Nadia Putri Wijanarko

1506712045

Summary of Chapter 1

Environmental Factors that Influence the Deterioration of Materials

INTRODUCTION

The deterioration of materials caused by environment is a complex chemical processes

resulting from the impact of surrounding environment. It is influenced by moisture,

temperature, air movement, pressure, precipitation, chemical and biochemical attack, intrusion

by micro and macro-organism. Deterioration mechanisms include erosion (recession of a

surface caused by repeated localized shock), volume changes of material (function of

temperature, solar radiation, humidity) and volume changes of material in pores (controlled by

humidity and temperature), dissolution of a material (mostly caused by acid) and associated

chemical changes (including oxidation and hydrolysis), and biological processes (caused by

biochemical effects and intrusion by organism).

METEOROLOGICAL AND CLIMATIC FACTOR

Meteorological and climatic factor can cause mechanical stress, desiccation, surface

scaling, attrition, and cracking, or accelerate chemical attack. The impact of the factor depends

on the season and intraseasonal variability. The factors include;

Moisture

Can effect the chemical, biological, mechanical processes of decay. Moisture is a

medium for the chemical and photochemical reaction of surface contaminant and is also a

conductive path for the electrochemical reactions. The two important variable causing damage
by moisture is dew point (characteristic of water content of large scale air mass -> material

temperature below ambient dew point, water condenses on the material, damaging the material)

and humidity (increase of humidity causes further deterioration due to prolonged wetness).

Humidity plays huge part of outdoor metal corrosion. Absence in atmospheric moisture

will result in limited non-pollutant and pollutant induced corrosion (resulted from particular

pollutant with metal surface and the metal corrosion layer). For metal there is TOW time-of-

wetness (length of time in which the conditions induced the formation of moisture layer on

metal surface) and the critical relative humidity value (minimum concentration of water vapor

for corrosion to happen; depend on the material).

Moisture play huge part on damage to inorganic building material as its content and

permeability influence the impact of pollutants on rate of weathering of the material.

Temperature

Change in temperature influence a thermal gradient between surface layer and inner

layer of materials, which might cause degradation of mechanical properties and lead to

formation of fine cracks. Fluctuation of temperature may cause bulk expansion. Increased

ambient air temperature will reduce the effect of freeze0thaw cycle.

Solar Radiation

It causes temperature change in material and induce volume change of material in pores

due to expansion of water. Plays important role on photochemical reaction (supplying energy

for excitation or splitting bonds)

Wind Effect

Wind carries liquid and solid particle from air to material surface, causing local attrition

and cause weathering of materials. A serious effect of wind can be increasing transport of sea

salt inland (extend the areas that is affected by marine aerosol and seacoats).
 HARMFUL EFFECTS OF AIR, WATER, AND SOIL

Effects of Air Pollutants and Natural Atmospheric Constituents

In atmosphere, deterioration of material can happen due to physical and chemical

reaction, and biological activity. Atmosphere is a mix of gases and liquid including major

constituent (nitrogen, argon, oxygen) and minor constituent (CO, NO2, SO2), also matter from

biological origin (dust, small crystal) and water.

Atmosphere is polluted by the release of different chemical release into the (primary

pollutant; enter atmosphere by human activity) air and chemical process occurring directly in

air (secondary pollutant). Both pollutant is scattered and deposited on the surface of material

and induce reaction that can possibly cause corrosion.

Wet and Dry Deposition of Pollutant

Wet disposition is substance that are scavenged from the air by hydrometeors (rain,

clouds, fog drop. Dry disposition relates to particle and gases that fall on the material surface

close to emission source. Both are capable to influence wide range of area (dry disposition

depend on certain metrological condition).

Dry disposition is influenced by metrological condition, nature and properties of

materials. During dry disposition, materials are transported downwards. Wet disposition is

more complex dye to variety of processes (happen inside and outside cloud) and parameters.

The process includes in-cloud scavenging (nucleation scavenging and collection of fraction of

remaining aerosol), below-cloud scavenging (rainfall can have different chemical

composition), removal by raining cloud.

Acidic substance reacts with water and oxidants in air forming acid pollutant, returning

to ground as acid disposition causing damage on material surface. The effects on material

depend on type of material and pH od precipitation. All form of acid preposition causes serious

deterioration if deposited on surface of materials.

Effects of Gaseous Pollutants

Gas pollutant causing most damage is SO2 and NOx, CO2, and salt from sea spray.

Natural and anthropogenic emission of SO2 is source of sulphuric acid and sulphate particle in

air. Sorption of SO2 on porous stones causes physical changes, especially on changes in

porosity and water retention. NOx contribute on the total loading of air pollution causing

accelerated atmospheric attack on materials. NO2 also induces corrosion in certain metal. Cl

compounds present in atmosphere also induce corrosion.

Effects of Atmospheric Aerosol

Aerosols of anthropogenic origin such as sulphates and nirates, polar and non-polar

organics, as well as metal, are important of viewpoint if aggressiveness with which they can

attack a material. They particularly attack carbonate stone and also stone binder

Effects of Particle

Both primary and secondary atmospheric particle can trigger damage in materials and

building structure. Material decomposition depend on the composition and properties of the

particle; salt being the most aggressive. All particles are susceptible to electrostatics forces and

promote deposition if the particle or surface carries an electric charge; causing corrosion on

metal.

Formation of Crusts and Patinas

Deposition of salts (caries) that form layer on surface is called crust. Corrosion layer

form by deposition of sulphates and chlorides on copper and alloys is called platina. Crust can

be observed on exposed stone surface of any structure; which depend on many factors

especially type and shape of stone, and climate. A component of crust; gypsum (calcium

sulphate dehydrate Ca2SO4.2H2O) form at the pore opening-air interference. Crust may also

consist of CaCO3; acts as a binder.

 On copper and alloys, corrosion layer is not readily dissolved by acid, thus protect a

metal surface. The formation depend on the ability of copper to react with the compound

present.

EFFECTS OF WATER

Considered to be the essential problem element in decay of building material. Aside of

being a good solvent, water can damage building material due to its acid deposition reaction.

Water is a medium for the transport of salts in pores, accelerating chemical reaction that

proceed in the material and on its surface also supporting growth of microorganism.

Water has anion of hydrogen carbonate, sulphate, chloride, nitrate and anions are

calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium. From view point of environmental deterioration,

water is not only limited to natural water, but also service, industrial, and waste water (which

has different composition). Water can cause deterioration by rain leakage (influence dissolution

of salt; decrease materials resistance), condensation, rising damp (building on direct contact

with damp soil or ground).

Aggressiveness of water

Evaluated by connection with undesirable effects it has on different buildings and

metallic pipes. Divided by waters containing aggressive CO2, water with low content of salts

and acid and sulphate waters.

Damage on building materials resulted from natural exposure to natural constituent of

non-polluted rain water such as CO2 and Oxygen (causes significant impact of corrosion. O2

enter water by diffusion or by the help of photosynthesis process of organism. CO2 when

reacting with water result in carbonic acid which causes deterioration on structure. CO2 is

soluble on water, dissolving as free-hydrated CO2.

Calcium carbonate (only dissolve when CO2 present) equilibrium in water is

considerable technical importance in terms of aggressive water effects. If a higher amount of

free carbon dioxide is present in water than that corresponding to the carbonate equilibrium,

then water dissolves calcium carbonate. When free carbon dioxide is exhausted (e.g. by

ventilation) from water, the carbonate equilibrium shifts to the left and calcium carbonate has

a tendency to separate from water. The difference between free and equilibrium carbon diox-

ide is called excess carbon dioxide.

Aggressive water with low content of salts influences process of extraction of soluble

constituents of material. Acid aggressive waters contain mineral and organic acid which

dissolve component of building structure. Destructive effect of these waters on concrete is due

to the formation of strongly hydrated compounds.

Effects of Soluble Salts

Soluble salts can be present in primary materials or form during weathering processes

or may also penetrate from outside. Two types of soluble salts are found in building material;

crystal contain crystalline water (less soluble in water) and without water (very soluble in

water). Solution of these salt diffuse into pore and infiltrate materials. Effects depends on

factor of; type of material, porous structure, nature and quantity of soluble salts, quantity of

penetrating water, mode of contamination.

Effects attributed to 3 mechanisms; dissolution of salts and its crystallization in a

materials capillaries, channels, and cervices; hydration of salt that can exist in more than one

hydration state; expansion of salt in pore

DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF SOIL

Soil characterized as heterogeneous polydisperse system; consisted of solid (contains

mineral and organic fraction), liquid (total content of water present in soil pores), gaseous (soil

air, representing mixture of gases and vapor filling) phases. Deterioration of material depends
on the composition, moisture content, pH value, buffer capacity, and oxidation-reduction

potential of soil solution also the physical and mechanical properties of soil. It is especially

important for buried construction.

Soil may contain different harmful substances that have the potential to cause damage

to structures. They occur naturally, enter the soil during atmospheric deposition of pollutants,

or leak into the soil during storage (such as leakage from underground pipes, tanks, and

landfills) and transport of materials. Porosity is the most important soil characteristic that

influence the sorption capacity of soil. Soil pH affects its characteristic and important for

chemical reaction in the soil, coagulation, peptization of soil colloids, ion sorption, and

solubility of many components. Cohesion is the ability of soil to resist external pressure, reduce

disintegration of soil aggregates.

BIODETERIORATION OF MATERIALS

Micro and macro-organism (bacteria, fungi, lichens, algae, insect, animal) causes

changes in chemical, physical, and mechanical damage to materials. Microorganism; present

in air, water, soil, may grow and live in material of inorganic and organic origin and cause

damage through chelating and etching process, as well as enzyme they secreted. Higher

animals and its metabolical process can damage stone or wood.

Effects of Micro and Macro-Organism

Bacterial chemical action pose risk for deterioration of stone. Thiobacillus use

oxidation of hydrogen sulphur as energy source to deteriorate travertine, marble, standstone,

concrete. Sulphate-reducing bacteria can convert sulphate to sulphite to damage metals.

Microorganism can also support corrosion of metal by using corrosion products during their

metabolism. Autotrophic bacteria such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter employ nitrification

as sole source of energy that produce compounds that damage materials. Some bacteria such

as cytophaga (uses cellulose as energy source) can lead to change in physical characteristic of

wood. On the other hand, bacteria can also be use to conserve fine stone artworks.

Algae grows in the water film on the stone surface and deteriorate it. Algae attack stone

by exhaled CO2 in presence of water. Algae living with stone contribute to the disaggregation

of stone.

Fungi is characterized by mycelium as vegetative structure. Fungi can destroy the

structural integrity of a material mechanically and chemically. Mechanical damage to stone,

concrete, and other building materials is caused by the intrusion of the hyphae into the structure

and by the contraction and expansion of the mycelium with changes in humidity. Wood

destroying fungi induce several different type of decay; formation of felt mycelia on wood

surface, destruction of wood, rotting.

Similar to fungi, lichens can excrete organic acids that can attack materials and produce

compound (salicylic and tartaric acid) which can degrade carbonates in alkaline medium.

Mosses (grow on stone, covered by humus) have ability to absorb large quantity of water and

produce organic acid. Pest attack wood in soil, water, and in ambient air; which in extreme

cases can result in the collapse of wood structure.