Lecture # 1 HISTORY Discovery of nucleus RUDOLF VIRCHOW HISTOLOGY

German Pathologist
HISTOLOGY ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK Law of Virchow / Fundamental Law AUGUST MAYER
the science of the tissues FATHER OF MICROBIOLOGY of Biology histologie study of tissues
1678 - Animalicules (little All cells of the pathological of the body
histos is Greek for web or tissue animals) tissues are derived fr.
logia is Greek for branch of learning Bacteria & protozoa Healthy ones SIR RICHAR OWEN
1 description of nucleus fr.
st
All living cells originated fr, English paleontologist
Tissue was first used to describe the
RBC of salmon pre-existing ones Recommended large usage
different textures of body parts being Omnis cellula e cellula each cell of histologie
dissected by an anatomist. comes fr. another cell
JAN EVANGESLISTA PURKINJE
Czech Biologist RUDOLPH ALBERT KOLLIKER
Microanatomy TISSUE texture Swiss Professor of Anatomy
1str description of nuclear
1 textbook of Histology
st
the study of the structure
envelope
(ANATOMY) of small (MICRO) MARIE FRANCOIS BICHAT Hanbuch der Gewebelehre
things. French pathologist de Menschen
ROBERT BROWN st
Scottish Botanist 1 HISTOLOGIST
Term: Nucleus 21 Textures MICROSOPE
HISTORY AND BACKGROUND 1 notiton of Tissue
st
Epidermal cells of some
(Tissu to weave) HANS JANSSEN
orchids & Asclepiadacea
ROBERT HOOKE ZACHARIAS JANSSEN
th
1665 Micrographia MARCELLO MALPIGHI Spectacle makers (late 16 century)
Cell as the fundamental unit that
1 Microscope
st
Confirmed Leeuwenhoeks Italian Anatomist
constitutes all generality of plants &
finding FATHER OF HISTOLOGY 20x
animals.
Noted simple microscope (L) Vs Bichat
st
gave clearer images but are
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN Preceded Bichat 1 scientists who used microscopes
more difficult to use vs. Used a Microsope in research
German Botanist
compound (H) 1 scientist to observe the
st 1. Jan Swammerdam
Plant cells
capillaries 2. Robert Hooke
ROBERT HOOKE Rudimentary microscope 3. Marcello Malpighi
THEODOR SCHWANN
MARCELLO MALPIGHI Blood circulation
German Zoologist & Physiologist
Cell MODERN COMPOUND
CELL THEORY
Latin Cellula all living this are made out of cells M.J. XAVIER MORATO
MICROSCOPE
Cork + Rudimentary microscope Animal cells TISSUE Def:
Size of object * calibration factor
Cell walls in cork tissue Multicellular
1 to observe true units that form
st
Microscopically & functionally
tissues of animals distinct
Constitute either plants/
animals
Associate to from organs
systems
 Histotechniques for Paraffin Basic Staining Procedure (H & E) DYES
Sections Using a Rotary
1. REMOVE WAX 1. HEMATOXYLIN & EOSIN
Microtome
+ Xylene (H&E)Most commonly used
1. FIXATION dyes
+ Formaldehyde / Glutaraldehyde 2. HYDRATE SECTION
+ Alcohol 2. BASIC DYES
2. TISSUE PROCESSING + Water Hematoxylin
A. DEHYDRATION Toludine Blue
+ Alcohol 3. APPLY HEMATOXYLIN Methylene Blue
NUCLEAR STAIN Stains basophilic structures
B. CLEARING + Harris Hematoxylin Nucleus
+ Xylene / Cedar oil +Mordant/ Binding Agent (Al salt) Free ribosomes
Reddish purple colour Matrix of hylaline
3. PARAFFIN cartilage
IMPREGNATION 4. BLUEING
+ Melted paraffin Rinse in tap water 3. ACID DYES
+ Weakly alkaline soln. Orange G
4. EMBEDDING (Ammonia) Eosin
Paraffin infiltrated tissue Dark blue colour Acid fuschin
+ Paraffin Stains acidophilic structures
Tissue block 5. DIFFERENTIATION/
Mitochondria
DE-STAINING
Secretory granules
5. TISSUE SECTIONING Remove excess backgrounf stain
Cytoplasm
Mount on microtome + Weak acid alcohol soln.
Collagen
Tissue ribbons (Regressive stains)
Rinse w/ tap water
4. TRICHROMES
6. AFFIXING SECTION ON
Differentiating stain
SLIDE 6. APPLY EOSIN
Warm water bath COUNTERSTAIN
5. COUNTERSTAIN
Pick up section w. a slide coated + Eosin
Stains nuclei/ cytoplasm
w/ Non-nuclear element = pink
+Albumin/ Haupts adhesive
6. METALLIC DYES
Dry 7.
Silver/ Gold
A. RINSE
Nervous Tissue
+ Water

B. DEHYDRATE
+ Alcohol

C. CLEAR
+ Xylene

D. MOUNT
+ Polystyrene mountant
Lecture # 2 CELL STRUCTURE CYTOPLASM
1. Cytosol
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION: - fluid medium in the cytoplasm
1. Cells - organelles are suspended
2. Tissues -many metabolic reactions take
3. Organs place.
4. Organ systems Fatty acid and triglyceride
5. Organism synthesisis
CELL 2. Cytoskeleton
The cell is the functional unit of all - a network of minute tubules and
living organisms. filaments
- structural support for the cell and
Simple organisms its organelles
- single cell. - provides a mechanism for
- Bacteria and algae transfer of materials within the cell
- movement of the cell itself.
Multicellular organisms
- more complex ORGANELLES
- consist of many cells as well as 1. Endoplasmic reticulum
extracellular matrix. - an extensive system of flattened
membrane-bound tubules,
- Cells with great variety of saccules and flattened cisterns.
functional and morphological
specializations. 2. Golgi apparatus
another discrete system of
Differentiation membrane-bound saccules
- process by which cells assume typically located close to the
specialised structure and function. nucleus.
All eukaryotic cells conform to a 3. Mitochondria
basic structural model - scattered free in the cytoplasm
are a number of relatively large,
elongated organelles.
- have a smooth outer membrane
and a convoluted inner membrane
system.
PLASMA MEMBRANE OR
PLASMALEMMA
an external lipid membrane
Serves as a dynamic interface
with the external environment.
o adjacent cells
o extracellular matrix
Functions:
Communication with the
external environment.
Attachment of the cell to
adjacent cells and extracellular
matrix
Transfer of nutrients and
metabolites
Membrane structure
Permeability to
lipid-soluble molecules
non-lipid-soluble molecules
Singer and Nicholson
(early 1970s)
- proposed the fluid mosaic model
of membrane structure.
a lipid bilayer sandwiched
between two layers of protein.
Cell membranes consist of a
bilayer of phospholipid molecules
that are amphipathic
Polar Head
Hydrophilic (water-loving)
glycerol
phosphate bridge
nitrogenous compound
Non-polar Tail
Hydrophobic (water-hating)
consists of two long-chain fatty
acids, each covalently linked
to the glycerol component of
the polar head.
straight-chain saturated fatty
acid
unsaturated fatty acid which is
'kinked' at the position of the
unsaturated bond.
Fluidity and flexibility of the
membrane due to
1. Unsaturated fatty acids
prevent close packing of
the hydrophobic tails.
2. Cholesterol molecules in the
bilayer
stabilize and regulate
the fluidity of the
phospholipid bilayer
3. Protein molecules
incorporated in the membrane.
intrinsic or integral
proteins
extrinsic or peripheral
proteins
transmembrane proteins
External surface of the plasma
membranes of animal cells
Glycocalyx
polysaccharide molecules
projecting from the surface of the
bilayer forming an outer coating.
Involved in
cell recognition phenomena
the formation of intercellular
adhesions
the absorption of molecules to
the cell surface
some situations, provides
mechanical & chemical protection
for the plasma membrane.
1. Glycoproteins
membrane proteins conjugated
with short chains of polysaccharide
2. Glycolipids
membrane lipids conjugated with
short chains of polysaccharide
Differential centrifugation
for cell fractionation (isolation of
subcellular components)
NUCLEUS
the most obvious feature of
the cell seen under the light
microscope.
considered the largest
organelle in the cell.
Control center of the cell
Primarily contains
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
arranged in the form of
chromosomes - the blueprint
from which all the other
components of the cell are
constructed.
Nuclear contents:
A. DNA
making up less than 20% of its
mass
B. Nucleoprotein
synthesised in the cytoplasm and
imported into the nucleus.
1. Histone proteins - low
molecular weight, positively
charged which bind tightly to
DNA and control the coiling
and expression of the genes
encoded by the DNA strand.
2. Non-histone proteins,
including enzymes for the
synthesis of DNA, RNA and
regulatory proteins.
C. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
1. mRNA - newly synthesised
messenger RNA
2. tRNA - Transfer
3. rRNA - Ribosomal
D. CHROMATINS
refers to chromosomes at
interphase.
Forms 2 distinct dispersal
patterns:
1. Heterochomatin
Condensed areas
(INACTIVE)
not actively producing RNA.
2. Euchromatin
Extended areas (light)
(ACTIVE)
in the process of producing RNA.
E. NUCLEOLUS
Spherical, highly basophilic
structure that is usually
located eccentrically in the
nucleus.
nuclei of cells highly active in
protein synthesis, contain one
or more dense structures
called nucleoli
nucleoli - the sites of :
o rRNA synthesis
o ribosome assembly.
F. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
(NUCLEAR MEMBRANE)
Visible in electron micrographs.
Consist of:
Two unit membranes (outer
and inner) 7-8 nm each.
Perinuclear space - 10-30 nm
Nuclear pores- 70 nm
o provide a channel for the
exchange of substances
between the cytoplasm
and the nucleus.
Inner and outer nuclear
membranes
- have the typical phospholipid
bilayer structure
- contain different integral
proteins.
inner aspect of the inner nuclear
membrane
Nuclear lamina
- electron-dense layer of
intermediate filaments
- consisting of polypeptides
called lamins that link inner
membrane proteins and
heterochromatin
Outer lipid bilayer
- continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum
- has ribosomes on its
cytoplasmic face.
RIBOSOMES
minute cytoplasmic organelles,
each composed of two
subunits of unequal size.
Each subunit is composed of a
strand of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) with associated
ribosomal proteins forming a
globular structure.
Ribosomes are sites for
protein synthesis
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1. Ribosomes align mRNA
strands
2. transfer RNA (tRNA)
molecules brought into
position
3. amino acids added
sequentially to the growing
polypeptide chain
Cells with numerous ribosomes
have intensely basophilic
cytoplasm. due to the numerous
phosphate groups in the RNA of
the ribosomes.
Free ribosomes
sites for protein synthesis that
are to be used within the cell.
Attached ribosomes
- sites for protein synthesis that
are to be exported and also for
protein to be used within the cell
Every cell contains within its
DNA the code for every
protein that individual could
produce.
Production or expression of
selected proteins is a
characteristic of differentiated
cells.
The presence of a particular
protein within a cell is one
possible method of identifying
different cell types, e.g. the
presence of actin and myosin
in muscle cells.
Thus
DNA code RNA specific
protein.
1. Transcription:
DNA mRNA
2. Introns (non-coding
sequences)
cut/spliced out of mRNA
3. Passes through
NPC(nuclear pore
complex)
4. Into cytoplasm
5. mRNA binds to ribosomes
6. Ribosomes read mRNA
sequence
7. Translation:
mRNA amino acids
8. Sequence of amino acids
protein
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
A system of interconnecting
tubules, vesicles, and flattened
sacs (cisternae).
The most extensive
membranous structure in the
cell.
Membrane units are much
thinner than the
plasmalemma; not visible by
routine histo stains.
ER consists of 2 contiguous
regions:
1. Rough ER
Receives the proteins that are
synthesized by the ribosomes
attached to it.
Proteins destined for export
and lysosomal proteins
(enzymes) pass through the
membrane into its lumen.
Proteins are processed into
the form of transfer vesicles
before handing them over to
the Golgi complex.
2. Smooth ER
Continuous with and similar to rER
except that it lacks ribosomes.
Principal functions:
Biosynthesis of cholesterol
and phospholipids
Membrane synthesis and
repair.
Liver cells, sER
rich in cytochrome P450
metabolism of glycogen &
detoxification of various noxious
metabolic by-products, drugs and
alcohol.
Muscle cells: sarcoplasmic
reticulum, sER - storage and
release of calcium ions - activate
the contractile mechanism
GOLGI COMPLEX
consists of stacked, saucer-
shaped membrane-bound
cisternae.
The outermost cisternae take the
form of a network of tubules known
as the cis and trans Golgi
networks.
Glycosylation of proteins (begins in
rER), sequential addition of
sugar residues proteins are
packaged for transport to their final
destination.
Two current theories:
1. Each cisterna is enriched for the
specific enzyme to add a specific
sugar
Proteins passes cisternacisterna
Via formation of a series of coat
protein complex I (COP I) coated
vesicles which then fuse with the
next cisterna in the stack.
2. Medial cisternae mature
w/ specific enzymes moved
backwards to less mature
cisternae by means of coated
vesicles.
Packaging of proteins in the
Golgi complex (from rER)
1. Proteins synthesised in the
rER transfer vesicles
Golgi apparatus
2. On arrival at the convex cis
Golgi network, the coated
proteins disengage and the
vesicles fuse with the
membrane of the forming face.
3. Proteins are passed from
cisterna cisterna.
Glycosylation of proteins is
completed by sequential
addition of sugar residues and
the proteins are packaged for
transport to their final
destination.
4. On arrival at the concave
trans Golgi network, the
proteins are accurately sorted
into secretory vesicles.
Group of plasma cells from
inflamed tissue;
cells are responsible for
antibody production as part of
the body's immune defences.
The plentiful rER is strongly
basophilic & protein is
acidophilic so that there is
staining with both eosin and
haematoxylin giving a purplish
or amphophilic colour to the
cytoplasm.
The well-developed Golgi
complex G consists of lipid
(membrane), which is
dissolved out during
preparation. Thus the Golgi is
unstained and appears as a
pale area (negative image)
adjacent to the nucleus
LYSOSOMES
Membrane-bound organelles
containing an amorphous
granular material.
contain electron-dense
particulate material
have more than 40 different
degradative enzymes
including proteases, lipases
and nucleases come from
Golgi complex.
Lysosomes are the principal
organelles involved in:
Heterophagy digestion of
phagocytosed material from
outside.
Autophagy digestion of
unneeded or senescent cell
organelles.
PEROXISOMES OR MICROBODIES MITOCHONDRIA
small, spherical, membrane-bound hot-dog shaped
closely resemble lysosomes in Principle organelle involved in
size and ultrastructure. cellular respiration (Produce most
contain oxidases and catalases of ATP utilized by the cell)
Oxidases - utilized in Cristae inner membrane that
catabolic pathways which form encloses matrix
hydrogen peroxide, a Matrix contains enzymes that
potentially cytotoxic by-product break down nutrient molecules;
Hydrogen peroxide- also contains mitochondrial
used by certain phagocytic DNA and ribosomes
cells to kill ingested
microorganisms. The number in the cell depends on
Catalase regulates hydrogen its energy requirement.
peroxide concentration, Liver cell 2000 M / cell
utilising it in the oxidation of a Resting lymphocytes a few M
variety of potentially toxic
Tend to aggregate in areas within
substances including phenols the cell where energy requirement
and alcohol. is high.
Sperm cell; M conc. at the
INCLUSIONS midpiece of tail.
Temporary structures (may or
may not be membrane-
bound).
Not all cells contain inclusions.
Fat droplets, glycogen granules,
zymogen granules, pigment
granules, crystals, lipochrome
pigments, lipofuschin pigments
and dust particles.
1. Sympathetic ganglion cells:
lipofuscin (Age pigment)
2. Basal layer of the skin & Substantia
nigra of nerve cells Melanin
3. Adipocytes -Fat droplets (lipid
storage
4. Paneth cells in inetstinal epithelium -
zymogen granules.
5. glycogen, the storage form of
carbohydrates in lever cells
CYTOSKELETON
Extremely fine protein filament
Supporting framework of minute
filaments and tubules.
- Maintains the shape and polarity
of the cell.
To accommodate the dynamic
functions of cells
Cells that propel themselves
about by amoeboid movement
(e.g. white blood cells)
Cells that have actively motile
membrane specialisations
such as cilia and flagella
(tracheal epithelial cells)
Cells that are highly
specialised for contractility
(e.g. muscle cells)
Cell division - a process that
involves extensive
reorganisation of cellular
constituents.
1. Microfilaments (5-7 nm)
Made up of F-actin filament
undergo frequent assembly
and disassembly to
accommodate changes in cell
shape and cell movement.
Abundant in the peripheral
areas of the cell just beneath
the cell membrane.
Involved in the activities
of the cell membrane
such as exocytosis &
endocytosis.
Less abundant in the central
portion of the cell.
Probably involved in
the movement of cell
organelles.
Involved in the
locomotion of certain
cells.
2. Intermediate filaments
(10-15 nm in diameter)
Intermediate in size between
microfilaments and microtubules
5 types (morph. similar) but differ
in protein contents:
1. Keratin in keratinocytes of
skin cells; for cell-to-cell
attachment.
2. Desmin skeletin; in muscle
cells; more numerous in
smooth than in striated
muscles .
3. Vimentin scattered all over
cytoplasm of fibroblasts &
muscle cell.
4. Neurofilament - provide
internal support for neurons
5. Glial filament - provide
internal support for glial cells.
1. Microtubules (25 nm).
Tubules that are much thicker
than microfilaments or
intermediate filaments
Formed in the centrosomes
(microtubule organizing
center; MTOC).
Attached to organelles for
movement
Scattered in the cytoplasm
internal support to cell
Comprise centrioles sources
of mitotic spindles, the cilia of
ciliated cells and flagellum of
sperm cells.
Lecture # 3. SURFACE EPITHELIA
Epithelia
Closely apposed cells
No or limited intercellular substances
Avascular
Derived from 3 germ layers:
Ectodermal - skin
Mesodermal - inner lining of
blood vessels
Endodermal - inner lining of the
GI tract
Epithelial tissues rest on connective
tissues
Lamina propria CT
underneath digestive,
respiratory lining epithelia.
Basement membrane underlying support
where epithelial cells are rested. It demarcates
the underlying CT from epithelium.
Basement membrane composition
1. Basal lamina - Membrane proteins of the
epithelial cells are anchored in the basal
lamina.
The major 2 glycoproteins Laminin and Type
IV COLLAGEN
FXN: acts as a selective, permeable filter
between epithelium and connective tissue (CT).
2. Reticular Lamina - Reticular fibers
embedded in ground substance that connect
the basal lamina with the underlying CT. It is
synthesized by cells of the CT.
Functions of Epithelia: Modifications on the Apical surface of
Absorption - intestines epithelial cells
Secretion - glands 1. Microvilli
Sensation - gustative and olfactory Fingerlike process that protrude from
neuroepithelium the cells apical surface -EM.
Contractility myoepithelial cells Striated border or brush border_ in LM
breast (fine vertical lines on cell surface)
Regenerates quickly when subjected to To increase surface area of absorption.
trauma & destruction. Particularly numerous in the intestinal
Epithelial exposure to different mucosa.
matters: Core : consist of actin filament
Gases-integumentary &
respiratory;
Liquids-circulatory & urinary; 2. Cilia (Kinocila)
Semisolids-GI tract Fingerlike extensions
Present in cells specialized for transport
2 Types of Epithelia of fluid/ mucus over the surface of the
1. Cover or line all body surfaces, cavities epithelium.
and tubes
Cilia are motile beat sequentially or
- SURFACE EPITHELIA
synchronously in one direction.
Core : microtubules that comprise the
2. Epithelium that is primarily involved in
axoneme.
secretion is often arranged into
structures called glands.
Kartageners syndrome inherited
-GLANDULAR EPITHELIA
abnormality in cilia, compromising
respiratory functions, with ineffective
Surface Epithelia are recognized based on 3
clearance of mucus.
morphological characteristics:
1. Number of cell layers
3. Stereocilia
Simple
Essentially only microvilli that are as
Stratified
long as cilia.
2. Shape of the component cells
Non-motile
Squamous
In epith.cells of ductus epididymis
Cuboidal
and hair cells of the inner ear.
Columnar
3. Presence of surface modifications:
Keratin
Cilia
Microvilli/ brushborders /
Stereocilia
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA:
Squamous Epithelium
lining surfaces involved in passive
transport (diffusion)
Gases (as in the lungs)
Fluids (as in the walls of blood
capillaries).
forms the delicate lining of the pleural,
pericardial and peritoneal cavities
allows passage of tissue fluid
into and out of these cavities.
Endothelium: inner lining of blood vessels.
Importance of endothelium:
maintains the fluid nature of flowing
blood
triggers blood clotting when needed
cell adhesion
transmits inflammatory signals
permit normal arterial dilatation
*Nitric oxidea prizewinning molecule in
1986
Dr. Robert Furchgott of the State University
of New York was awarded a Nobel Prize for
Medicine
Identified the factor produced by the
endothelium governing
______________ (endothelium-derived
relaxation factor," or EDRF) as Nitric
oxide
a signaling molecule for many
processes and the single most powerful
artery dilating agent known.
Mesothelium: Lining of the pleural, pericardial
and peritoneal cavities
Simple Cuboidal
lines small ducts and tubules that may Pseudostratified
have excretory, secretory or absorptive A variant of simple columnar
functions. epithelium.
Ex. collecting tubules of the The appearance in section conveys the
kidney and the small excretory erroneous impression that there is more
ducts of the salivary glands and than one layer of cells.
pancreas. All the cells rest on the basement
membrane.
Almost exclusively confined to the
Simple Columnar larger airways of the respiratory system.
cells are taller and appear columnar
nuclei are elongated; basal, central, or Mucociliary escalator
apical Mucus secreted by goblet cells are
most often found on absorptive surfaces converted on the surface.
such as in the small intestine. Mucus traps foreign material
it may constitute the lining of secretory The cilia propel mucus with entrapped
surfaces such as that of the stomach. particles towards the pharynx.
Simple columnar epithelium Modifications:
1. Non-ciliated type - 1 Layer of rectangular
cells, often containing goblet cells;
(+)microvilli
Organ: GI tract (stomach to anus), ducts of
glands and gallbladder
Fxn: Secretion and Absorption
Fallopian tube / uterine tube
2. Ciliated type
(+)cilia
Organ: parts of upper resp. tract, uterine tubes,
uterus, central canal of spinal cord
Fxn: Moves fluids / particles along passageways
Found mainly in female reproductive
tract
Ciliary action facilitates transport of the
ovum/egg from the ovary to the uterus.
Stratified Epithelia
Epithelia consisting of two or more
layers of cells.
Function mainly for protection
The degree and nature of the
stratification are related to the kinds of
physical stresses to which the surface is
exposed
NOTE: A stratified epithelium is classified
on the basis of the shape of the cells in the
TOP LAYER ONLY
Stratified Squamous
1. Stratified Squamous Keratinized
Example: skin epidermis
2. Stratified Squamous Non- Keratinized
Example : Esophagus
Other examples:
Lining of nose, mouth, anal canal, vagina
Stratified cuboidal
2< layers of cuboid cells
Organs: Ducts of sweat glands, male
urethra
Fxn: Protection
Transitional Epithelium
Variable appearance cuboid to
squamous
Organs: exclusively in excretory urinary
passages (renal calyces and pelvis,
ureter, urinary bladder, and part of the
urethra).
Fxn: Permits distension
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Urinary bladder - Highly specialised to
accommodate a great degree of stretch and to
withstand the toxicity of urine.
Relaxed (contracted)
Distended(stretched or uncontracted)
it seems to be formed by many cell layers. The
most basal cells have a cuboidal or columnar
shape. Followed by several layers of polyhedral
cells, and, finally, a layer of superficial cells,
which have convex, Dome-shaped surface
(Umbrella or dome-shaped cells).

Stratified columnar epithelium

Many polyhedral cell layers columnar
cells in superficial layer
Organ: Lines part of urethra, excretory
ducts of glands, anal mucous
membrane
Fxn: Protection and Secretion
 1. Tight junction or Occluding junction
Modifications on the lateral surfaces of occlude to block / hinder
epithelial cells. Most apically situated of the
Cell Junctions / Intercellular jxns. / junctional complexes
Junctional complexes a continuous belt-like junction
bind epithelial cells to adjacent cells zonula = latin for belt ; zonula
to provide physical strength and mediate occludens
exchange of information and Proteins in the membrane of adjacent
metabolites. cells called occludin interact with each
The intimate contact between epithelial cells other to produce this tight seal.
ensures that materials passing through the to seal the intercellular spaces so that
epithelium have to pass through the cells, rather luminal contents cannot penetrate
than between them. between the lining cells.
Common in transport epithelia.
Example:
Cell Junctions beneath the luminal surface of simple
1. Tight jxn columnar epithelium - adhesions that are arranged in a line
2. Adherens jxn
3. Gap jxn 2. Adherens jxn./ Zonula adherens
4. Spot Desmosome Also called belt desmosome
Located just below tight/occluding jxn.
Forms a band that completely encircles
each epith. cells.
Cell membranes of adjoining cells are
very close but neither adhere nor fuse.
Separated by an intercellular
space (15-20 nm wide)
Particularly present in epithelia with
microvilli or cilia
3. Gap Junction
Also called communicating junction.
Gap broad areas
Intecellular space is only 3 nm wide
Apposed plasma membranes are
perforated by tiny tubes connexons
Connexon allow exchange of ions and
small molecules bet. adjacent cells (ex:
epithelium, cardiac & smooth muscles)
4. Spot Desmosome
Usually situated just below zonula
adherens.
They do not form a band around the
epithelial cells
(instead) button-like or rivet-like
At the desmosome jxn, the cells are
separated by a relatively wide
intercellular space (about 30 nm)
Particularly numerous in keratinized
squamous epithelium.
Hemidesmosomes
Modification on the basal surfaces of
epithelial cells.
Half of a desmosome!
Helps anchor the epithelial cells to the
underlying basal lamina (basement
membrane)
Lecture # 4. GLANDULAR EPITHELIA CELLULAR COMPOSITION EXOCRINE VS ENDOCRINE
GLANDULAR EPITHELIA Unicellular glands Multicellular glands Exocrine glands Endocrine glands
Epithelium that is primarily involved in - consist of isolated Secretory product
- composed of clusters Secretory product
secretion. glandular cells. of secretory cells. (hormone)
V
An organized collection of secretory V
Ducts
Extracellular space
epithelial cells. Goblet cells V
(space between
Cells or aggregations of cells whose in the lining of the Surface of the body
secretory cells)
function is secretion. small intestine V
V
in the lining of the External environment
Bloodstream
Secretion respiratory tract
Exocytotic release of products, not secretory portion Release the secretory Glands exuding
secrete the embedded in the CT. product via a system secretions directly into
metabolic wastes glycoprotein of ducts that opens body fluids, ultimately
Molecules to be secreted may be stored mucin, which by upon one of the blood.
in membrane bound secretory granules the uptake of surfaces of the body
(vesicles) water is which are in contact Secretory product
converted into a with the external (typically hormones)
slimy substance, environment. are released into the
Glands - are merely invaginations of epithelial
mucus. spaces between the
surfaces, which are formed during embryonic
Have two parts: secretory cells
development by proliferation of epithelium into 1. Secretory (extracellular space)
the underlying tissues. portion from which it enters
NATURE OF SECRETION 2. Duct the bloodstream.
GLAND FORMATION
1. Serous watery, high affinity to stain
Exocrine glands Endocrine glands
(water-soluble, dark stain)
- Retain their
connection with the - Lost their connection Sweat glands, Pancreatic glands, Parotid TYPES OF GLANDS
surface epithelium to surface epithelium glands 1. Exocrine -> external envi
- Form ducts during development 2. Endocrine -> blood stream
Ex: Salivary glands Form cords &follicles 2. Mucous viscous, poor affinity to stains 3. Paracrine -> other cells
Sudoriferous (sweat) Ex: Thyroid gland (light stain)
glands Sebaceous glands, sublingual salivary glands, Paracrine glands
In some epithelia, individual cells secrete a
3. Mixed watery and mucous secretions substance that does not reach the bloodstream
Submandibular salivary gland but rather affects other cells within the same
epithelium.

EXOCRINE GLANDS / DUCT GLANDS
1. Secretory portion - contains the cells
responsible for the secretory process.
2. Ducts - transport the secretions
ACCORDING TO DUCT SYSTEM:
Simple glands Compound glands
Have 1 unbranched Have ducts that
duct branch repeatedly.
COILED TUBE SECTION
A single coiled tube may appear:
that it has many sections.
Or a hollow ball organ
or hollow tube that yield a tissue preparation like
the given examples below.
ACCORDING TO CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
OF THE SECRETORY PORTION: B.COMPOUND GLANDS
can be tubular, acinar, or tubuloacinar
A. SIMPLE GLANDS
can have their secretory portion in the form of:
Tubule Acinus
Simple coild tubular Cells organize as
spherical or globular
Simple coiled tubular units
Any rounded secretory
Simple branched units.
tubular Simple branched
acinar
1. SIMPLE TUBULAR 1. COMPOUND BRANCHED TUBULAR
Large intestinal gland secretory cells line the Brunners gland of duodenum duct system is
entire duct. branched; secretory portion is tubular, branched
and coiled.
2. SIMPLE COILED TUBULAR
Sweat glands each consists of a single tube 2. COMPOUND ACINAR
that is tightly coiled Pancreas (exocrine) each consists of
numerous acini which drain into a minute duct
3. SIMPLE BRANCHED TUBULAR (D) and drains into branched excretory duct (E).
Mucus secreting gland of pylorus each gland
consists of several tubular secretory portion 3. COMPOUND TUBULO-ACINAR
which converge into one duct. Submandibular salivary gland has 2 types of
secretory cells: mucus-secreting cells (A
4. SIMPLE ACINAR acinar) and serous cells (T tubular) with acinar
Mucus-secreting gland of penile urethra end-pieces (D-demilunes).
- Occur in the form of pockets in epithelial
surfaces.
5. SIMPLE BRANCHED ACINAR
Sebaceous gland - with several secretory acini.
SECRETION FROM EXOCRINE GLANDS MAY OCCUR IN ONE OF THREE WAYS:

Merocrine glands Holocrine glands Apocrine gland

(e.g. the pancreas) (e.g. sebaceous glands) (e.g. ipid secretory
products in the breasts;
some sweat glands)

The secretory granules The product of secretion is The secretory product is

leave the cell by shed with the whole cell. discharged together with
exocytosis with no loss of parts of the apical
other cellular material. A process that involves cytoplasm.
destruction of the
- Proteins are usually the secretion-filled cells. Intermediate type
major secretory product.
Lecture # 5. CONNECTIVE TISUES ORIGIN CT COMPONENT:
- Mesoderm: mesodermal cells migrate from CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
FUNCTIONS their site of origin and surround / penetrate
1. Structural: Provide and maintain form in the developing organs. 1. Fibroblasts / fibrocytes / reticular cells /
body. - Mesenchyme: a derivative of mesoderm adipocytes
2. Mechanical: Provide a matrix that connects a. Embryonic precursor of all - Derived from undifferentiated
and binds the cells and organs and connective tissues. mesenchymal cells.
ultimately gives support to the body. b. Fibroblasts , chondroblasts, - FIXED cells in CTs / remain in CTs
3. Metabolic: Provide metabolic support for osteoblasts
other tissues and organs of the body. c. All blood cells and blood vessels 2. Mast cells, macrophages, and plasma
a. Mediate the exchange of nutrients, d. Cartilage, bones, ligaments, tendons, cells
metabolites and waste products fasciae, muscles - originate from hematopoietic stem cells
between tissues and circulatory in the bone marrow
system. Mesenchymal derivatives: - circulate in the blood
b. Presence of __________________ Undifferentiated mesenchymal cells - WANDERING cells that move to CTs,
and __________________ . 1. fibroblast where they remain and execute their
4. Defense: serves as the arena and provides 2. adipocytes functions.
the cells that are needed to defend the body 3. chondroblast chondrocytes
against invading organisms and other 4. osteoblasts osteocytes 3. Blood Leukocytes
harmful substances. 5. mesothelial cells - are TRANSIENT cells of CTs also
6. endothelial cells originate in bone marrow
COMPONENTS 7. smooth muscle cells - They usually migrate to CTs where they
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS: Hematopoietic stem cells reside for a few days and die.
1. Cells character cells / special support cells 1. Blood cells
2. Extracellular matrix - RBC,granular WBC
a. Protein fibers (collagen, elastic, - lymphocytes B cells / T cells
reticular) - Monocytes - macrophages
b. Ground substance gel-like - Megakaryocytes platelets
arrangement of organic materials where 1. Osteoclast
cells and fibers are embedded. 2. Mast cells
c. a highly hydrophilic, viscous complex of
anionic macromolecules and
multiadhesive glycoproteins that imparts
strength and rigidity to the matrix
d. Blood Vessels and Nerve fibers abound.

Structural components: Vary in Amount and

Composition which determine the physical
properties of each CT type.
 FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS OF THE CONNECTIVE TISSUES: 2. MACROPHAGES or HISTIOCYTES
CELLS 1. Fibroblast, Chondroblast, Osteoblast - Derived from circulating blood monocytes
2. Macrophage that take up residence in the connective
Representative 3. Mast Cell tissue.
Cell type Function
product or activity 4. Plasma Cell - Phagocytic cells that ingest bacteria, dead
Fibroblast Production of fibers 5. Adipose (Fat) Cell cells, cell debris, and other foreign matter in
Chondroblast and ground Structural 6. Leukocyte
the CT
Osteoblast substance a. Eosinophil
b. Neutrophil
- Enhance immunologic activities of the
Production of Immunological
Plasma Cell c. Basophil lymphocytes.
antibodies (defense)
d. Lymphocyte (Several Types) - Antigen-Presenting Cells ( (APC) to
Lymphocyte Production of
Immunological lymphocytes and perform an important
(Several immunocompetent
(defense) 1. FIBROBLAST: Active and quiescent stages function in the immune response
Types) cells
- Participation in a. FIBROBLAST- active stage the - Macrophages have specific names in
allergic and dominant cells in the CT different organs
vasoactive - Has an abundant and irregularly branched - usually appears round with irregular cell
Eosinophilic reactions Immunological cytoplasm outlines, but exhibits a variable appearance
(Leukocyte) - Modulation of mast (defense) - Nucleus is ovoid, large, and pale staining, - small nucleus rich in chromatin and
cell activities and
with fine chromatin and a prominent cytoplasm filled with dense, INGESTED
the inflammatory
nucleolus. particles.
process
Phagocytosis of - Cytoplasm is rich in rER - When a vital dye such as trypan blue or
Neutrophilic - Golgi complex is well developed India ink is injected into an animal,
foreign substances, Defense
(Leukocyte) - Synthesize collagen, reticular, and elastic macrophages engulf and accumulate the
bacteria
- Secretion of fibers dye in their cytoplasm in the form of
cytokines and - Synthesize constituents of the granules or vacuoles visible in the light
other molecules extracellular matrix. microscope
- phagocytosis of
Macrophage foreign substances Defense
b. FIBROCYTES - the less active stage
and bacteria
- The spindle-shaped fibrocytes are smaller
- antigen processing
and presentation
than the fibroblasts and are mature
to other cells - Less active cells of the fibroblast line.
Liberation of Defense - It has fewer processes
Mast Cell
pharmacologically (participate in - Has a smaller, darker, elongated nucleus;
Basophilic
active molecules allergic - With acidophilic cytoplasm
(Leukocyte)
(eg, histamine) reactions) - Has a small amount of rER
Energy
Adipose (Fat) Storage of neutral
reservoir, heat
Cell fats
production
Distribution and Main Functions of the Cells of 2. MAST CELLS 3. PLASMA CELLS
the Mononuclear Phagocyte System. - oval to round CT cells - Derived from B-lymphocytes that have been
Cell Type Location Main Function - 1013m in diameter exposed to antigens.
Precursor of - cytoplasm is filled with basophilic secretory - Plasma cells produce antibodies of
Monocyte Blood
macrophages
granules importance in immune reactions.
Production of
cytokines, - With centrally located small, spherical - Large, ovoid cells that have a basophilic
Connective
chemotactic nucleus which is frequently obscured by the cytoplasm due to their richness in rough
tissue
factors, and cytoplasmic granules. endoplasmic reticulum
several other
lymphoid
molecules that
- synthesize and release histamine and - Exhibits a smaller, eccentrically placed
Macrophage organs heparin. nucleus with condensed, coarse chromatin
participate in
inflammation - Exposure of mast cells to allergens causes clumps distributed peripherally in a
lungs
(defense), rapid release of histamine and other characteristic radial (cartwheel) pattern and
antigen
bone marrow vasoactive chemicals. one central mass.
processing and
presentation - MAST CELL SECRETION - A prominent, clear area (golgi complex) in
Same as 1) IgE molecules are bound to the the cytoplasm is adjacent to the nucleus.
Kupffer cell Liver
macrophages surface receptors Golgi complex - is where the terminal
Nerve tissue of Same as
Microglia 2) After a second exposure to an glycosylation of the antibodies
the central macrophages
cell antigen (eg, bee venom), IgE (glycoproteins) occurs.
nervous system
Antigen molecules bound to surface
Langerhans
Skin processing and 4. ADIPOSE CELLS / ADIPOCYTES
cell receptors are cross-linked by the
presentation
Antigen antigen. This activates adenylate - Fixed cells in loose CT
Dendritic
Lymph nodes processing and cyclase and results in the - Adipocytes are very long-lived cells. Their
cell
presentation phosphorylation of certain proteins. number is determined by the number of
Bone (fusion of Digestion of
3) At the same time, Ca2+ enters the lipoblast (pre-adipocyte) generated during
Osteoclast several bone
macrophages) cell. fetal and early postnatal development.
Connective Segregation 4) These events lead to intracellular - Function: store fat (lipid), provide protective
Multinuclear tissue (fusion of and digestion fusion of specific granules and packing material in and around numerous
giant cell several of foreign
exocytosis of their contents. organs and for the production of heat.
macrophages) bodies
5) In addition, phospholipases act on - Exhibits a narrow rim of cytoplasm
membrane phospholipids to produce
leukotrienes.
6) The process of extrusion does not
damage the cell, which remains
viable and synthesizes new
granules. ECF-A, eosinophil
chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis.
2. LEUKOCYTES
- (Gr. leukos, white, + kytos), or white blood
corpuscles / white blood cells (WBC)
- Wandering cells of the connective tissue.
a. Basophils
b. Neutrophils
c. Eosinophils
d. Lymphocytes
e. Monocytes Macrophages
- The normal CT contains leukocytes that
migrate through the walls of blood vessels
from the blood to CT by a process called
diapedesis
- Neutrophils and Monocytes
- secrete enzyme that degrade the
basement membrane between the
endothelial cells to squeeze into the
site of infection DIAPEDESIS
- WBCs must aggregate in the CT area to
mediate inflammatory process.
- Neutrophils_- active and powerful
phagocytes; they engulf and destroy
bacteria at sites of infections.
- Eosinophils- become active and increase in
number after parasitic infections or allergic
reactions.
Diapedesis
Leukocyte extravasation is controled by a
cascade of adhesion and signalling
molecules.
I. First leukocytes are captured to the
blood vessel wall by selectins.
II. Sensing chemotactic factors such as
chemokines on the endothelial cell
surface leads to the activation of
leukocytes and leukocyte integrins.
III. Finally leukocytes migrate along the
blood vessel wall and through the
endothelial cell layer and the
underlying basal lamina.
Increased vascular permeability
- caused by the action of vasoactive
substances
- Ex. Histamine - from mast cells and
basophils
- vascular permeability
- Increases in blood flow
- Responsible for
1. swelling (edema)
2. redness (rubor)
3. heat. (calor)
4. pain (dolor)
- Pain is due to chemical mediators on
nerve endings.
- Chemotaxis when specific cell types are
attracted by some molecules, is responsible
for the migration of large quantities of
specific cell types to regions of inflammation.
- leukocytes cross the walls of venules and
capillaries by diapedesis, invading the
inflamed areas.
CT COMPONENT:
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM)
1. GROUND SUBSTANCE
- fills the space between cells & fibers of
the CT
- viscous/ a highly hydrated, colorless,
and transparent complex mixture of
macromolecules. (Water, salts and other
low molecular substances &
proteoglycans)
- acts as both a lubricant and a barrier to
the penetration of invaders
- Composition:
a. GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS (GAGs)
(formerly acid mucopolysaccharides).
b. PROTEOGLYCANS
(formerly mucoproteins)
c. Multiadhesive GLYCOPROTEINS.
A. GLYCOSAMINOGLYCANS, (GAGs )
(Acid mucopolysaccharides)
Linear polysaccharides formed by repeating
disaccharide units that are bound covalently to
proteoglycan molecule.
- intensely hydrophilic and act as polyanions
a. Heparan sulfate
b. Keratan sulfate
c. Dermatan sulfate
d. Chondroitin sulfate
e. Hyaluronic acid
B. GAG + Protein core = PROTEOGLYCANS
The core protein associated with the four main
GAGs
- Carbohydrate moiety predominates (80-
90%)
- bind to a great number of cations (usually
sodium) by electrostatic (ionic) bonds
- intensely hydrated structures with a thick
layer of solvation water surrounding the
molecule VISCOUS
act as a barrier to the penetration of
bacteria and other microorganisms
Purposes:
- Act as structural components of the
extracellular matrix
- Anchoring cells to the matrix
- Bind many protein growth factors (eg,
transforming growth factor, TGF-, of
fibroblasts).
a. Extracellular proteoglycans
In the matrix
Ex. Aggrecan (in cartilage)
b. Sutface proteoglycans
Attached to the surface of many
types of cells, particularly epithelial
cells.
Ex. syndecan and fibroglycan
C. GLYCOPROTEINS
- Globular PROTEIN molecules to which
branched chains of monosaccharaides are
covalently attached.
- Protein moiety usually predominates
- play an important role in the interaction
between neighboring adult and embryonic
cells
- For the adhesion of cells to their substrate
Ex. Fibronectin
- has binding sites for cells, collagen, and
GAGs.
- help to mediate normal cell adhesion
and migration
TISSUE FLUID
- Very small quantity of fluid in the
extracellular matrix (ECM) of CTs that
comes from the blood
- Due to hydrostatic pressure of the blood,
small amount of plasma fluid passes through
the capillary walls.
- Since CTs are widely distributed, as much
as one-third of the plasma proteins of the
body are stored in the ECM of the
connective tissue.
- EDEMA in pathological conditions, it is
promoted by the accumulation of water in
the extracellular spaces due to increased
vascular permeability.
Movement of fluid through connective tissue.
- There is a decrease in hydrostatic
pressure and an increase in osmotic
pressure from the arterial to the venous
ends of blood capillaries (upper part of
drawing).
Fluid leaves the capillary through its arterial end
and repenetrates the blood at the venous end.
Some fluid is drained by the lymphatic capillaries
CT COMPONENT:
CT FIBERS
1. COLLAGEN FIBERS
- Dominant fiber type in most CT.
Organs: Throughout the body
Fxn: Add strength to the CT.
Component: Microfibrils (collagen fibrils) which
are assemblies of tropocollagen (of AAs:
hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine).
a. Types I, II and III tropocollagens
Major fiber formers.
b. Tropocollagen IV
important structural component of the basal
lamina.
MEDICAL SIGNIFICANCE
I. Keloid
abnormal amount of collagen fibers formed
in the scars of the skin.
II. Systemic Sclerosis
excessive accumulation of collagen in skin,
digestive tract, kidneys hardened and
dysfunctional impairment of organs affected
(fibrosis).
III. Vitamin C deficiency (Scurvy)
hydroxylation of prolyl and lysyl residues
(AAs) in the endoplasmic reticulum can be
inhibited, producing defective collagen (non-
reversible)
Degeneration of connective tissue.
Vit. C is a COFACTOR of proline
hydroxylase.
2. RETICULAR FIBERS - Fibers are cross-linked to each other
- Very delicate and form fine networks instead by desmosin and isodesmosin found
of thick bundles. between elastin molecules.
- Can be stretched to about 150% of their
- Affinity with special stains. Ex: Silver original length.
stained sections reticular fibers look like fine, - Elastin fibers remains unfolded as a
black threads. Their different staining "random coil".
characteristics were initially thought that - They resume their original length if the
reticular fibers were completely different tensile forces applied to the elastic
from collagen fibres. fibers are relaxed.
- Component: Type III collagen
- Fxn: Support to individual cells of Muscle &
Adipose tissues and capsulated organs
(liver & spleen); tunica media of muscular
artery
3. ELASTIC FIBERS
In fresh tissues: Light yellow in large amounts in
the tissue.
Special stains:Resorcin fuchsin gives a dark
violet color.
Component: The matrix accounts for about
90% of the fiber and composed of elastin and
microfibrils. Both elastic fibers and microfibrils
are not collagen.
Organs: Elastic ligaments of the vertebral
column; ear auricles; skin dermis; aorta; large
arteries
Lecture # 6. LOOSE & DENSE CT LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- consists of a number of cell types embedded
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE in a matrix
- a large amount of ground substance in
which fibers are arranged in a loose irregular
manner.
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- adapted to offer resistance and protection
- fewer cells and a clear predominance of
collagen fibers
- Dense CT is less flexible
- far more resistant to stress than is loose CT.

Found in all parts of the body 1. Dense irregular CT

1. Papillary layer of the dermis - when the collagen fibers are arranged in
2. Hypodermis bundles without a definite orientation.
3. Serosal linings of peritoneal and pleural - collagen fibers form a 3-dimensional
cavities, and in glands network
4. Mucous membranes (wet membranes - provide resistance to stress from all
that line the hollow organs) supporting directions.
the epithelial cells. - dermis.
Tendons Dense regular CT
Responsible for binding various structures 2. Dense regular CT
- Elongated cylindrical structures attach
together - The collagen bundles are arranged
striated muscle to bone
- muscle fibers to muscle fibers according to a definite pattern
- Rich in collagen fibers
- skin to underlying tissues. - aligned with the linear orientation of
- White and inextensible
- Various membranes and mesenteries fibroblasts in response to prolonged
- Have parallel, closely packed bundles of
- fills spaces between groups of muscle stresses exerted in the same direction;
collagen separated by a small quantity
cells - offer great resistance to traction forces.
of intercellular ground substance.
- supports epithelial tissue a. tendons (attach muscle to bone)
- Fibrocytes contain elongated nuclei
- forms a layer that sheathes the b. most ligaments (attach bone to bone)
parallel to the fibers and sparse
lymphatic and blood vessels c. aponeuroses (sheetlike tendons that
cytoplasmic folds that envelop portions
attach muscle to muscle or muscle to
of the collagen bundles.
- comprises all the main components of CT bone.
proper.
- With no predominant cell
- fibroblasts and macrophages - most
numerous cells, but all the other types of CT
cells are also present
- With moderate amount of collagen, elastic,
and reticular fibers
- has a delicate consistency
- it is flexible,
- well vascularized
- not very resistant to stress
Hallmarks of an inflammatory response: Tissue present in the hypodermis region of The spleen, lymph nodes and liver are
1. Redness - rubor the skin. organs in which the cells are supported by
2. Swelling - edema White adipose tissue _____ type of fibers.
3. Pain - dolor Reticular
4. Heat - calor Phagocytic CT cells which are also
considered antigen presenting cells needed A molecule in the ground substance that is
It has abundant collagen fibers with parallel for an immune response. _____ consist of a globular protein to which
arrangement in thick sheet. _____ connective Macrophages branched monosaccharides are bound.
tissue glycoprotein
Response: dense irregular Embryonic origin of connective tissue cells. Cells that are actively synthesizing collagen,
mesoderm elastin, glycosaminoglycans and
CT type that has an abundance of cells, proteoglycans in the matrix.
ground substance but less fibers. Blood cell with similar activity with a Fibroblasts
Response: Loose connective tissue macrophage but do not possess antigen
presenting capacity. _____ Determine the Connective Tissues types
Identify the following connective tissue cells: neutrophils found in the following structures.
Transient CT cells
- Eosinophils Molecule in the ground substance that has a 1. Fats in newborn Brown adipose
- Neutrophils protein core to which linear polysaccharides 2. Fats in the belly of adults White adipose
- Basophils are covalently bonded. _____ 3. Tunica intima of large artery Loose Areolar
Wandering CT cells proteoglycans 4. Dermis of the skin Dense irregular
- Mast cells 5. Papillary layer of dermis Loose Reticular
- Plasma cells CT type found in the papillary layer of dermis 6. Ear auricle Elastic
- Lymphocytes Loose connective tissue 7. Whartons jelly (umbilicus)
- Macrophages 8. Mesentery Loose areolar
Fixed CT cells When mast cells release their granules, 9. Splenic capsule Loose reticular
- Fibroblasts blood vessels become _____ to fluids and 10. Stem cell tissue
- Fibrocytes leukocyte that will result into 11. Tendons Dense regular
- Adipocytes an inflammation. 12. Glissons capsule of the liver Loose
leaky reticular
In leukocyte extravasation, _____ is 13. Hypodermis of the skin
expressed in blood vessel wall to mediate CT type for tendons, ligaments and 14. Precursor cells in primitive supporting tissue
capture of leukocyte by endothelial cells as aponeurosis. 15. Ligaments Dense regular
both cells undergo recognition. Dense regular connective tissue 16. Muscle fascia Loose reticular
selectin
Blood cell that has a similar property with
_____ adipose tissue type which causes mast cells in terms of reaction with an
nonshivering thermogenesis in newborns. antigen.
brown basophil