotomous Questions
independent clause, as in the following:
When a question has two possible responses, we consider it
Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I
dichotomous. Surveys often use dichotomous questions that ask for a
did not see them at the station.
Yes/No, True/False or Agree/Disagree response. There are a variety of
While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late. ways to lay these questions out on a questionnaire:
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INFORMATION QUESTIONS -(Why) themselves are constructed so that they are cumulative -- if you agree to
one, you probably agree to all of the ones above it in the list:
Questions Based on Level Of Measurement
We can also classify questions in terms of their level of measurement.

For instance, we might measure occupation using a nominal question. TAG QUESTIONS
Here, the number next to each response has no meaning except as a
Filter or Contingency Questions
placeholder for that response. The choice of a "2" for a lawyer and a "1"
for a truck driver is arbitrary -- from the numbering system used we Sometimes you have to ask the respondent one question in order to
can't infer that a lawyer is "twice" something that a truck driver is. determine if they are qualified or experienced enough to answer a
subsequent one. This requires using a filter or contingency question. For
We might ask respondents to rank order their preferences for
instance, you may want to ask one question if the respondent has ever
presidential candidates using an ordinal question:
smoked marijuana and a different question if they have not. in this case,
We want the respondent to put a 1, 2, 3 or 4 next to the candidate, you would have to construct a filter question to determine whether
where 1 is the respondent's first choice. Note that this could get they've ever smoked marijuana:
confusing. We might want to state the prompt more explicitly so the
Filter questions can get very complex. Sometimes, you have to have
respondent knows we want a number from one to 4 (the respondent
multiple filter questions in order to direct your respondents to the
might check their favorite candidate, or assign higher numbers to
correct subsequent questions. There are a few conventions you should
candidates they prefer more instead of understanding that we want
keep in mind when using filters:
rank ordering).
try to avoid having more than three levels (two jumps) for any question
We can also construct survey questions that attempt to measure on an
interval level. One of the most common of these types is the traditional Too many jumps will confuse the respondent and may discourage them
1-to-5 rating (or 1-to-7, or 1-to-9, etc.). This is sometimes referred to as from continuing with the survey.
a Likert response scale (see Likert Scaling). Here, we see how we might
ask an opinion question on a 1-to-5 bipolar scale (it's called bipolar if only two levels, use graphic to jump (e.g., arrow and box)
because there is a neutral point and the two ends of the scale are at
The example above shows how you can make effective use of an arrow
opposite positions of the opinion):
and box to help direct the respondent to the correct subsequent
Finally, we can also get at interval measures by using what is called a question.
cumulative or Guttman scale (see Guttman Scaling). Here, the
if possible, jump to a new page
respondent checks each item with which they agree. The items
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If you can't fit the response to a filter on a single page, it's probably best Diphthong: Sounds which consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to
to be able to say something like "If YES, please turn to page 4" rather another.
that "If YES, please go to Question 38" because the respondent will
Pure Vowel: A vowel which remains constant, it does not glide.
generally have an easier time finding a page than a specific question.
Diphthongs have the same length as the long vowels.
The first part (sound) is much longer and stronger than the second part.
Example: a in the words eye and consists of the a vowel, and only in
TOPIC 5: ENGLISH SOUND SYSTEM: PRONUNCIATION, ENUNCIATION, STRESS
about the last quarter of the diphthong, does the glide to becomes
AND INTONATION
noticeable.
English has 8 diphthongs.

VOWEL SOUND
Centering diphthong:
A vowel letter can represent different vowel sounds: hat [ht], hate [heit], all
three (3) ending in : , e,
[o:l], art [a:rt], any ['eni].
Closing diphthong
The same vowel sound is often represented by different vowel letters in
three (3) ending in : e, a,
writing: [ei] they, weigh, may, cake, steak, rain.
two (2) ending in : , a
Open and closed syllables
Examples:
Open syllable: Kate [keit], Pete [pi:t], note [nout], site [sait], cute [kyu:t].
: beard, weird, fierce, ear, beer, tear
Vowels and vowel combinations e: aired, cairn, scarce, bear, hair,
: moored, tour, lure, sure, pure
The vowels A, E, I, O, U, Y alone, in combination with one another or with R,
e : paid, pain, face, shade, age, wait, taste, paper
W represent different vowel sounds. The chart below lists the vowel sounds
a: tide, time, nice, buy, bike, pie, eye, kite, fine
according to the American variant of pronunciation.
: void, loin, voice, oil, boil, coin, toy, Roy
: load, home, most, bone, phone, boat, bowl
a: loud, gown, house, cow, bow, brow, grouse
DIPHTONGS
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TRIPHTONGS Each individual sound is sometimes referred to as a grapheme or phoneme.
A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and the to a third, all We use the letters of the alphabet to write sounds down.
produced rapidly and without interruption. For example, a careful
There are over 70 ways to spell these sounds, which we refer to as
pronunciation of the word hour begins with a vowel quality similar to :,
phonogram
goes on to then ends in .
A common mistake is to pronounce a "huh" after letters. For example for
It says /a/
the letter /s/ we say /ssssssssss/ and not /suh/. Look at the examples
Triphthong : 5 closing diphthongs with added on the end. given above and try to isolate the actual sounds to give you a more accurate
representation.
e + = e . as in layer, player
do not have a phoneme listed; your child will still learn these sounds, but they
a + = a. as in lire, fire
are not listed as a pure phoneme because the sounds that they represent can
+ = , as in loyal, royal be represented by other letters or spellings.
+ = u, as in lower, mower For example:
a + = au, as in power, hour. the letter c can be represented by the phonemes /k/ or /s/ as in cent
the letter x as in fox can be represented by two phonemes /ks/
CONSONANTS SOUND the letter q can be represented by two phonemes /kw/
A consonant letter usually represents one consonant sound. Some consonant

letters, for example, c, g, s, can represent two different consonant sounds.
There are 44 sounds (19 + 25) that make up the sounds of our English
TOPIC 6: LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS
language.
19 of the sounds we refer to as vowel sounds (because they use the vowels a,
e, i, o, u or make the sounds of our vowels) LISTEN FOR A VARIETY OF PURPOSES AND IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS
25 of the sounds we refer to as consonant sounds (see below - notice that RESPOND TO A VARIETY OF STIMULI
there are no vowels)
EXPRESS OPINIONS
17
GIVE PERSONAL RESPONSES interrupted. When you interrupt, it looks like you aren't listening, even if
you really are.
Real listening is an active process that has three basic steps.
Let yourself finish listening before you begin to speak! You can't really
Hearing. Hearing just means listening enough to catch what the speaker
listen if you are busy thinking about what you want say next.
is saying. For example, say you were listening to a report on zebras, and
the speaker mentioned that no two are alike. If you can repeat the fact, Listen for main ideas. The main ideas are the most important points the
then you have heard what has been said. speaker wants to get across. They may be mentioned at the start or end
of a talk, and repeated a number of times. Pay special attention to
Understanding. The next part of listening happens when you take what
statements that begin with phrases such as "My point is..." or "The thing
you have heard and understand it in your own way. Let's go back to that
to remember is..."
report on zebras. When you hear that no two are alike, think about what
that might mean. You might think, "Maybe this means that the pattern Ask questions. If you are not sure you understand what the speaker has
of stripes is different for each zebra." said, just ask. It is a good idea to repeat in your own words what the
speaker said so that you can be sure your understanding is correct. For
Judging. After you are sure you understand what the speaker has said,
example, you might say, "When you said that no two zebras are alike,
think about whether it makes sense. Do you believe what you have
did you mean that the stripes are different on each one?"
heard? You might think, "How could the stripes to be different for every
zebra? But then again, the fingerprints are different for every person. I Give feedback. Sit up straight and look directly at the speaker. Now and
think this seems believable." then, nod to show that you understand. At appropriate points you may
also smile, frown, laugh, or be silent. These are all ways to let the
Tips for being a good listener
speaker know that you are really listening. Remember, you listen with
Give your full attention on the person who is speaking. Don't look out your face as well as your ears!
the window or at what else is going on in the room.
Make sure your mind is focused, too. It can be easy to let your mind
Thinking fast
wander if you think you know what the person is going to say next, but
you might be wrong! If you feel your mind wandering, change the Remember: time is on your side! Thoughts move about four times as
position of your body and try to concentrate on the speaker's words. fast as speech. With practice, while you are listening you will also be
able to think about what you are hearing, really understand it, and give
Let the speaker finish before you begin to talk. Speakers appreciate
feedback to the speaker.
having the chance to say everything they would like to say without being
18
looking for a certain date, you would quickly read the paragraph
looking only for numbers.
TOPIC 7: READING SKILLS
Use headings and any other aids that will help you identify which
sections might contain the information you are looking for.
TECHNIQUES
Selectively read and skip through sections of the passage.
Skimming and scanning
Skimming refers to the process of reading only main ideas within a

passage to get an overall impression of the content of a reading
selection. BARRETTS TAXONOMY
Read the title. Literal comprehension
Read the introduction or the first paragraph.
Read the first sentence of every other paragraph.
Read any headings and sub-headings.
Notice any pictures, charts, or graphs.
Notice any italicized or boldface words or phrases.
Read the summary or last paragraph.
Scanning is a reading technique to be used when you want to find

specific information quickly. In scanning you have a question in your
mind and you read a passage only to find the answer, ignoring unrelated
information.
State the specific information you are looking for.
Try to anticipate how the answer will appear and what clues you
might use to help you locate the answer. For example, if you were
19
Inferential comprehension
Reorganization
20
Evaluation
21
Appreciation
22
consider how, what or why. The answer to that question will lead to
another, and so on.
For example, the development in the chocolate paragraph plan was based
on the answers to the following questions:
If chocolate can improve heart health, what is in chocolate that makes it

healthy?
Flavonoids
How do flavonoids work in relation to heart health?
They relax blood vessels and lower blood pressure (source: Stresing
2004)
TOPIC 8: PARAGRAPH WRITING
What happens if blood pressure is lowered?
Risk of stroke and heart disease is reduced

TOPPIC SENTENCE
Are these benefits significant? Is there any evidence?
A topic sentence gives the main idea of a paragraph. It usually occurs as the
first or last sentence of the paragraph. Some paragraphs will not have a topic Yes low consumption of cocoa has similar benefits to those
sentence, if the main point is obvious. Others might place the topic sentence achieved via conventional medicine (source: a study by Taubert et
slightly differently. Occasionally, as in this paragraph, the topic sentence al. 2007)
might begin the paragraph but be restated in a different way at the end. That
Remember that, although a paragraph contains several sentences, only one
is to say, most writers put the topic sentence of a paragraph at the beginning
main point is being made.
or the end or both.
The explanation, development and evidence for your main point all need to
flow smoothly and logically (i.e. be cohesive and coherent) within your
SUPPORTING DETAILS paragraph. You achieve this through your ability to:
After you have planned your topic sentence, you need to expand upon it, stay on topic repeating and substituting key words from the topic sentence,
explaining, developing and providing evidence for your points. To do this, ensuring that every sentence relates to the main idea use pronouns (e.g.
firstly ask yourself a question about the topic sentence. The question could they/it/these) referring back (and possibly forward) to terms or ideas in
23
your paragraph use transition signals and links using terms such as To an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a
illustrate... and Therefore... follow the natural patterns of English knowing way to understand the war or the novel.
the usual order of information in sentences
makes a claim that others might dispute.
is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often,
COHESIVE DEVICES at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the
reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and
A paragraph is the container for only one idea. Often, a longer paragraph can
organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your
- and should - be divided into smaller units. Usually a large, complex idea is
interpretation.
made up of smaller ideas and can be explained in more paragraphs with those
smaller ideas. The point, though, is to have one coherent paragraph - all of If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a
the ideas in each sentence of the paragraph must relate to a single main point. subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement
That point is most often made in a topic sentence. near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that
you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will
include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a
thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to
compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on
TOPIC 9: WRITING FOR DIFFERENT TEXT TYPES an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to
support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding
assignments for more information.)
THESIS STATEMENTS
A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not
A thesis statement: the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop
an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for
tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or
matter under discussion. similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you
is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to do this thinking, you will probably have a working thesis that presents a
expect from the rest of the paper. basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with
evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment
directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation along the way.
of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of
24
Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help Autobiographies or biographies
them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic
Anecdotes
and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see
our handout on brainstorming. Oral histories
Example:
NARRATIVE I dont think thats a good idea, said Jaelyn.
Narrative writing's main purpose is to tell a story. The author will create You never used to be such a girl! retorted Orin, pushing open the
different characters and tell you what happens to them (sometimes the door.
author writes from the point of view of one of the charactersthis is known
as first person narration). Novels, short stories, novellas, poetry, and Reluctantly, Jaelyn followed.
biographies can all fall in the narrative writing style. Simply, narrative writing
This is a narrative because its telling a story. There are different characters
answers the question: What happened then?
conversing, and a plot is unravelling.
Key Points:
Non-example:
A person tells a story or event.
Cutting Edge Haunted House holds the Guinness World Record for the
Has characters and dialogue. largest haunted house on earth. Its located in a district in Fort Worth,
Texas known as "Hell's Half Acre" in a century-old abandoned
Has definite and logical beginnings, intervals, and endings. meat-packing plant. The haunted house takes an hour to complete,
winding through horrific scenes incorporating the factory's original
Often has situations like actions, motivational events, and disputes or
meat-packing equipment.
conflicts with their eventual solutions.
While this would serve as a worthy setting for a story, it would need a plot
Examples of When You Would Use Persuasive Writing:
before it could be called a narrative.
Novels
Short stories
Novellas
Poetry
25
DESCRIPTIVE The iPhone 6 is unexpectedly light. While size of its screen is bigger than
those of the iPhones that came before, it is thinner, and its smooth,
Descriptive writing's main purpose is to describe. It is a style of writing that
rounded body is made of aluminum, stainless steel, and glass. The casing
focuses on describing a character, an event, or a place in great detail. It can
comes in a whitish silver, gold, or a color the company calls space gray,
be poetic when the author takes the time to be very specific in his or her
the color of the lead of a pencil, with darker gray accents.
descriptions.
This is an example because it describes aspects of the phone. It includes
Example:
details such as the size, weight, and material.
In good descriptive writing, the author will not just say: The vampire
Non-example:
killed his lover.
So you just brought home a shiny new smartphone with a smooth glass
He or she will change the sentence, focusing on more details and
screen the size of your palm. The first thing you will want to do when
descriptions, like: The bloody, red-eyed vampire, sunk his rust-colored
purchasing a new cell is buy a case. Cracking your screen is an awful
teeth into the soft skin of his lover and ended her life."
feeling, and protection is inexpensive when you compare it to the costs
Key Points: of a new phone.
It is often poetic in nature Even though this example uses adjectives, you can tell that this is not an
example of descriptive writing because the purpose is not to describe
It describes places, people, events, situations, or locations in a the phoneits to persuade you to buy a case.
highly-detailed manner.
The author visualizes what he or she sees, hears, tastes, smells, and
feels. EXPOSITORY
When You Would Use Descriptive Writing: Expository writing's main purpose is to explain. It is a subject-oriented writing
style, in which authors focus on telling you about a given topic or subject
Poetry without voicing their personal opinions. These types of essays or articles
furnish you with relevant facts and figures but do not include their opinions.
Journal or diary writing
This is one of the most common types of writing. You always see it in
Nature writing textbooks and how-to articles. The author just tells you about a given subject,
such as how to do something.
Descriptive passages in fiction
Key Points:
Example:
26
Usually explains something in a process. fact about pumpkin containing vitamin A, that fact is used as evidence to
support the opinion. These opinions make this an example of persuasive
Is often equipped with facts and figures.
writing.
Is usually in a logical order and sequence.
When You Would Use Expository Writing:

ARGUMENTATIVE
Textbook writing.
An argument is a reasoned, logical way of demonstrating the writers position,
How-to articles. belief, or conclusion. The writer makes a claim and then defends that claim
with information from credible sources. Students must clarify relationships
Recipes. between the claim and the evidence and address counter claims. Argument
takes the form of opinion in the elementary grades and evolves into
News stories (not including opinion or editorial pieces).
argument in the middle and high school grades.
Business, technical, or scientific writing.
Argument is an especially important text type since it requires the writer to
Example: provide reasoned, logical proof for a claim or assertion. The purpose of
argument is to change the readers thinking, move the reader to action, or
Many people associate the taste of pumpkins with fall. In October, convince the reader to accept the writers explanation of a problem or
companies from Starbucks to McDonalds roll out their pumpkin-flavored concept. The complexities of this type of logical reasoning exceed the
lattes and desserts. Here is how to make an easy pumpkin pie using only cognitive ability of most elementary students. Therefore, as a precursor to
five ingredients. First, make sure you have all of the ingredients. argument, elementary students are taught to express opinions that are well
This writing is expository because it is explaining. In this case, you can supported by facts and evidence.
already tell that the piece will be about how to make a pumpkin pie. Argument is an especially important text type since it requires the writer to
Non-example: provide reasoned, logical proof for a claim or assertion. The purpose of
argument is to change the readers thinking, move the reader to action, or
Everyone knows that the best part about fall is all of the convince the reader to accept the writers explanation of a problem or
pumpkin-flavored desserts. Pumpkin pie is the best fall treat because it concept. The complexities of this type of logical reasoning exceed the
is not only delicious but also nutritious. Pumpkin is filled with vitamin A, cognitive ability of most elementary students. Therefore, as a precursor to
which is essential for a healthy immune system and good vision. argument, elementary students are taught to express opinions that are well
supported by facts and evidence.
This is not expository because several opinions are stated, such as
Pumpkin pie is the best fall treat Although this excerpt contains a
27

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WAJ3022 ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY I

A concrete noun is a noun which refers to people and to things that

That is the only option left. SINGULAR PLURAL

Something will have to change. Subjective Objective Subjective Objective

Subjective pronouns Third person He/she/it Him/her/it They them

I fell and hurt myself Subject active verb

The children had to look after themselves.

VERBS More than 300 million people speak Spanish.

A change - evolve, shrink, widen

The results were published in the Journal of the American Medical

Tense Passive Example will be + Arrangements will be

ADVERBS Shed been travelling for three days.

they sang loudly The abbey now lies in ruins.

shes very pretty Youre acting as if you were still a teenager.

he writes really well These shirts come in three sizes.

Adverbials and adjuncts Adjuncts

I wouldnt worry at all. Up he ran, soon disappearing from view.

End position He had quickly eaten his dinner.

He looked at her curiously. The journey seemed slow.

(= He looked at her in a curious/inquisitive way.) They were growing tired.

a gloomy outlook positive comparative superlative

The future looks gloomy.

The comparative form is used for comparing two people or things:

He is taller than me.

This puzzle is easier than the last one.

The book was more interesting than the film.

He was the tallest boy in the class.

This puzzle is the easiest in the whole book.

Its the most interesting book Ive ever read.

happy adjective (happier, happiest)

THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE IS USED:

To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging

To give instructions or directions: Sara is learning English at CEC.

Tomorrow Sam will be studying for the test on Unit 1.

Present progressive = am + (base form + -ing) : I am working. OR is +

The use of compound subjects, compound verbs, prepositional phrases (such

A simple sentence can also be referred to as an independent clause. It is

Examples of simple sentences include the following:

Coordinating conjunctions are useful for connecting sentences, but although

while TOPIC 4: TYPES OF QUESTIONS

A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent

We can also classify questions in terms of their level of measurement.

English has 8 diphthongs.

TRIPHTONGS Each individual sound is sometimes referred to as a grapheme or phoneme.

+ = u, as in lower, mower For example:

the letter x as in fox can be represented by two phonemes /ks/

CONSONANTS SOUND the letter q can be represented by two phonemes /kw/

A consonant letter usually represents one consonant sound. Some consonant

Skimming refers to the process of reading only main ideas within a

Read the title. Literal comprehension

Read the introduction or the first paragraph.

Read the first sentence of every other paragraph.

Read any headings and sub-headings.

Notice any pictures, charts, or graphs.

Notice any italicized or boldface words or phrases.

Read the summary or last paragraph.

Scanning is a reading technique to be used when you want to find

State the specific information you are looking for.

If chocolate can improve heart health, what is in chocolate that makes it

How do flavonoids work in relation to heart health?

Risk of stroke and heart disease is reduced

When You Would Use Expository Writing:

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