The Handbook on Solids Control

and Drilling Waste Management

King Cobra Venom Shaker VSM 300 Shaker VSM Multi-Sizer Separator Shaker Screens

HS-3400 STD XP Centrifuge Ideal Mud Tank System Mud Coolers HS-2172L Centrifuge

Slider Tank Air Conveyor EnviroVac SpaceSaver VTS

Vortex Dryer Hot Oil Thermal Desorption Cuttings Injection MA-RG Agitator

This document contains proprietary and confidential information which belongs to National Oilwell Varco, L.P., its affiliates or subsidiaries (all collectively referred to here in after as NOV).
It is loaned for limited purposes only and remains the property of NOV. Reprodction, in whole or in part or use of this design or distribution of this information to others is not permitted without
the express written consent of NOV. This document is to be returned to NOV upon request and in any event upon completion of the use for which it was loaned. This document and the information
contained and represented herein is the copyrighted property of NOV.

www.nov.com/Brandt
www.nov.com/FluidControl

4310 N Sam Houston Pkwy East

Houston, Texas 77032
United States
Phone: 713 482 0500
Fax: 713 482 0699 2012 National Oilwell Varco
brandt@nov.com D391001161-MAN-001 Rev. 07

FluidControl@nov.com
PREFACE
Solids control equipment removes drilled solids from drilling fluid, reduces waste haul-off
and reduces the dilution required to maintain good mud properties. Manufactured by
National Oilwell Varco is one of the largest manufacturers of solids control equipment in the
world.

This Handbook will cover Brandt Products and the services offered by NOV FluidControl.
We hope you will find this Handbook useful in your work.

BACKGROUND
In 2009, National Oilwell Varco purchased Spirit Drilling and Completion Fluids and Spirit
Mining and Minerals. This was further complemented by the acquisition of Ambar Drilling
Fluids one year later. In mid-2010, the Fluids Business units were combined with Brandt
Solids Control/Waste Management Leasing to form NOV FluidControl. NOV FluidControl
supplies a combination of drilling fluids, completion fluids, minerals and solids control/waste
management services.

Tel: (713) 482-0500

Fax: (713) 482-0695
E-mail: Brandt@nov.com
FluidControl@nov.com

Website: www.nov.com/FluidControl
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www.nov.com/Brandt

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
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1 FLUID MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................... 13

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 13
1.1.1 Origins of Fluids Management Technology ................................................ 13
2 DRILLING FLUIDS .......................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 14
2.1.1 Functions of a Drilling Fluid ........................................................................ 14
2.1.2 Components of a Drilling Fluid ................................................................... 17
2.1.3 Relationship of Fluid Properties ................................................................. 18
2.1.4 Selection of a Drilling Fluid Types of Drilling Fluids ................................... 23
2.1.5 The Nature of Drilled Solids Common Terminology ................................... 27
3 ECONOMICS................................................................................................................... 30
3.1 Benefits of Solids Removal by Mechanical Separation ......................................... 30
3.1.1 Reduced Total Solids ................................................................................. 30
4 SEPARATION BASICS ................................................................................................... 33
4.1.1 Particle Size and Equipment Used to Measure .......................................... 35
4.2 Separation by Settling ........................................................................................... 37
4.2.1 Stokes Law................................................................................................ 38
4.3 Separation by Size ................................................................................................ 39
4.3.1 Separation by Filtration .............................................................................. 39
4.3.2 Separation by Screening ............................................................................ 43
4.3.3 API Screen Designation ............................................................................. 43
4.3.4 Screening Surfaces.................................................................................... 45
5 GUMBO SEPARATORS ................................................................................................. 51
6 SHALE SHAKERS .......................................................................................................... 52
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 52
Rig Shakers ..................................................................................................................... 54
Fine Screen Shakers ....................................................................................................... 57
6.1.1 Screen Tensioning Mechanisms ................................................................ 59
6.1.2 Vibrator Mechanisms ................................................................................. 59
6.1.3 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 59
6.1.4 General Guidelines .................................................................................... 60
6.2 Shale Shaker Product Line and Options ............................................................... 60
6.2.1 Optional Upgrade Kit for Linear Motion Shakers ........................................ 60
6.2.2 Mini Cobra 2-Panel .................................................................................... 61
6.2.3 Mini Cobra 3-Panel .................................................................................... 62
6.2.4 Cobra ......................................................................................................... 62
6.2.5 King Cobra ................................................................................................. 63
6.2.6 King Cobra II .............................................................................................. 64
6.2.7 King Cobra Venom ..................................................................................... 65
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 6.2.8 VSM 300 Shale Shaker .............................................................................. 66
Features ............................................................................................................... 68
Benefits ................................................................................................................ 68
Balanced elliptical motion ...................................................................................... 68
Effective removal of sticky, hydrated clays ............................................................ 68
Adjustable G-force ................................................................................................ 68
Adjustments in G-force to adapt to changes in drilling conditions ......................... 68
Integrated scalping deck (3 screens) .................................................................... 68
Reduces the need for (and subsequent costs and weight) upstream scalping
shakers and/or gumbo equipment ......................................................................... 68
Integrated drying deck (2 screens optional) .......................................................... 68
Reduces mud losses by creating a dry solids discharge ....................................... 68
Pneumoseal clamping system............................................................................... 68
Screens are properly secured to the basket for quick, easy screen changes........ 68
Variable frequency drive (VFD) control ................................................................. 68
Soft starting, fingertip adjustments of motor speed and matching G-force to
operating conditions .............................................................................................. 68
6.2.9 NOV Automated Shaker Control ................................................................ 68
6.2.10 VSM Multi-Sizer ....................................................................................... 70
6.2.11 Cascade Shakers ..................................................................................... 73
LCM-3D/CM-2 Cascade ........................................................................................ 73
6.2.12 LCM-3D/King Cobra Cascade .................................................................. 73
7 GAS CONTROL .............................................................................................................. 74
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 74
7.2 Mud Gas Separator ............................................................................................... 74
7.2.1 Mud Gas Separator Operational Guidelines .............................................. 75
7.3 Atmospheric Degasser .......................................................................................... 75
Installation ............................................................................................................. 75
7.4 Vacuum Degassers ............................................................................................... 76
7.4.1 Installation .................................................................................................. 77
7.4.2 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 77
7.5 Degasser Product Line .......................................................................................... 78
8 HYDROCYCLONES ........................................................................................................ 79
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 79
8.2 Operation .............................................................................................................. 82
Cut Point ............................................................................................................... 82
Rope versus Spray Discharge............................................................................... 83
8.3 Desanders ............................................................................................................. 84
8.3.1 Installation .................................................................................................. 84
8.3.2 Guidelines .................................................................................................. 85
8.3.3 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 85
8.4 Desilters ................................................................................................................ 86
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 8.4.1 Installation .................................................................................................. 87
8.4.2 Guidelines .................................................................................................. 87
8.4.3 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 88
9 MUD CLEANERS AND CONDITIONERS ....................................................................... 89
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 89
9.1.1 Applications................................................................................................ 91
9.1.2 Installation .................................................................................................. 92
9.1.3 General Guidelines .................................................................................... 93
9.1.4 Maintenance .............................................................................................. 94
9.1.5 Mud Conditioner Product Line.................................................................... 95
10 CENTRIFUGES ............................................................................................................... 96
10.1 Decanting Centrifuge ............................................................................................ 96
10.1.1 Separation Process .................................................................................. 96
10.1.2 Dewatering ............................................................................................. 100
10.2 CENTRIFUGE MODELS (SEE APPENDIX I - CENTRIFUGE CHART) ........................ 101
10.2.1 HS-3400 Centrifuge ............................................................................... 101
10.2.2 HS-2000 Centrifuge ............................................................................... 102
10.2.3 HS-1960 Centrifuge ............................................................................... 102
10.2.4 HS-2172 ................................................................................................. 103
10.3 Drying Centrifuges .............................................................................................. 105
10.3.1 Vortex Dryer ........................................................................................... 107
10.3.2 Mud 8 and 10 ......................................................................................... 107
11 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ............................................................................................... 108
11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 108
11.2 Understanding Pump Performance Curves ......................................................... 108
11.3 How to Select a Pump ......................................................................................... 109
11.3.1 Pump Speed .......................................................................................... 109
11.3.2 Total Head Required .............................................................................. 109
11.3.3 Flow Rate ............................................................................................... 109
11.3.4 Specific Gravity ...................................................................................... 109
11.3.5 Procedure for Selecting the Pump Impeller Size and Horsepower
Requirements ...................................................................................................... 109
11.4 Net Positive Suction Head (npsh) ....................................................................... 110
11.5 Formulas ............................................................................................................. 110
11.6 Details to Remember about Centrifugal Pumps .................................................. 111
CONVERT FROM .................................................................................................................... 111
CONVERT TO .......................................................................................................................... 111
MULIPLY BY............................................................................................................................ 111
12 MUD MIXING AGITATORS AND MUD GUNS ........................................................... 112
12.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 112
12.2 Mechanical Agitators ........................................................................................... 112
12.2.1 Selection of Agitator Size and Quantity .................................................. 112
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 12.3 Mud guns ............................................................................................................ 117
12.4 Sand Traps.......................................................................................................... 117
12.5 Tank/Pit Use........................................................................................................ 118
12.5.1 Removal ................................................................................................. 118
12.5.2 Addition .................................................................................................. 118
12.5.3 Reserve.................................................................................................. 121
12.5.4 Discharge ............................................................................................... 121
12.5.5 Trip Tank ................................................................................................ 121
12.6 Auxiliary Equipment ............................................................................................ 121
12.7 Agitation/Mixing . ................................................................................................ 122
13 MUD TANK SYSTEMS.................................................................................................. 123
14 WASTE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................... 125
14.1 Cuttings Storage ................................................................................................. 125
14.1.1 Brandt Transfer System (BTS) ............................................................... 126
14.1.2 Catch Tanks/Shale Sloops ..................................................................... 127
14.1.3 Cuttings Boxes/Skips ............................................................................. 127
14.1.4 FreeFlow Slider Tank ............................................................................. 128
14.2 Cuttings Transfer................................................................................................. 129
14.2.1 Brandt FreeFlow System........................................................................ 129
14.2.2 Screw Conveyors ................................................................................... 133
14.2.3 Vacuum Units......................................................................................... 134
14.3 Cuttings Treatment and Disposal ........................................................................ 135
14.3.1 Cuttings Injection (CI) (Note: Some call this Cuttings Re-Injection) ..... 135
14.3.2 Bioremediation ....................................................................................... 142
14.3.3 Drying Shakers ...................................................................................... 143
14.3.4 Dewatering. ............................................................................................ 145
14.3.5 Thermal Desorption................................................................................ 151
14.3.6 Waste Management Services ................................................................ 157
15 BULK STORAGE AND HANDLING ............................................................................. 159
16 MUD CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT ............................................................................. 159
17 INSTRUMENTATION .................................................................................................... 159
17.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 159
17.2 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) ................................................................ 159
17.3 Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) ......................................................................... 160
18 PRODUCT LISTING ...................................................................................................... 160
18.1 Gumbo Removal ................................................................................................. 160
18.2 Mud Gas Separator ............................................................................................. 160
18.3 Shaker Header .................................................................................................... 160
18.4 Rig Shakers......................................................................................................... 160
18.5 Primary Shakers.................................................................................................. 160
18.6 Cascade Shakers ................................................................................................ 160
18.7 Shaker Screens................................................................................................... 160
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 18.8 Mud Cleaners ...................................................................................................... 161
18.9 Mud Conditioners ................................................................................................ 161
18.10 Degassers ......................................................................................................... 161
18.11 Desanders ......................................................................................................... 161
18.12 Desilters ............................................................................................................ 161
18.13 Centrifuges ........................................................................................................ 161
18.14 Drying Shakers .................................................................................................. 161
18.15 Centrifugal Dryers .............................................................................................. 161
18.16 Dewatering Units ............................................................................................... 161
18.17 W ASTE MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................... 162
18.17.1 Cutting Transport ................................................................................. 162
18.17.2 Cuttings Storage .................................................................................. 162
18.17.3 Cuttings Treatment............................................................................... 162
18.18 Mud Tanks ......................................................................................................... 162
18.19 Agitators ............................................................................................................ 162
18.20 Mud Mixing Equipment ...................................................................................... 163
18.21 Auxiliary Equipment ........................................................................................... 163
19 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 165
19.1 Appendix A - Pre-Well System Selection Checklist ............................................. 165
19.1.1 Well Design ............................................................................................ 165
19.1.2 Drilling Program ..................................................................................... 165
19.1.3 Equipment and Vendor Capability .......................................................... 165
19.1.4 Logistics ................................................................................................. 165
19.1.5 Environmental Issues ............................................................................. 165
19.1.6 Economics ............................................................................................. 165
19.2 Appendix B Mud Engineering 19.2.1 ............................................................ 166
19.2.3 Recommended Range of Properties for Dispersed Mud System ............. 167
19.2.4 Water-Based Mud PV & YP Values @ 120 F. ....................................... 168
19.2.5 Recommended Range of Properties for Non-Dispersed Mud System . 169
19.2.6 Recommended Range of Properties for Non-Aqueous Mud Systems .... 170
19.3 Appendix C - Standard Mud Calculations ............................................................. 170
19.3.1 Mud Volume ............................................................................................ 170
19.3.2 Circulation Data ....................................................................................... 171
19.3.3 Solids Determination ............................................................................... 171
19.4 Appendix D - Solids Control Evaluation Calculations ............................................ 172
19.5 Appendix E - Field Calculations of Solids Discharges .......................................... 174
19.5.1 Field Calculations to Determine Total Solids Discharge ........................... 174
19.6 Appendix F - Solids Control Performance Evaluation ............................................ 175
19.7 Appendix G - Conversion Constants and General Information .............................. 179
19.7.1 Conversion Constants .............................................................................. 179
19.7.2 pH of Mud Additives in 10% Water Solution ............................................ 180
19.7.3 Specific Gravity and Mohs Hardness of Common Mud Components ...... 181
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 19.7.4 Pounds of Drill Solids Generated per Hole Size ...................................... 182
19.7.5 Percent Solids versus Mud Weight for Water-Based Muds ..................... 183
19.7.6 Base Exchange Capacities of Clay Minerals* ......................................... 183
19.8 Appendix H - G-Force Derivation .......................................................................... 184
19.9 Appendix I - Centrifuge Charts 19.9.1 US Units ......................................... 185
19.9.2 Metric Units ............................................................................................. 186
19.10.1 Flow Rate Data for HS-3400 .................................................................. 187
19.10.2 PSA of Centrifuge Feed Sample ........................................................... 188
19.10.3 PSA of Centrifuge Effluent Sample ........................................................ 189
19.11 Appendix K - Shale Shaker Product Line ............................................................. 190
19.12 Appendix L - Screen Tables for Brandt Shakers .................................................. 192
19.12.1 BHX Cobra/LCM 3D .............................................................................. 192
19.12.2 VSM 100 ................................................................................................ 193
19.12.3 VSM 300 ............................................................................................... 194
19.12.4 Venom Series ........................................................................................ 195
19.13 Appendix M - Sieve Comparison Table............................................................... 196
19.14 Appendix N - Mud Weight Conversion Table ....................................................... 197
19.15 Appendix O - Glossary ......................................................................................... 198
19.16 Appendix P - Well Site Services .......................................................................... 224
Company Profile .................................................................................................. 224

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TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR FIGURES

Figure 2-1. Pressurized Mud Balance ....................................................................................... 17

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Figure 2-2. Basic Mud Balance.....18

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Figure 2-3. Marsh Funnel and Cups .......................................................................................... 19

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Figure 2-4. Rotational Viscometer ............................................................................................. 20

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Figure 2-5. Filter Presses .......................................................................................................... 21

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Figure 2-6. Retorts .................................................................................................................... 21

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Figure 2-7. Sand Content Sets .................................................................................................. 22

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Figure 2-8. Mechanical Degradation of Drilled Solids................................................................ 28

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Figure 2-9. Surface Area Issues ................................................................................................ 29

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Figure 2-10. Effect of Specific Surface Area on Viscosity ......................................................... 29

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Figure 4-1. Particle Diameter and Sequential Solids Removal .................................................. 36

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Figure 4-2. Settling Pit ............................................................................................................... 37

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Figure 4-3. Stokes Law ............................................................................................................. 38

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Figure 4-4. Vertical Pressure Leaf Filter .................................................................................... 40

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Figure 4-5. Filter Press .............................................................................................................. 41

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Figure 4-6. Duplex Filter ........................................................................................................... 42

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Figure 4-7. Screen Label ........................................................................................................... 43

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Figure 4-8. Pretensioned Screen............................................................................................... 46

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Figure 4-9. 8-Mesh Screen ........................................................................................................ 46

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Figure 4-10. Two 8-Mesh Screens ............................................................................................ 47

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Figure 4-11. Shape of Opening ................................................................................................. 48

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Figure 5-1. Gumbo Separator.................................................................................................... 51

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Figure 5-2. 1 Chain .................................................................................................................. 51

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Figure 5-3. 6 Mesh Chain/Screen.............................................................................................. 51

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Figure 6-1. Shakers ................................................................................................................... 52

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Figure 6-2. Elliptical Unbalanced Motion ................................................................................... 53

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Figure 6-3. Circular Motion ........................................................................................................ 53

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Figure 6-4. Linear Motion .......................................................................................................... 53

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Figure 6-5. Standard Rig Shaker ............................................................................................... 54

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Figure 6-6. Screens Used on Rig Shakers ................................................................................ 55

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Figure 6-7. Reading a Particle Size Analysis (PSA) Graph ....................................................... 56

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Figure 6-8. King Cobra and VSM Shakers ................................................................................ 57

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Figure 6-9. Screens Used on Fine Screen Shakers .................................................................. 57

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Figure 6-10. Screens and Orientation ....................................................................................... 58

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Figure 6-11. Mini Cobra 2-Panel ............................................................................................... 61

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Figure 6-12. Mini Cobra 3-Panel ............................................................................................... 62

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Figure 6-13. Cobra .................................................................................................................... 62

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Figure 6-14. King Cobra ............................................................................................................ 63

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Figure 6-15. King Cobra II ......................................................................................................... 64

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Figure 6-16. King Cobra Venom ................................................................................................ 65

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Figure 6-17. VSM 300 ............................................................................................................... 66

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Figure 6-18. VSM Multiple Units ................................................................................................ 67

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Figure 6-19. VSM Fitted with Vent Hoods ................................................................................. 67

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Figure 6-20. VSM Multi-Sizer ...70

Figure 6-21. Constant-G Control..72
Figure 6-21. LCM-3D/CM-2 Cascade ........................................................................................ 73
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Figure 6-22. LCM-3D/King Cobra Cascade ............................................................................... 73

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Figure 7-1. Mud Gas Separator ................................................................................................. 74

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Figure 7-2. Atmospheric Degasser ............................................................................................ 75

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Figure 7-3. DG-10 (Vertical Degasser) ...................................................................................... 76
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Figure 7-4. VG-1 (Horizontal Degasser) .................................................................................... 76

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Figure 7-5 Venturi that Pulls Mud into Degasser ....................................................................... 76

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Figure 7-6. Typical Degasser Rig-Up ........................................................................................ 77

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Figure 8-1. Hydrocyclone Diagram ............................................................................................ 79

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Figure 8-2. Pressure Changes with Mud Weight ....................................................................... 80

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Figure 8-3. Pressure Gauge on the Manifold ............................................................................ 81

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Figure 8-4. Cones in Spray Discharge ...................................................................................... 82

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Figure 8-5. A Few Cones in Spray Discharge ........................................................................... 83

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Figure 8-6. Rope Discharge (Plugged Flow) ............................................................................. 83

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Figure 8-7. Desander ................................................................................................................ 84

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Figure 8-8. Desilter .................................................................................................................... 86

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Figure 8-9. Desilter Using Radial Feed ..................................................................................... 86

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Figure 8-10. Typical Rig Layout for Cyclones ............................................................................ 88

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Figure 9-1. The Original Mud Cleaner ....................................................................................... 89

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Figure 9-2. Mud Conditioner ...................................................................................................... 89

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Figure 9-3. Screens Used on Mud Cleaner/Conditioner ............................................................ 90

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Figure 10-1. Decanting Centrifuge ............................................................................................ 96

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Figure 10-2. G-Force Algorithm ................................................................................................. 96

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Figure 10-3. Weighted Water-Base Mud ................................................................................... 97

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Figure 10-4. Unweighted Water-Base Mud ............................................................................... 98

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Figure 10-5. Weighted Non-Aqueous Mud ................................................................................ 99

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Figure 10-6. Dewatering Water-Based Mud: Dewatering and Clarification Process................ 100
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Figure 10-7. HS-3400 Centrifuge ............................................................................................ 101

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Figure 10-9. HS-2000 Centrifuge ............................................................................................ 102

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Figure 10-10. HS-1960 Centrifuge .......................................................................................... 103

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Figure 10-11. HS-2172 Centrifuge .......................................................................................... 104

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Figure 10-12. Vortex Dryer ...................................................................................................... 105

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Figure 10-13. Vortex Dryer Flow Process ............................................................................... 105

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Figure 10-14. Mud 10 .............................................................................................................. 106

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Figure 11-1. Specific Gravity Formula ..................................................................................... 108

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Figure 12-1. Mechanical Agitator............................................................................................. 112

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Figure 12-2. Mud Gun ............................................................................................................. 117

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Figure 12-3. API Drawing showing Sand Trap ........................................................................ 117

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Figure 12-4. TurboShear Unit .................................................................................................. 119

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Figure 12-5. High Pressure Shear Unit (HP Shear Unit) ......................................................... 120
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Figure 12-6. Agitator Blade Types and Flow Schemes ........................................................... 121
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Figure 13-1. Rapid Mud Tank System ..................................................................................... 124

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Figure 13-2. Ideal Mud Tank System ...................................................................................... 124

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Figure 14-1. Brandt Transfer System (BTS) ............................................................................ 126

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Figure 14-2. The BTS can safely Transport Waste Slurry to Trucks. ...................................... 121
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Figure 14-3. Shale Sloop ....................................................................................................... 1127

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Figure 14-4. Skip and Cuttings Box ......................................................................................... 122

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Figure 14-5. Stackable Containers .......................................................................................... 122

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Figure 14-6. Skip Turner ......................................................................................................... 123

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Figure 14-7. FreeFlow Slider Tank .......................................................................................... 124

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Figure 14-8. FreeFlow Air Conveyor ....................................................................................... 125

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Figure 14-9. Slider Tanks Arranged on Boat ........................................................................... 125

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Figure 14-10. Slider Tank ........................................................................................................ 126

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Figure 14-11. Slider Tank Cut-Away ....................................................................................... 132

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Figure 14-12. Installation of Slider Tanks ............................................................................... 127
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Figure 14-13. Screw Conveyors .............................................................................................. 133

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Figure 14-14. Vacuum Transfer System (VTS) ....................................................................... 128

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Figure 14-15. Cuttings Injection (CI) Unit ................................................................................ 135

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Figure 14-16. Typical Offshore CI Installation ......................................................................... 139

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Figure 14-17. Cuttings Injection Options ................................................................................. 136

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Figure 14-18. Drying Shakers................................................................................................. 143

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Figure 14-19. Dewatering Diagram for Water-Base Muds....................................................... 148

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Figure 14-20. Brandt Dewatering Unit ..................................................................................... 142

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Figure 14-21. Typical Dewatering Field Operation .................................................................. 148

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Figure 14-22. Indirect Thermal Desorption Unit - THOR ......................................................... 151

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Figure 14-23. Hot Oil Thermal Desorption Unit ....................................................................... 151

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Figure 14-24. THOR System ................................................................................................... 153

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Figure 14-25. THOR System Processing Capacity ................................................................. 157

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Figure 14-26. Typical Cleaning Equipment ............................................................................. 158

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TABLES
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Table 2-1 Visualizing Ranges of Common Fluids in Centipoises.19

Table 2-1 Micron Size Range of Common Materials 27
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Table 2-2 Common Field Terminology of Particle Size............................................................. 28

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Table 3-1 Mud Dilution Chart31

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Table 4-1 Vertical Pressure Leaf Filter ...............................40

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Table 4-2 Filter Press - Features and Benefits..41

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Table 4-3 Duplex Filter - Features and Benefits42

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Table 4-4 API RP 13 C Screen Designation..44

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Table 6-1 King Cobra Shaker with Optional VFD Controller...60

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Table 6-2 Features & Benefits King Cobra Venom ..65

Table 6-3 Features & Benefits VSM 300..68
Table 6-4 Features & Benefits VSM Multi-Sizer..71
Table 7-1 Degasser Product Line78
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Table 8-1 Pressure Changes as Mud Weight Changes..80

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Table 8-2 Hydrocyclone Capacities (@ 75 feet of head).81

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Table 8-3 Typical Cut Point Ranges for Various Sized Cones82
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Table 10-1 Mud Conditioner Product Line..95

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Table 10-2 HS-1960 Features and Benefits...96

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Table 10-3 HS-2172 - Features and Benefits..103

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Table 11-1 Conversion Factors Used with Centrifuge Pumps.111

Table 12-1 Agitator Selection.112
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Table 12-2 Hopper Flow Rate for 6" NOV Mud Hopper.118
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Table 13-1 Mud Tank Systems Features and Benefits.118

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Table14-1 CI System...141
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Table 14-2 Dewatering Chemicals for Drilling Fluids (Kemira). 150

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Table 14-3 THOR System Weights and Dimensions..156

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U

1 FLUID MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY

1.1 Introduction
Fluid management technology is the application of scientific knowledge, engineering
principles, and operational experience to the design, formulation, treatment, and
disposal of drilling fluids. It requires combining the principles of geology, chemistry,
and physics to achieve planned results to fluids-related problems. This technical focus
on drilling fluids properties and how to best control them has been the basis for the
development of an entire segment of the oilwell drilling industry.

1.1.1 Origins of Fluids Management Technology

Since the recorded beginnings of rotary drilling techniques, some form of drilling mud
has been used. In approximately the mid -1920s the industry began to understand
the importance of drilling fluids and their specific properties. Early drilling fluids were
simple mixtures of native clays and water designed to help seal permeable formations.
In 1926, the first patent for the use of heavy minerals to increase mud weight to control
sub-surface pressure was issued. Higher mud weights required greater viscosity and
Wyoming bentonite became the preferred agent to increase fluid viscosity. Since that
time, drilling fluids have become more complex and expensive. A sophisticated,
synthetic based mud may cost 100 times more than a simple water-based fluid.
As drilling fluids become more complex, an engineered approach to fluid formulation
and proper treatment to maintain specific fluid properties is required. Mud treatment
falls into one of two categories addition of commercial materials and removal of
undesirable contaminants. Each will be covered in detail in this handbook. While it is
outside the scope of this book to provide a detailed history of drilling fluids and solids
control innovations, we should mention the driving forces that propel todays
technological advancement. These are:
Higher drilling efficiency
Lower project cost
Reduced environmental impact
These drivers form the basis for fluids management technology. Today, the
environmental impact of drilling operations is very important. This has led to the
increased use of closed loop mud systems to maintain greater control on liquid and
solids discharges on land locations and offshore operations. More and more rigs have
to meet zero discharge regulations where liquid and solid wastes must be completely
controlled and monitored.
Solids control and waste management are important now and will continue to grow in
importance in the future. NOV will continue to work with customers to keep the
environment safe for this generation and future generations. NOV has provided the
equipment required to meet these objectives and will continue to develop improved
equipment that will further reduce the negative environmental effects of drilling.

13
2 DRILLING FLUIDS

2.1 Introduction
Mud is the common name for drilling fluid. While it is outside the scope of this
handbook to offer a detailed discussion of drilling fluids, a brief outline of the general
characteristics of drilling fluids is included to establish the basic relationships between
drilling mud and solids control. Similarly, any discussion of solids control would be
incomplete without establishing an understanding of the nature of mud solids their
size, shape and composition.

2.1.1 Functions of a Drilling Fluid

The mud system in a drilling operation performs many important functions. These
include:
Cleaning beneath the bit
Carrying drilled solids from the bottom of the hole to the surface
Suspending cuttings when circulation is stopped
Allowing removal of cuttings by the surface system
Controlling formation pressures
Promoting borehole stability
Cooling the bit and lubricating the drill string
Helping support the weight of the drill string
Allowing accurate information to be obtained from the well
Minimizing environmental impact

Cleaning beneath the bit

To maximize drilling efficiency, the drilling fluid must utilize the hydraulic horsepower
from the main mud pumps to sweep cuttings from the bottom of the hole as soon as
they are dislodged and allow the cutters to continue to be in contact with the formation.
If the cuttings are not removed, they will be ground into smaller particles and adversely
affect drilling rate, mud properties, and project costs.

Carrying drilled solids from the bottom of the hole to the surface
Once cuttings are removed from beneath the bit, the fluid must transport them toward
the surface. Factors which influence cuttings movement are annular velocity, cuttings
size and shape, and the fluid properties.

Suspending cuttings when circulation is stopped

Circulation of the drilling fluid is routinely interrupted to add additional drill pipe,
change bits, log, etc. The drilling fluids must be able to suspend cuttings and weighting
material while circulation is stopped, but should begin to flow easily when circulation is
resumed. Properties which affect cuttings suspension are the density, viscosity and
gel strength of the mud, and the density of the solids in the mud.

14
Allowing removal of cuttings by the surface system
Once the mud circulates back to the surface, it is desirable to remove as many of the
cuttings as possible. Usually, this is accomplished with mechanical solids control
equipment, such as shale shakers, hydrocyclones and centrifuges. The drilling fluid
should be formulated to maximize the efficiency of the removal equipment.

Controlling formation pressures

The column of mud in the wellbore must provide enough hydrostatic pressure to
balance formation pressures. The hydrostatic pressure (the pressure while the fluid is
not being circulated) at any point in the wellbore depends on the depth and the density
of the drilling mud. The formula used to determine the hydrostatic pressure is: P =
0.052 x D X
Where:
P = pressure, in psi
D = depth, in feet
= mud weight, in lbs. per gallon

Consideration must be given to how the circulation of the drilling fluid affects the pressure
in the wellbore. The flow of fluid through the annulus exerts additional pressure. The total
pressure at any point in the wellbore is the sum of the hydrostatic pressure and the
pressure required to maintain circulation at that point. This total pressure is often
expressed as ECD, the Equivalent Circulating Density. This is the drilling fluid density that
would be required to produce the same pressure under static conditions (while there is no
fluid movement).
ECD is calculated as follows: ECD = {( Pa) / (0.052)(TVD)} +
Where:
ECD = equivalent circulation density, lb/gal, ppg
Pa = sum of friction loss in all annular intervals, psi
TVD = true vertical depth (or height), ft
= fluid density, ppg

15
Since this is a solids control equipment handbook, a few short cuts will be taken in
order to show the importance of mud weight. An example problem will show how the
real mud weight is affected by the actual pumping of the fluid, as the fluid comes up
the annulus.
For example;
(This manual will not delve into the calculation of the additional pressure required to
circulate the fluid through the annulus, except to note that each interval of different
diameters must be considered separately.)
Given the following
TVD = 9,600 FT
= 15.3 ppg
Total frictional pressure loss in the annulus = 90 psi
The ECD can be calculated for the well geometry and for the mud weight of 15.3 ppg.
ECD = [(90)/(0.052)(9600)] + 15.3 ppg =
ECD = 0.18 ppg + 15.3 ppg =
ECD = 15.48 ppg
U

ECD and surge and swab pressures during trips are very sensitive to the fluid properties
of the drilling fluid. As viscosity increases, ECD and surge and swab pressures increase.
Increases in viscosity are caused by chemical imbalances or solids control problems;
either an increase in solids content, or an increase in the concentration of colloidal
particles. Also, higher viscosities increase the frictional pressure loss within the drill string,
reducing the hydraulic horsepower available at the bit.

Promoting borehole stability

Many formations become unstable when exposed to freshwater-based fluids. Inhibitive
fluids such as those based on saltwater, natural or synthetic oils, or those containing
polymers, are often required to drill them.

Cooling the bit and lubricating the drill string

Downhole temperatures can exceed 400F (204C). The contact of the bit with the bottom
of the hole and of the rotating drill string with the hole and casing generate additional
heat. The drilling fluid lubricates and cools the points of contact, extending the life of the
bit and drill string.

Helping support the weight of the drill string

The fluid in the wellbore exerts a buoyant force on the drill string, reducing the effective
weight that must be suspended from the derrick and handled by the hoisting system.

Allowing accurate information to be obtained from the well

The drilling fluid must permit electric logging and not interfere with the analysis of drilled
samples.

16
Minimizing environmental impact
Both the fluid itself and the cuttings generated from the well must be dealt with when
drilling is completed. The Cuttings may be contaminated with oil or other chemicals and
have to be treated before they can be disposed of. The base fluid also may be considered
a pollutant. Some disposal alternatives are: recycling for future use, cuttings re-injection,
thermal desorption and stabilization.
Of the 10 functions listed, the following are generally considered most important:
1. The removal of cuttings from the bottom of the hole and carrying them to the surface.
2. The control of subsurface pressures. The pressure provided by the fluid must exceed
formation pressure to prevent the flow of formation fluids into the wellbore.
3. Stabilization of the wellbore. Fluid density, filtration rates, and filter cake characteristics
affect wellbore stability.
4. The cooling and lubrication of the drill string.
5. Environmental protection. Increasing emphasis on the reduction of drilling waste
volume greatly reduces the cost of the measures required to avoid polluting the
environment.

This is not to say that the other functions are unimportant. The relative importance of all of
the functions of drilling fluids depends upon the specific circumstances of each drilling
operation.

2.1.2 Components of a Drilling Fluid

Almost all wells are drilled with a liquid drilling fluid. These fluids range from fresh water to
exotic and costly synthetic-based fluids. Although they may be very different, they all have
a liquid phase in which solids, and sometimes another liquid, are dispersed.

The liquid phase of the mud is the continuous phase, the part that allows the mud to flow
freely throughout the circulating system. The liquid phase may be water, oil (diesel or
mineral), a synthetic base fluid, or a combination of these.
The solid phase is the discrete phase of the mud; it is dispersed in the continuous phase.

Mud solids may be classified by source (commercial or drilled), reactivity (reactive or non-
reactive), size (listed later in this chapter), or density (high or low gravity).

Figure 2-1. Pressurized Mud Balance

17
 Figure 2-2. Basic Mud Balance

2.1.3 Relationship of Fluid Properties

The ability of a drilling fluid to perform its functions depends on various fluid properties,
most of which are measurable and affected by solids control.

Density is a measure of the weight of the mud in a given volume, and is frequently
referred to as mud weight. The instrument used to measure density is the mud
balance. A pressurized mud balance (Figure 2-1) will produce the correct mud weight
even if the mud is gas cut but most rigs use the basic mud balance (Figure 2-2). Both
instruments consist of a constant volume cup with a lever arm and rider calibrated to
read four different scales: density of the fluid in lbs/gal (water = 8.34 lbs/gal) and
pressure gradient in psi/1000 ft (water = 433 psi/1000 ft), pounds per cubic foot (water
= 62.4 lbs/ft) or specific gravity.

The density of mud can be expressed as specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of
a materials density to the density of water. Pure water has a specific gravity of
approximately 1.0. A material twice as dense as water would have a specific gravity of
2.0. Barite is generally used to increase mud density and is called a high gravity
solid. API specification barite has an average specific gravity of 4.20, while low
gravity solids have an average specific gravity of 2.6.

Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow and is one of the most important physical
properties of drilling mud. Increasing the concentration of solids or the total surface
area of the solids in a fluid increases its viscosity. Viscosity can be measured in
several ways.

18
 Figure 2-3. Marsh Funnel and Cups

Funnel Viscosity provides information about how mud behaves at low flow rates, such
as surface pits and across shaker screens. The higher the funnel viscosity is, the thicker
the fluid. Funnel viscosity is routinely measured with a Marsh Funnel and mud cup at the
drilling site (Figure 2-3). The person measuring the viscosity fills the funnel with a sample
of mud and allows it to flow from the tip of the funnel while measuring the time in seconds
it takes to fill the cup to one quart. The funnel viscosity is recorded in seconds per quart.

Plastic Viscosity measures the portion of a muds flow resistance caused by the
mechanical friction between the suspended particles and by the viscosity of the
continuous liquid phase. In practical terms, plastic viscosity (PV) depends on the size,
shape, and concentration of solid particles in fluid (Figure Table 2-1). For example, an
increasing concentration of drilled solids particles will increase the plastic viscosity.
Plastic viscosity is measured with a rotational viscometer (Figure 2-4) and is
expressed in centipoises (grams per centimeter-seconds). PV is determined by
subtracting the 300 dial reading of the viscometer from the 600 dial reading as shown:
600 reading 300 reading = PV

Table 2-1 Viscosity Ranges of Common Fluids in Centipoises

Centipoises Product
1-15 Anti-Freeze
16-100 Corn Oil
101-1000 Motor Oil
1001-2500 Corn Syrup
2501-5000 Honey
Above 5000 Molasses

19
 Figure 2-4. Rotational Viscometer

Yield Point is a measure of attractive forces between suspended solid particles in a liquid
while it is being circulated. It measures the positive and negative attractive forces
between the solid particles in a fluid. Yield point (YP) is also measured with a rotational
viscometer and expressed in lbs/100 ft2. Internationally, yield point is measured in
dynes/cm. YP is obtained by subtracting the PV from the 300 dial reading of the
viscometer as shown below:
300 reading PV = YP

Gel Strength is a measure of muds inter-particle attractive forces in a liquid at rest.

Gel strength gives an indication of the amount of gelation that will occur when
circulation ceases and the mud remains static for a period of time. Gel strengths are
routinely measured 10-seconds and 10-minutes after stirring the fluid and are reported
as 10-second and 10-minute gels. A difference between these two figures may
indicate progressive gels, that is, gelation that gains strength over time. Gel strength
is measured with the rotational viscometer and is expressed in lbs/100 ft2. The mud
sample is stirred for 15 seconds at 600 rpm and after the 10 seconds or 10 minute
time interval, the rotor is moved at 3 RPM and the maximum dial reading is recorded
as the 10-second or 10-minute gel strength. Internationally, gel strength is measured
in dynes/cm.
Filtration or Wall-Cake - Mud liquid seeps into porous formations leaving a layer of
mud solids on the exposed formation surface. This layer of mud solids is called filter
cake or wall-cake. The filter cake forms a barrier and reduces further filtration. This
process is referred to as filtration, or fluid loss. The instrument used to measure fluid
loss due to filtration is a filter press (Figure 2-5).

20
 Figure 2-5. Filter Presses

A piece of filter paper is placed on the screen, the cell is assembled, filled, sealed and
100 psi pressure is applied. The volume of fluid flowing from the sample in 30 minutes is
measured and recorded in milliliters, ml or cubic centimeters, cc. Examination of the filter
cake on the paper provides an indication of the quality of the cake being deposited in the
hole. Cake thickness is recorded in units of 1/32s of an inch.

Solids Content
Solids content is the volume percentage of the total solids in the mud. To determine the
solids content of a mud containing weight material, a mud container in the retort is filled
with a measured volume of mud (Figure 2-6). The mud is heated to boil off the liquid. The
percentage of the liquid distilled off is measured in a glass cylinder. The percent by
volume of solids and liquids (oil and water) are obtained and recorded on the mud check
report. The total solids from the retort and mud weight are used to calculate the low and
high gravity solids content.
If the mud does not contain oil or weight material, such as barite or hematite, the low
gravity solids can be determined without a retort. One can weigh the mud sample and
use the algorithm, Vs = (7.5)(-8.34), to calculate the percent solids; where Vs is
percent solids and is mud weight in pounds per gallon.

Figure 2-6. Retorts

21
Sand
Sand is any particle larger than 74 microns when referring to solids control separation.
Therefore, the sand content of a mud is simply the amount of solids too large to pass
through a US Test Sieve 200-mesh screen. This is determined with a sand content set
(Figure 2-7) by washing a measured amount of mud through the 200-mesh screen in the
kit. The amount of solids that does not pass through the screen is measured as percent
by volume and is recorded as percent sand. API Barite may contain as much as 3%
weight percent of particles larger than 74 microns. Since the screen cant differentiate
between drill solids and barite, the addition of fresh barite often increases the measured
sand content.

Figure 2-7. Sand Content Sets

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties is a broad category and includes pH, alkalinity, chlorides, calcium
content, salt content, and other factors that affect drilling mud performance. Some of
these chemical properties can be controlled through the use of mud additives that
thicken, thin, precipitate, disperse, emulsify, lubricate or otherwise affect the mud
depending on specific drilling needs. For example, caustic soda can be added to
some muds in order to increase the pH, thereby increasing dispersant effectiveness
and reducing corrosion. Chemical changes such as these are used to fine tune drilling
mud properties.

Electrical Properties
Electrical properties are routinely measured in an oil-based (non-aqueous) fluid. The
resistively of a mud is controlled to permit improved evaluation of electrical logs.
Resistively is measured by determining the resistance to the flow of an electric current
through a fluid sample, and is recorded in ohms. Stability is determined by measuring
the voltage across two electrodes submerged in the sample of oil-based mud (diesel,
mineral or synthetic). When the dial or digital value reaches a maximum, that value
becomes the ES (Electrical Stability) of the mud sample. The higher the ES the more
stable the invert emulsion, and the more stable the invert mud.

22
2.1.4 Selection of a Drilling Fluid Types of Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluids are generally categorized as water-base, oil- base, or synthetic-base,
and as weighted or unweighted muds. Here is a list of the most common mud
types, followed by a brief description of each type:
Water-Base Mud (WBM)
A. Spud Mud
B. Natural mud
C. Chemically-Treated Mud
1. Lightly Treated Chemical Mud
2. Highly Treated Chemical Mud
3. Low Solids Mud
4. Polymer Mud (Non Dispersed Muds)
5. Calcium Treated Mud
6. Silicate Treated Muds
D. Saltwater Mud - Sea Water Mud or Saturated Salt Mud
Oil-Base Mud (OBM); or Non Aqueous Fluids (NAFs)
1. Diesel
2. Mineral
3. Synthetic-Base Mud (SBM)
a. Olefin
b. Ester
c. Others
Water-base muds (WBM) have water as the liquid phase and are used to drill most of
the wells in the world because water is usually available and water-base fluids are
relatively simple and inexpensive.
Non Aqueous Fluids (NAFs) contain diesel, mineral or synthetic oil as the continuous
liquid phase and are used for wells that require maximum hole protection. NAFs are
usually much more expensive than WBM and therefore are used only when there is a
specific need. NAFs keep the hole in gauge, reduce friction and minimize the risk of
stuck pipe in crooked or high angle holes especially where hydratable formation is
being drilled.
Synthetic-base muds are subsets of NAFs. Synthetic-based fluids contain a
synthesized liquid phase and share many properties with NAFs, but have the
advantage of reduced environmental impact. Synthetic-base muds typically are very
expensive, making solids control critical.
23
Any mud to which barite or another weighting agent is added to control its density is
called a weighted fluid. Controlling mud density over 9.5 10.0 ppg while retaining
desirable properties requires the use of an inert weighting agent. The most common
weight material used is barite (barium sulphate BaSO4). Other weight materials
used are hematite (iron oxide Fe2O3) and galena (lead sulphide - PbS). The
American Petroleum Institute (API) sets standards for mud products such as barite.
The API recommends that barite has a minimum specific gravity of 4.20, but this could
change as high quality material becomes less available at acceptable cost. At the
2007 API Standardization meetings in Ft. Worth, Texas, the API committee that
handles drilling fluids discussed the possibility of having two API specifications for
weight material, one for a barite specification at 4.20 and another at 4.10. The API
4.10 barite would be used on wells where the mud weight would be low, which would
save the high quality barite for critical wells that would require high mud weights.
Unweighted mud refers to any mud which has not had barite added for density control.
This mud type of fluid, when water-based has a density of less than 10 lbs/gal. The
solids in unweighted mud are drilled solids from the wellbore plus commercial
additives.

Typical Applications
Spud Mud is used to start the drilling of a well and continues to be used while drilling
the first few hundred feet of hole. Spud mud is usually an unweighted water-base
mud, made up of water and natural solids from the formation being drilled. It may
contain some commercial clay, added to increase viscosity and improve wall-cake
building properties.

Natural Mud (sometimes called native mud) is usually unweighted water-base mud
which contains mostly drilled solids. Some bentonite and small amounts of chemicals
may be used to improve filter cake quality and help prevent hole problems. This mud
is often used after spud mud. Often, natural mud is used to drill the first few thousand
feet of hole, where only minor hole problems are expected.
Chemically Treated Mud is water-base mud which contains chemicals to control
physical and chemical properties. Bentonite is usually added to help control viscosity
and fluid loss. Barite (weight material) may be added to increase density. This mud is
used where more severe hole problems are expected.

Lightly Treated Chemical Mud is usually unweighted water-base mud. It is used

where minor hole problems are expected, such as sloughing or caving of the walls of
the hole.

Highly Treated Chemical Mud is usually weighted, water-base mud that contains
larger amounts of chemicals, bentonite, additives, and barite to maintain strict control
of viscosity, fluid loss, chemical properties, and density. Water-muds treated with
lignosulfonates or lignite are commonly called lignosulfonate mud or lignite mud.
These muds are used where moderate-to-severe hole problems are expected or high
subsurface pressures occur. Of all the water-base mud types, these are the most
expensive to maintain. As mud density is increased and potential hole problems (such
as stuck drill pipe) become more of a risk, the removal of drilled solids by mechanical
solids control equipment becomes increasingly important.
24
Low Solids Muds are water-base muds containing less than 10 % drilled solids; 15%
is a normal range. Generally speaking, the lower the solids content in the mud, the
faster the bit will drill. Low solids muds can be expensive to maintain because the
solids, chemicals, and fluid loss properties have to be kept very close to prescribed
levels.

Polymer Muds are special types of low solids mud which contain synthetic materials
and polymers designed to provide inhibition and control viscosity and fluid loss.

Calcium Treated Muds are special water-base muds, usually weighted, which have
lime or gypsum. Calcium Treated Muds are normally used to prevent shale and clay
formations from swelling or sloughing - problems which could lead to stuck pipe or the
loss of the hole.

Saltwater Muds contain a high concentration of salt. They may be weighted or

unweighted. Saltwater muds often are used to minimize washouts or hole
enlargement in water-sensitive formations.

Sea Water Muds contain sea water as the continuous phase and, usually, only sea
water is used for dilution. They may be weighted or unweighted. These muds are
used offshore and in bay areas where fresh water is not readily available.

Saturated Salt Muds (sometimes called brine fluids) contain as much salt as can be
dissolved in the water phase. This mud type often is used to drill through salt
formations so the fluid will not dissolve the salt formation. If fresh water mud is used,
greatly enlarged holes would result, usually leading to hole trouble. In some cases,
Mixed Salt Muds are used when drilling through complex, soluble salt formations.

True Non Aqueous Fluid (NAFs) contains a liquid phase with more than 95% by
volume diesel or mineral oil and five percent or less water by volume emulsified within
the oil. These muds often use asphaltic type materials suspended in the liquid for
controlling viscosity and fluid loss. True NAFs provide good hole protection,
especially in troublesome shale formations, and also increase drill string lubrication.
Not many of these muds are used today due to fire hazards.

Invert Emulsion NAFs is an oil-base mud in which the liquid phase is 6090% diesel or
mineral oil with 1040% water emulsified within the oil. An invert mud can be
formulated with mineral oil or other low environmental risk oil substitutes when
needed. In this mud, water and chemicals are used together to control viscosity and
fluid loss. Invert emulsion muds provide good hole stability and are the most
commonly used NAFs.
25
Synthetic-Based Mud are subsets of the non-aqueous fluids (NAFs) and are invert
emulsion muds that use a synthesized liquid base. Some common synthetic base
fluids include linear alpha olefins (LAO), straight internal olefins (IO), polyalphaolefins
(PAO), paraffin oils, vegetable oils, esters, and ethers. This base fluid is combined
with water, viscosifiers, weighting material and other additives to produce a stable,
useful drilling fluid. These type NAFs produce excellent wellbore stability, improved
drilling rates, good hole cleaning, excellent cuttings integrity and reduced torque. The
major benefit of these NAFs over traditional NAFs is the reduced environmental
impact of cuttings and liquid mud. Currently, the synthetic-based NAF coated drill
cutting meets U.S. offshore environmental requirements and may be discharged.
Olefin based NAFs must meet a 6.9 w/w % retained oil on cuttings (ROC) while
Ester-Based fluids must meet 9.4 w/w % ROC. These NAFs also provide additional
health and safety benefits higher flash points, lower vapor production and reduced
eye and respiratory irritation.

Effects of Fluid Selection on Solids Control/Waste Management Practices

The drilling mud is a major factor in the success of any drilling program, and the key to
any effective mud system is good solids control. Solids control techniques will vary
considerably depending on the type of mud being used. For example, with many
unweighted water-base muds, the loss of fluids along with the drilled solids may be
economically insignificant, allowing simple solids control techniques. In the case of
mud that contains expensive chemical additives and/or barite, especially oil-base or
synthetic muds, sophisticated solids control techniques must be utilized to minimize
overall costs. In addition, environmental costs of haul-off and disposal may require
sophisticated solids control techniques.

Spud Mud and Natural Mud require little treatment with solids control equipment other
than coarse mesh shaker screens and Desanders. Fluid properties are controlled
through the addition of water and commercial clays.

Lightly Treated Muds use varying degrees of mechanical solids control equipment and
are usually maintained by adding water and commercial clays. If the fluid density is
increased and or costly chemical additions are required, removal of drilled solids by
mechanical solids control equipment becomes increasingly important.
Low Solids Muds also known as Polymer Muds require sophisticated solids removal
systems. Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide (PHPA) treated muds often are difficult
to screen because this mud type can have a high funnel viscosity. Centrifuges often
are used after fine screen shakers to help maximize fine solids removal.

Calcium Treated Muds are special water-base muds, usually weighted, which have
lime or gypsum added. Calcium Treated Muds normally are used to prevent shale
formations from swelling or sloughing problems which can lead to stuck pipe or a
lost hole.

26
Silicate Treated Muds are water-base muds containing silicate from sodium or
potassium silicate sources. These muds are highly inhibitive and give the wellbore
chemical stability.

Saltwater Muds, Sea Water Muds and Saturated Salt Muds use varying degrees of
mechanical solids control equipment. Lightly treated muds require little solids control
equipment; fluid properties are often controlled through the addition of water and
commercial clays. If the fluid density is increased and/or costly chemical additions are
required, removal of drilled solids by mechanical solids control equipment becomes
increasingly important.
With all salt muds, screen blinding can occur when salt dries and cakes on the shaker
and mud conditioner screens. Fresh water may be used to clean the screens, but it
must be used very carefully because too much fresh water can upset the chemical
balance of this mud. When sea water mud is being used, only sea water should be
used to rinse or wash the screens in solids control equipment.

2.1.5 The Nature of Drilled Solids Common Terminology

Mud solids are the commercial solids added to control fluid properties and the
formation solids which are picked up while drilling. Aside from the minor quantities of
drilled solids tolerated to increase the density of unweighted muds, drilled solids are
detrimental to drilling fluid performance. They increase viscosity, density and filter
cake thickness and require dilution which increases the volume of excess mud
produced while drilling.
The unit of measurement generally used to describe the size of drilling fluid solid
particles is the micron (). A micron is one thousandth (0.001) of a millimeter, or
approximately 0.00003973 of an inch. Table 2-1 provides a list of common items and
their size in microns.

Table 2-2 Micron Size Range of Common Materials

Cement Dust (Portland) 3-100
Talcum Powder 5-50
Red Blood Corpuscles 7.5
Finger Tip Sensitivity 20
Human Sight (visible to eye) 35-40
Human Hair 17-181
Cigarette (diameter) 7520
One inch 25,400

Mud solids can range in size from less than one micron to larger than a human fist.
Their average size is less than 40 microns.
As indicated below, mud solids are classified solely on the basis of their size. Their
composition is irrelevant. A clay particle 100 in diameter is classified as sand.

27
 Table 2-3 Common Field Terminology of Particle Size

Item/Classification Particle Size Diameter in Microns

Cuttings Larger than 500
Sand 74-500
Silt 2-74
Clay Smaller than 2

It is important to note that commercial solids added to the mud system, such as barite,
can be and will be removed from the mud system solids control equipment. For
example, barite can contain up to 3% (weight) solids larger than 74 microns. If the
shale shakers are dressed with screens that remove solids 74 microns and larger, as
weight material is added to the mud system, the shakers can remove some of the
barite being added.
Solid particles of size less than 2 microns (equivalent spherical diameter) are called
colloidal solids. This definition can be found in the International Standards
Organization ISO/CD 13501, par. 3.1.17. Because of extremely small size, these
solids largely defy direct removal by mechanical devices that rely on screening or
U

gravitational forces. U

Effects of Particle Size

As they travel to the surface, drilled solids particles are continuously reduced in size by
collisions with other particles and by the grinding action of the drilling assembly.
Abrasiveness of mud solids is determined by particle shape and hardness. See
Appendix G item 20.7.3 for a listing of specific gravity and Mohs hardness for many
common mud components. Drilled solids can be round, needle shaped, angular,
platelets, spherical and cubic. Figure 2-8 illustrates the degradation of drilled solids.
Particles become less abrasive with wear as the most abrasive corners are removed
and their size is diminished. Size tends to stabilize in the silt size range at
approximately 1520 microns.

Figure 2-8. Mechanical Degradation of Drilled Solids

28
Particles smaller than 15 microns are much less abrasive than larger solids, and the
smaller-sized solids have little effect on drilling equipment. Barite particles, which are
not as hard as most drilled solids, generally are less abrasive than similarly sized
drilled solids. Other weighting materials, such as hematite, are generally harder and
more abrasive than barite.
Specific surface area, as it relates to various shapes and sizes of solids, is another
important consideration. Specific surface area refers to the surface area per unit of
weight or volume. Figure 2-9 lists examples how surface area greatly increases per
unit of mass: 1) as particle size decreases, and 2) as particles become less spherical.

Figure 2-9. Surface Area Issues

Surface area adsorbs or ties-up water. The more surface area, the more water
adsorbed. As the particle size decreases toward the colloidal size, the relative effect of
the water coating increases. The specific surface area has a pronounced effect on
viscosity. (Figure 2-10)

Bentonite Drill Solids

(Large Surface Area) (Moderate Surface Area)
Increasing Viscosity

Increasing % Solids
Figure 2-10. Effect of Specific Surface Area on Viscosity

This graph shows the effects large surface area has on viscosity; the larger the surface
area, the greater the viscosity. Formations composed of clays that easily disperse will
degrade into small particles and cause viscosity increases. These clays will have
wetter separations when removed by solids control equipment than clays that don't
disperse/degrade easily. Bentonite disperses easily into colloidal solids and adsorbs
much more water than most solids types. Hence bentonite builds viscosity at relatively
low concentrations.
29
3 ECONOMICS

3.1 Benefits of Solids Removal by Mechanical Separation

Drilling fluid is unavoidably contaminated with drilled solids during the drilling process.
It is impossible to prevent their becoming part of the drilling fluid. Solids control is one
of the most important phases of mud control and it is a constant issue, every day, on
every well. It is much less expensive to remove solids mechanically than to control
them with dilution. The benefits of solids removal by mechanical separation are
twofold; 1) reduced total mud solids and 2) reduced dilution requirements.

3.1.1 Reduced Total Solids

The presence of large amounts of drilled solids in a drilling mud always increases
drilling cost. Drilled solids decrease the life of pump parts and decreases drilling
efficiency by interrupting drilling for pump repairs. Continued recirculation of drilled
solids causes them to be reduced in size and increases their negative effects on
drilling performance. The greatest impact of excessive mud solids is seen in reduced
ROP.

The higher the drilled solids content, the lower the penetration rate. If mud solids are
not properly controlled, the muds density can increase above its desired level and the
mud can get so thick that it becomes extremely difficult or even impossible to pump.
Since the earliest days of the oilfield, drillers have been trying to combat high solids
content through the use of settling pits. However, some drilled solids are so finely
ground that they remain in suspension. This results in increased mud viscosity and
gel strength which, in turn results in larger particles also remaining in suspension.
Removing cuttings through settling alone is ineffective.
Solids control equipment was developed in order to more effectively remove unwanted
solids from drilling mud. A variety of devices (which will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 4 of this handbook) are available which mechanically separate the solids
particles from the liquid phase of the mud. Thus the driller, depending on the
particular situation and equipment used, can regulate to a fine degree the amount and
size of solids particles that are removed from or tolerated in the mud.
Effective use of a well-designed solids control system with adequate fluid handling
capacity reduces the cost of maintaining mud properties at desired levels, reduces the
environmental impact of drilling, improves penetration rates, improves hole conditions
and thereby reduces the risk of stuck pipe and extends the life of bits and pump parts.

3.1.2 Reduced Dilution Requirements

The usual method of coping with increasing drilled solids content is dilution, reducing
the concentration of solids by additional liquid. This is a costly process because it
requires the use of additional drilling fluid additives to convert the added liquid to
drilling fluid with the desired properties.

30
 The higher the drilled solids content, the greater the dilution required. For example,
the addition of one barrel of drilled solids to a fluid in which drilled solids content is
being controlled at 5% by volume requires 20 barrels of dilution. If drilled solids
content were being controlled at 8%, the required dilution would be 11.5 barrels. In
the case of an oil-based mud, oil must be used for dilution which can become
extremely expensive.
The most effective approach is to use mechanical solids control equipment to remove
as much of the drilled solids as possible and then treat what is left with appropriate
amounts of chemicals and dilution.
The Mud Dilution Chart (Table 3-1) can be used to approximate the amount of dilution
that can be eliminated by use of solids removal equipment. For example, suppose a
drilling engineer required that no more than 5% solids were to be maintained in an
unweighted mud. The chart shows that at 5%, each barrel of mud would contain
about 45 pounds of drilled solids. If for example, the solids control equipment on a
given rig was removing 1 ton (2000 lbs) of solids per hour, then the equipment would
save 2000 45 = 44.4 barrels of dilution per hour. If the chemicals and additives were
worth only $10 per barrel, the mud treating costs would be reduced by approximately
$444 per hour! Over the life of a drilling operation, $444 per hour is a very significant
cost savings.
Table 3-1. Mud Dilution Chart

Mud Weight (lb/gal) Drilled Solids Pounds of 2.6 Specific Barrels of Water Required to
to be Maintained % by volume Gravity Solids per Barrel dilute one ton of Solids and
of Mud Maintain Mud Weight

8.5 1.2 11 183

8.6 2.0 18 113
8.7 2.7 25 81
8.8 3.5 31 64
8.9 4.2 38 52
9 5.0 45 44
9.1 5.7 52 39
9.2 6.5 59 34
9.3 7.2 66 31
9.4 8.0 72 28
9.5 8.7 79 25
9.6 9.5 86 23
9.7 10.2 93 22
9.8 11.0 100 20
9.9 11.7 106 19
10 12.4 113 18

31
The same procedure can be used to show reduced dilution requirement in weighted
mud. When heavily weighted muds (1618 lbs/gal) are being used, drilling usually
proceeds more slowly and less drilled solids are removed per hour. However, if
approximately 5% drilled solids are allowed in the mud, each barrel of mud still contains
roughly 45 pounds of drilled solids. Therefore, if the solids control equipment were
removing even a pencil-sized stream of solids which would amount to 45 pounds per
hour, then 45 44.4 1 barrel of dilution saved per hour. With the high cost weighted
mud (usually a minimum of $40+ per barrel for lightly treated water-based mud), the
solids removal equipment would be saving at least $40 per hour. Over an average
operation of 20 hours per day, this represents a savings of approximately $800 per day.
If the maximum amount of drilled solids were reduced to 3%, the cost savings would
double to approximately $1600 per day.

The expense of the dilution liquid is a major factor in evaluating the advantages of
reduced dilution requirements. Oil obviously is much more costly than water, but water
can be expensive if it has to be trucked to a remote drilling location.

The disposal of waste mud often is a very significant factor in total dilution costs.
Reliance on dilution to control solids content can result in the addition of so much extra
liquid that the volume of mud exceeds the capacity of the active mud pits. When this
happens, whole mud must be discarded into waste or reserve pits.

Appropriate use of solids control equipment in place of dilution lessens the volume of
the mud system and can eliminate the need to discard excess mud and permit the use
of smaller surface systems. Under some conditions, solids control equipment virtually
can eliminate waste liquid mud through the use of closed mud systems. In these
systems the liquid phase is recycled, which can be extremely beneficial with costly oil-
base or polymer fluids, especially offshore or where environmental concerns prohibit
disposal of liquid waste. In these cases the cost of hauling away waste away for
disposal also is eliminated.

See Appendix C for more examples of how solids control equipment can save money.

32
4 SEPARATION BASICS
The goal of modern solids control systems is to reduce overall well costs by prompt,
efficient removal of drilled solids while minimizing the loss of liquids. Since the size of
drilled solids varies greatly from cuttings larger than one inch in diameter to sub-
micron size several types of equipment can be used, depending upon the specific
situation. The fundamental purpose for solids removal equipment is to remove as
many unwanted drilled solids as possible. The end result is reduced mud and waste
disposal costs.
To reach this goal, each piece of equipment will remove a portion of the solids, either
by screening or centrifugal force. Each type of equipment is designed to separate
particles of a particular size range or a specific mass from the liquid. Also to operate
effectively, each type of equipment must be sized, installed, operated and maintained
properly.
The efficiency of the solids control system can be evaluated by comparing the final
volume of mud accumulated while using the equipment, to the volume of mud that
would result if drilled solids were controlled only by dilution. That is, final volume with
solids control equipment/final volume if no solids control equipment X 100 = %
efficiency.
The efficiency of solids removal equipment and/or systems used can be evaluated in
two ways:

1. Efficiency of drilled solids removal

2. Efficiency of liquid conservation

The greater percentage of drilled solids removed, the higher the removal efficiency.
For example, desilters can remove large quantities of solids but at the cost of
significant losses of liquid; sometimes 80% of the volume of the waste stream will be
liquid. By contrast, a properly operating shale shaker or centrifuge typically removes 1
barrel or less of mud with each barrel of solids (about 50% liquid waste), and this
depends on the size of the drilled cuttings. In some instances the solids discharged
from a linear motion shaker will contain less than 20% liquid (volume %).
Most solids control systems include several types of equipment connected in a series.
Each stage of processing removes finer particles than the stage preceding it and its
effectiveness depends upon the proper functioning of the upstream equipment.
Gumbo Box (primarily for offshore use)
Mud Gas Separator
Shale Shakers (could include scalping shakers)
Degasser
Mud Cleaner/Conditioner
Desander
Desilter
Centrifuge(s)

33
Some drilling situations require the use of a device called the Gumbo Box. A Gumbo
Box removes sticky clays or gumbo by utilizing a moving screen or chain rather than a
vibrating screen. The moving screen or chain filters the mud and separates the sticky
clays or gumbo from the mud as the mud returns form the wellbore. The Gumbo Box
is primarily used on offshore rigs and especially in the Gulf of Mexico where the
gumbo formations are prevalent.
When drill gas is encountered, the rig will divert the mud flow from the wellbore to a
mud gas separator. The mud gas separator has no moving parts and removes
entrained gas. The gas is separated and sent to a flare for safe disposal away from
the rig. The mud is then sent to a Gumbo Box or to the shale shakers for further
processing.
The next piece of equipment used to separate solids from the mud is usually a device
which uses a vibrating screen called a Shale Shaker. This device uses mechanical
energy to separate cuttings larger than the screen openings from the mud. The
separated cuttings carry an adhered film of mud. In the mud adhering to the solids are
fines that are eliminated from the system as the cuttings are discharged. The more
retention time of the mud on the screens the lower the concentration of mud adhering
to the drill solids. Screens should always be sized to prevent excessive losses of
whole mud over the end of the shaker. NOV recommends selecting screens so that
the fluid flow covers 75%-80% of the screening areas, e.g. on a four-panel shale
shaker one would select the size of screens so that three screens are covered with
fluid. By using this recommendation, the fluid end point and solids separation point
would occur at the end of the third screen. The last screen would be used to remove
excess mud from the solids before they are discharged from the shaker. Some rigs
use as many as 10 shale shakers. The optimum number of shakers depends on the
rate of penetration, hole size and flow rates encountered.
Hydrocyclones are used to remove the sand-sized and silt-sized drill solids that were
not removed by the shale shakers. Hydrocyclones with a cone diameter of 6 to 12
inches are called Desanders and those with a cone diameter of less than 6 inches are
called Desilters. These units should normally be sized to process 125% of the
maximum flow rate used for drilling. Sometimes a screen is used below a
hydrocyclone to dry-out the cones discharge to minimize the loss of fluid. The
hydrocyclone and vibrating screen device is called a mud cleaner (mud cleaner =
hydrocyclones + orbited motion shakers) or mud conditioner (mud conditioners =
hydrocyclones + linear motion shaker). If a location must be pit-less, then the
screens are essential to minimize the liquid waste volume. In the late 90s many rigs
let the desanders and desilters sit idle due to the use of better shale shakers and
better screens. As stated earlier, hydrocyclones are sized to handle 125% of the
maximum drilling fluid flow but many rigs will have only 50% of the cones operating
properly at any given time. Many rig hands ignore the cyclones. They dont service
them, and without all the cones working properly, solids are left in the mud to
potentially become fines later.
Centrifuges are normally used to separate light solids from heavy solids. A centrifuge
can be used to remove drill solids from an un-weighted mud. This operation has the
centrifuge running at high speed removing as much solids as possible to keep the mud
weight as low as possible. The solids are discharged and the liquid is returned to the
mud system. Sometimes we enhance this process with chemicals and we call this
dewatering.
34
When a drilling fluid has a liquid phase that is expensive, e.g. non aqueous fluids
(synthetic-based mud), one can process the system with two centrifuges. One centrifuge
would be used to separate the heavy dense solids (weight material) from the liquid of the
mud, returning the heavy dense solids (weight material) to the mud system. The effluent
from the first would be stored in a tank and then processed by a second centrifuge
removing solids and returning the liquid to the mud system. This doesnt remove the
colloidal fines but does remove solids that might degrade into colloidal fines over time.
The best way to reduce colloidal fines is to process a small portion of the mud system
discarding the effluent and keeping the heavy dense solids (weight material). The effluent
discarded then would be replaced with clean base fluid. This process reduces the
colloidal content and brings the rheological properties back into reasonable ranges.

4.1.1 Particle Size and Equipment Used to Measure

Modern drilling rigs may be equipped with many different types of mechanical solids
removal devices depending on the application and requirements of a particular project.
Each device has a specific function in the solids control process. Equipment
commonly utilized and the effective removal range for shown in the graphic Particle
Diameter and Sequential Solids Removal. (Figure 4-1)

Particle size analysis can be done by screening solids (normally done for larger solids;
700 microns and larger) or using electronic devices that measure solids from 700
microns to less than one micron.

When screening solids one could use either of two types of sieves as shown in
Appendix M; US Sieve Series or the Tyler Standard Sieve Series. Both sets of sieve
will work. A shaking device is use to help separate solids at each sieve. After
separating the solids, each size of solid in each sieve is weighed and the distribution
of the solids by size is put into a table for review.

There are several providers of electronic devices for measuring the small end of the
particle size spectrum encountered while drilling (700 microns to less than one
micron). For example a typical particle size analysis (PSA) one can review the data
shown in Appendix J, 20.10.2 & 20.10.3. The centrifuge PSA data is shown for the
centrifuge feed and effluent. It is obvious the centrifuge is removing solids based on
the comparison of the two data sheets.

35
Figure 4-1.Particle Diameter and Sequential Solids Removal

36
4.2 Separation by Settling
Using vibrating screens to remove drilled solids from mud uses only one characteristic
of solids particles - their size. Another factor which affects separation is particle density.
Solids control devices which take advantage of particle size and particle density speed
up the settling process by application of centrifugal force.
These devices utilize Stokes Law as the basis for their operation. Stokes Law defines
the relationship of factors governing the settling velocity of particles in a liquid. Larger,
heavier particles settle more rapidly in less dense and viscous fluids and increased
acceleration speeds up the process.

Figure 4-2. Settling Pit

Settling pits, (Figure 4-2) hydrocyclones, and centrifuges all utilize this principle in their
operation. Settling pits use the force of gravity to separate solids. The larger and/or
heavier a solid is, the faster it will settle through the fluid in a settling pit. The process
can be accelerated only by reducing the viscosity of the fluid in the pit or by
flocculating the solids, causing them to chemically clump together.
Settling pits often are large and require closure or remediation when drilling is
completed. The reduction in waste mud achieved through efficient solids control
greatly reduces the waste fluid remediation costs.
A sand trap is a settling tank usually the first compartment of the first pit in the mud
system. The shale shakers would normally sit on top of the sand trap and the shakers
would discharge into the sand trap. After the mud goes through a Gumbo Box (if
used), the mud gas separator (if used) and the shale shakers it enters the sand trap.
The sand trap is a compartment that is not agitated. The sand trap allows large solids
to settle out of the mud; solids that might have by-passed the shaker screens or solids
that passed through a torn screen. The sand trap removes the large solids that might
plug cyclones or other downstream equipment.

37
The fluid overflows at the top of the sand trap tank into the next compartment, which
should be the degasser suction pit. The sand trap should have a slanted bottom and a
quick-opening, quick-closing dump valve or gate so that settled solids can be
discharged with minimum mud loss. If one uses an inexpensive drilling fluid along with
poor performing shakers, e.g. orbital shakers, in an area where waste volume is not a
critical issue, the sand trap normally will be dumped often -- once or twice an hour.
This is especially true when drilling surface hole on a land well.

4.2.1 Stokes Law

Figure 4.3. Stokes Law

Stokes law (Figure 4-3) was developed for determining the settling rate of spherical
particles in liquid. The modified equation is shown above and the original equation is
shown below:
F = 6R
Where
F = the force applied to the sphere by the liquid, in dynes
= the fluid viscosity, Poise
= the particle velocity, cm/sec
R = is the radius of the sphere, cm

38
4.3 Separation by Size

4.3.1 Separation by Filtration

NOV FluidControl is a leading provider of oilfield filtration equipment and services,
specializing in the treatment and analysis of wellbore clean-up, completion fluids, gravel-
pack carrier fluids, work-over fluids, brines and produced water treatment. Provided with
the proper information, NOVs staff of filtration specialists can work with customers to
develop and implement a successful filtration project plan. Such information includes:
Fluid type
Flow rates
Types of contaminant
Output requirements (type of testing required)
o NTU (nephelometric turbidity units)
o TSS (total suspended solids)
o TOG/TPH (total oil & grease or total petroleum hydrocarbons)

NOV supplies duplex cartridge and bag filter units that can handle flow rates of 42 to 840
gallons per minute (159-3180 liter/min). Cartridge elements with nominal and absolute
ratings range from 1-100 microns can provide solids removal efficiencies of up to 99.9%.
Diatomaceous earth (DE) filtration units which are used for higher solids laden fluids also
are available and can handle flow rates from 84 to 630 gallons per minute (318-2386
liter/min) per unit. DE units are the industry standard for removing solid particulate from
completion fluids. Vertical-pressure leaf filters and filter press DE units are also available.

39
 Figure 4-4. Vertical Pressure Leaf Filter

Table 4-1 Vertical Pressure Leaf Filter - Features and Benefits

Features
Closed system
Quick wash down of leafs (< 10
minutes)
Semi-automatic cleaning without
opening
Laminar flow through filter vessel
High through puts, low NTU levels
Small footprint
All wetted parts stainless steel 316L
Large filtration area systems
Pneumatically-controlled
Benefits
Provides minimum-risk operation
Minimizes downtime
Eliminates labor-intensive work
Offers high efficiency
Reduces the use of polish filters
Minimizes required deck space
Minimizes rust & therefore reduces
maintenance
Effective in treating heavy brines
Facilitates easy operation

40
 Figure 4-5. Filter Press

Table 4-2 Filter Press - Features and Benefits

Features
Recessed plates (with gasket)
Pneumatic/hydraulic closing system
Unique filter cloth design
All wetted parts stainless steel and
Polypropylene
Uses powdered filter media
Large filtration area systems
Closed system with drip-free construction
Benefits
Provides drip-free plates & system
Offers automatic opening and
closing of unit
Provides a low NTU effluent and
high flow rate
Minimizes rust and reduces
maintenance
Produces a clear filtrate
Effective in treating heavy brines at
high throughputs
Delivers increased safety and
environment friendliness

41
 Figure 4.6. Duplex Filter

Table 4.3. Duplex Filter - Features and Benefits

Features
Individual, Serial or parallel operation
Stainless steel 316L construction
Small footprint
High flow rate achievable
Utilization of swing bolts and nuts
All valves are four (4) inches in
diameter
Benefits
Provides flexible service, as
needed
Affords less maintenance
Minimizes required deck space
Suitable for seawater filtration
during injection jobs
Facilitates quick opening of unit
Provides easy operation from the
front of the unit

42
4.3.2 Separation by Screening
One method of removing solids from drilling mud is to pass the mud through a
vibrating screen and removing solids larger than the screen openings. Particles too
large to pass through the screen are separated from the mud and discharged off the
screen surface by the vibration of the shaker. Basically, a screen acts as a filtering
device. The shale shaker uses G-force, in the form of some type motion, to remove
the separated solids from the screen.
The purpose of vibrating the screen in solids control equipment is to transport the
cuttings off the screen and increase the liquid handling capacity of the screen. This
vibrating action causes rapid separation of whole mud from the oversized solids,
reducing the amount of mud lost with the solids.
For maximum efficiency, the solids on the screen surface must travel in a
predetermined pattern - spiral, elliptical, orbital or linear motion - in order to increase
particle separation efficiency and reduce blockage of the screen openings. The
combined effect of the vibration and the screen surfaces result in the separation and
removal of oversized particles from drilling mud.

4.3.3 API Screen Designation

The American Petroleum Institute (API), comprised of operators and service
companies, prepared a document that outlined how screens should be tested and
labelled for oilfield use. This new document, API Recommended Practice (RP) 13C,
was adopted internationally and became ISO 13501 in December 1, 2005.
All screens that are API RP 13C (ISO 13501) compliant must follow a specific testing
and labelling procedure. The following items are included on the new screen labelling
protocol in this specific order:
1) API Screen Designation (this text must be twice the size of any other text on the
label)
2) Opening size in parenthesis
3) Conductance
4) Non-blanked area
5) Conforms to API RP13C
6) Manufacturers name
7) Manufactures designation
8) Country of origin
9) Lot, date, order number
10) Bar code
An example of the screen label is shown in Figure 4-7.

Figure 4-7. Screen Label

43
NOV manufactures and markets API RP 13C/ISO 13501 compliant screens. API
screen testing is conducted in-house at the Conroe manufacturing facility.
The API requires three test data on the screen label, screen cut point, conductance
and non-blanked area.
The screen cut point is expressed as the API Screen Number or API Screen
Designation. The API screen number designation is empirically determined by the test
procedures described in Clause 9 of API RP 13C (Table 4-4). This method
determines the D100 separation potential of a given screen compared to the
separation potential of an equivalent ASTM test sieve, using aluminum oxide test
media on a Tyler RoTap. The use of the term D100 Separation Potential" allows for
performance variations due to diverse factors including solids loading, fluid viscosity,
shaker dynamics, drilled solid consistency and shape. D100 Separation Potential is a
function of screen composition and construction only.
Table 4-4. API RP 13C Screen Designation
D100 Separation and API Screen Number
D100 Separation, m API screen # D100 Separation, m API screen #
> 3075,0 to 3675,0 API 6 > 231,0 to 275,0 API 60
> 2580,0 to 3075,0 API 7 > 196,0 to 231,0 API 70
> 2180,0 to 2580,0 API 8 > 165,0 to 196,0 API 80
> 1850,0 to 2180,0 API 10 > 137,5 to 165,0 API 100
> 1550,0 to 1850,0 API 12 > 116,5 to 137,5 API 120
> 1290,0 to 1550,0 API 14 > 98,0 to 116,5 API 140
> 1090,0 to 1290,0 API 16 > 82,5 to 98,0 API 170
> 925,0 to 1090,0 API 18 > 69,0 to 82,5 API 200
> 780,0 to 925,0 API 20 > 58,0 to 69,0 API 230
> 655,0 to 780,0 API 25 > 49,0 to 58,0 API 270
> 550,0 to 655,0 API 30 > 41,5 to 49,0 API 325
> 462,5 to 550,0 API 35 > 35,0 to 41,5 API 400
> 390,0 to 462,5 API 40 > 28,5 to 35,0 API 450
> 327,5 to 390,0 API 45 > 22,5 to 28,5 API 500
> 275,0 to 327,5 API 50 > 18,5 to 22,5 API 635
Conductance, measured in units of kilodarcies/mm, defines the ability of a Newtonian
fluid to flow through a unit area of screen in laminar flow with all other variables being
equal. The procedure is described in Clause 8 in API RP 13C. Conductance is only
one variable among many that determines the actual "flow capacity" of a given screen
in field use. Flow capacity of a shaker screen is the rate at which a screen can
process drilling fluid and drilled solids. It is a function of many variables including: a)
shale shaker configuration; b) shale shaker design; c) shale shaker motion; d) drilling
fluid rheology; e) solids loading; f) particle size distribution; g) screen opening size; h)
screen construction.
Screens having an API designation of < 40 are not tested for conductance because
the screens are too porous to contain a constant head of oil for measuring the
conductance.
The non-blanked area of a screen describes the net unblocked area in square feet or
square meters available for the passage of fluid; generally, more un-blanked area, the
better.
For specific details of the above test procedures please refer to API RP 13C.
44
4.3.4 Screening Surfaces

Screening surfaces used in solids control equipment are generally made of woven
wire screen cloth in many different sizes and shapes.

Screens may be constructed with one or more layers. Non-layered screens have a
single layer, fine-mesh, screen cloth (reinforced by coarser backing cloth) mounted on
a screen panel. These screens have openings that are regular in size and shape.
Layered screens have two or more fine mesh screen cloths, usually of different mesh
(reinforced by coarser backing cloth), mounted on a screen panel. These screens
have openings that vary greatly in size and shape.

To increase screen life, especially in the API 120 - 200 screens, manufacturers have
incorporated two design changes:

1. A coarse backing screen to support fine screens

2. Pretension screen panels.

The most important advance has been the development of pretension screen panels.
Similar panels have been used on mud cleaners since their introduction, but earlier
shakers did not possess the engineering design to allow their use successfully. With the
advent of modern, linear-motion shakers, pretension screen panels have extended screen
life and justified the use of fine (API 200 or finer) screens on the shale shakers at the
flowline. The panels consist of a fine screen layer and a coarse backing cloth layer
bonded to a support grid. (Figure 4-8) The screen cloths are pulled tight, or tensioned, in
both directions during the fabrication process for proper tension on every screen. The
pretension panel is then held in place in the bed of the shaker.

Figure 4-8. Pretension Screen

45
Fine screens may be reinforced with one or more coarse backing screens. The cloth
also may be bonded to a thin, perforated metal sheet. This extra backing protects the
fine screen from being damaged and provides additional support for heavy solids
loads. The screens equipped with a perforated plate may be available with several
size options for the perforation to allow improved performance for a given situation.

Most manufacturers limit themselves to one support grid opening size to reduce inventory
and production costs. The opening size is typically 1 for maximum mechanical support.
NOV provides screen panels with a variety of openings to allow rig personnel to choose
the desired mechanical support and a total open area for their application.

Mesh is defined as the number of openings per linear inch. Mesh can be measured by
starting at the center of one wire and counting the number of openings to a point one inch
away. This figure shows an eight (8) mesh screen. The industry also uses rectangular
mesh screens, which has made counting the mesh sizes more complicated. Figure 4-10
shows two screens having the same mesh count, 8-mesh screens.

The API stopped using the word mesh in 2005 and started using the API screen numbers
(designation) as discussed in ISO 13501, first edition, 2005-12-01 and API RP 13C, third
edition, December 2004.

Figure 4-9. 8-Mesh Screen

46
Screen Cloth
There are several types of wire cloth used in the manufacture of oilfield screens. The
most common of these are Market Grade and Tensile Bolting. Both of these are
square mesh weaves, differing in the diameter of wire used in their construction.
Market Grade cloths use larger diameter wires and are more resistant to abrasion and
wear. Tensile Bolting cloths use smaller diameter wire and have a higher
conductance. Since screen selection is a compromise between screen life, liquid
capacity and particle separation, both types are widely used.

Screen Opening Size versus Mesh Count

Size of opening is the distance between wires in the screen cloth and is usually
measured in fractions of an inch or microns. Mesh count is the number of openings
per inch starting at the center of one wire and going out one inch. The figure below
shows two screens having the same mesh count, 8-mesh screens.

Figure 4.10. Two 8-Mesh Screen

Screens of the same mesh may have different sized openings depending on the diameter
of the wire used to weave the screen cloth. Smaller diameter wire results in larger screen
openings, with larger particles passing through the screen. The larger the diameter of the
wire having the same mesh, the smaller the particles that will pass through the screen.
Also, normally the larger the diameter of the wire used in the weaving process, the longer
the screen cloth will last. As stated earlier, in 2005 the industry stopped using mesh as a
means of describing a screen.

47
Shape of Opening
The shape of the opening is determined by the screens construction. Screens with the
same number of horizontal and vertical wires per inch produce square-shaped openings
and are referred to as square mesh screens. Screens with a different number of
horizontal and vertical wires per inch produce oblong - or rectangular - shaped openings
and are referred to as rectangular (or oblong) mesh screens. This is illustrated in Figure
4-11.
Screen openings and mesh are not discussed in comparing screens; instead
comparisons are based on conductance as described in API RP 13C.

Figure 4-11. Shape of Opening

Screen Plugging and Blinding

Screen plugging and blinding, while present to some degree on shale shakers fitted
with coarser screens, is most frequently a problem with fine screen shakers. If the
screen openings plug with near-size particles or if the openings become coated over,
the throughput capacity of the screen can be drastically reduced and flooding (loss of
whole mud) of the screen may occur.
Plugging can often be controlled by adjusting the vibratory motion or deck angle, but it
normally is a temporary remedy. Changing to a finer screen often presents a better,
more permanent solution.
Screen blinding can be caused by sticky formation solids, un-hydrated polymers
added to the mud system; or grease or other substances that block screen openings.
Screen blinding requires that the screens be washed to open the screen openings.
This cleaning may be accomplished with a high pressure water hose or, in the case of
plugging caused by oil, grease, pipe dope, asphalt or oil-base mud, using a solvent to
free the plug. Stiff brushes should not be used to clean fine screens because of the
fragility of the screen cloth.

48
When plugging or blinding occurs, whole mud losses can result and something must
be done quickly. Screen washing should be tried first. If this doesnt solve the
problem, the use of finer screens should be tried.

The life of fine screens varies widely. It can be maximized by following these general
precautions:

Keep screens clean

Handle screen carefully when installing

Keep screens properly tensioned

Do not overload screens

Do not operate dry shakers

Screen Capacity

Screen capacity, or the volume of mud which will pass through a screen without
flooding, varies widely depending on shaker model and drilling conditions. Drilling
rate, mud type, weight, viscosity, bit type, formation type and screen mesh all affect
capacity to some degree. Drilling rate affects screen capacity because increases in
drill solids loading, reduces the effective screen area available for mud throughput.
The conductance of the screen in use also is directly related to shaker capacity
because, in general (but not always), the lower the conductance, the lower the
throughput. Increased viscosity, usually associated with an increase in percent solids
by volume and/or increase in mud weight, has a markedly adverse effect on screen
capacity. As a general rule, for every 10% increase in viscosity, there is a 25%
decrease in throughput capacity.

Mud type also has an effect on screen capacity. Higher viscosities generally
associated with oil-base and invert emulsion mud usually result in lower screen
throughput than would be possible with a water-base mud (WBM) of the same mud
weight. Some mud components, such as polymers in WBM, also have an adverse
effect on screen capacity. As a result, no fine screen can offer a standard throughput
for all operating conditions.

Due to the many factors involved in drilling conditions, mud characteristics and
features of certain models, screen handling capacities can range from 50 to 800 gpm.
Multiple units, most commonly dual or triple units, are used for higher circulation rates.
Cascade shaker arrangements, with coarse-screened scalping shakers installed
upstream of the fine screen shakers, also can increase throughput.

49
Three-Dimensional Screen Panels

Three-dimensional screen panels were developed to increase screen capacity

without increasing the size or number of shale shakers. These corrugated
shaker screens:

Provide more screen area if the screens are flooded

Should always be flooded to realize full benefit of handling capacity
Can plug easily on the up and down slope of the screens corrugations

3-D screen panels increase the usable screen area of a screen panel by
corrugating the screen surface, similar to the surface of a pleated air filter or oil
filter. 3-D screen panels are most effective when installed as the submerged,
feed-end screen on a linear-motion shaker to take full advantage of the additional
screen area. Past the fluid end point, a three-dimensional screen tends to
channel the drilled solids and increase solids bed depth and the amount of
liquid carried off the screen surface. Using a flat screen at the discharge end of
the shaker eliminates channeling, increases cuttings dryness and decreases fluid
loss.

Standardization
The American Petroleum Institute (API) approved the recommended practice
(RP) 13C, third edition December 2004 for shale shaker screens used in the oil
field. The API RP 13C has an ISO equivalent, ISO 13501, first edition 2005-12-
01. NOV manufactures and markets API RP 13C compliant screens for the oil
industry.

50
5 GUMBO SEPARATORS
A Gumbo Chain (Figure 5-1) is recommended as the first step in drilled solids
removal especially where young unconsolidated formations are present such as in the
Gulf of Mexico.
The NOV Gumbo Chain can process high volumes of drilling fluid while removing
gumbo and sticky clays that would blind rig shakers. The optional integrated flow
divider can feed up to eight shakers from one Gumbo Chain, eliminating additional
equipment and allowing for a compact instillation. The Gumbo Chain may be easily
bypassed. The Gumbo Chain can be fitted various sized chain opening in accord with
the customers requirements. The units can be single or dual with various sized chain
openings, in accord with the customer's requirements, and can handle from 1500 to
3800 gallons per minute.

Figure 5-1. Gumbo Separator

Figure 5-2. 1 Chain

Figure 5-3. Six (6) Mesh Chain/Screen

51
6 SHALE SHAKERS

6.1 Introduction

The most important solids control piece of equipment is the shale shaker. Without
proper screening of the drilling fluid, reduced efficiency and effectiveness of
downstream solids control equipment on the rig is almost a certainty.

The shale shaker, in various forms, has played a prominent role in oilfield solids
control schemes for decades. Shakers have evolved from small, relatively simple
devices capable of running only the coarsest screens, to the models of today.
Modern, high-performance shakers are able to use API 150 screens or finer while
drilling top hole.

The evolutionary process has taken us through four distinct eras of shale shaker
technology and performance. (Figure 6-1)

Figure 6-1. Shale Shakers

52
 These eras of oilfield screening development may be defined by the types of motion
produced by the machines:
Elliptical, unbalanced design
Circular, balanced design.
Linear, straight-line design
Elliptical, balanced and tuned
The unbalanced (unbalanced means the vibratory motion is not consistent throughout
the bed of the shaker) elliptical motion machines have a downward slope. (Figure 6-2)
This slope is required to properly transport cuttings across the screen and off the
discharge end. This downward slope reduces fluid retention time and limits the
capacity of this design. Optimum screening with these types of shakers is usually in
the API 30 to 40 screens (400600 micron) range.

Figure 6-2. Elliptical Unbalanced Motion

The next generation of machine, introduced in the late 1960s and early 1970s,
produces a balanced, or circular, motion. (Figure 6-3) The consistent, circular vibration
allows adequate solids transport with the basket in a flat, horizontal orientation. This
design often incorporates multiple decks to split the solids load and to allow finer API
screens, such as API 80 to 100 (137196 micron) screens.

Figure 6-3. Circular Motion

The linear or straight-line motion shakers are some of the best shakers in the oilfield.
Linear motion (Figure 6-4) is developed by a pair of eccentric shafts rotating in opposite
directions. Linear motion provides superior cuttings conveyance and is able to operate
at an uphill slope to provide improved liquid retention. Better conveyance and longer
fluid retention allow the use of API 200 (74 microns) screens while drilling upper hole.

Figure 6-4. Linear Motion

53
The balanced elliptical and tuned elliptical shakers are the latest improvements in
shale shakers. The elliptical and tuned motion gently clears the screen of solids and
allows for a flat or slightly inclined bed. The VSM 300 shaker was the first balance
elliptical shaker on the market.
Today, shale shakers typically are separated into two categories: Rig Shakers and
Fine Screen Shakers.

Rig Shakers
The rig shaker is the simpler of two types of shale shakers. A rig shaker (also called
Primary Shale Shaker or Coarse Screen Shaker) is the most common type of solids
control equipment found on drilling rigs. Unless it is replaced by a fine screen shaker, the
rig shaker should be the first piece of solids control equipment that the mud flows through
after coming out of the hole. It is usually inexpensive to operate and simple to maintain.

Figure 6-5. Standard Rig Shaker

Standard rig shakers (Figure 6-5) generally have certain characteristics in common:
Single rectangular screening surface usually about 4 x 5 (1.2 meter x
1.5 meter) in size. Some designs have utilized dual screens, dual decks
and dual units in parallel to provide more efficient solids separation and
greater throughput. Depending on the particular unit and screen used,
capacity of rig shakers can vary from 1001600 gpm (379-6056
liter/min).
A low-thrust horizontal vibrator mechanism, using eccentric weights
mounted above, or central to, the screen basket.
Vibration supports to isolate the screen basket from its skid.
Skid with built-in mud box (sometimes called a possum belly) and a
bypass mechanism.
Method of tensioning screen sections.
Rig shakers are generally adequate for top-hole drilling and for shallow and
intermediate depth holes when backed up by other solids control equipment like
Desanders, Desilters and a Centrifuge. NOV still markets the Brandt Tandem and
Standard shakers for selected projects.
Screen sizes commonly used with rig shakers range from API screen 10 to 45 (2071
to 370.5 . Figure 6-6 shows example curves of the particle sizes separated by rig
shakers using coarse screens. Lets focus on one screen size on the graph and
discuss what the graph tells us. If we select the API 10 screen, the one to the far right,
we can see that the screen removes all solids (100%) larger than about 2071 microns.
The screen will remove about 50% of solids that are about 1100 microns in size.
54
 Figure 6-6. Screens Used on Rig Shakers

A typical solid separation graph for an API 70 screen used in the field with a water-
based mud is shown in Figure 6-7. This graph will be used to explain how graphs are
read.
The y-axis indicates the percentage of the solid particles removed by the
screen. The separation curve shows that all particles larger than 212 microns
() are removed (refer to the Figure). A vertical line drawn, or imagined, from
the point where the graphed line crosses a horizontal line from the 100% point
on the y-axis intersects the horizontal x-axis, which represents particle size, at
212 .
At 90% y-axis, 90% of all particles are removed and 10% remain in the mud.
Following the same procedure as discussed above, we start at the left at 90%
on the y-axis, and draw, or imagine, a horizontal line to the right to a point
where it intersects the graphed line. A vertical line drawn from that point to the
x-axis indicates that 90% of the 58 particles are removed and 10% are left in
the mud. Similarly, the graph indicates that half of the 35 particles are
removed and 50% are retained.

55
 Reading the Screen Graph
100%
100% of solids > 212 are removed

90% 90% of solids 58 are removed

80%
% Particles Removed by Screen
70%

60%

50% 50% of solids 35 are removed

API 70

40%

30%

20% 20% of solids 25 are removed

10%

0%
1 10 100 1000 10000
Particle Size (microns)

Figure 6-7. Reading a Particle Size Analysis (PSA) Graph

Fine screen shakers are preferred for deeper holes and for expensive mud systems.
These shakers can utilize coarse to fine screens, ranging from API 40 to API 450. During
normal drilling operations the screen selection for a fine screen shaker will be in the range
of API 100 to API 200. When a weighted mud is used, care may be required to avoid the
removal of too much barite. API specifications allow as much as 3% of the weight material
to be over 74 microns. The loss of this material may be preferable to the retention of
more drilled solids resulting from a change to screens with larger openings. Barite ground
finer is available at additional costs, but limiting the larger particles unavoidably increases
the concentration of smaller particles which can pose viscosity and other problems.

Another example of reading a PSA is shown in Appendix J 19.10.2. A centrifuge

processing mud was reducing the mud weight from 8.9 ppg (feed) to 8.6 ppg (effluent).
By the reduction in mud weight one knew the centrifuge was working. Using the PSA
data one can evaluate the size of solids being removed. The example shows the PSA for
the feed and the effluent. Comparing the two PSAs one can conclude that about 25% of
the solids larger than 15.56 microns were removed by the centrifuge.

56
 Figure 6-8. King Cobra and VSM Shakers

Fine Screen Shakers

The fine screen shaker is the more complex and versatile of the two types of shale
shakers. Fine screen shakers are designed for greatly improved vibratory efficiency
compared to that of simple rig shakers. They vibrate in linear or elliptical motion in a
manner that extends screen life with finer screens. Fine screen shakers are versatile
pieces of equipment that can be used with any mud. The chart below (Figure 6-9)
shows typical separation curves for several commonly used screens.

Screens Used on Fine Screen Shakers

100% API 100

90%

80%
% Particles Removed by Screen

API 120
70%

60%

50%
API 140

40%

30%

API 170
20%

10%

0%
10 100 1000 API 200

Particle Size (microns)

Figure 6-9. Screens Used on Fine Screen Shakers

Because fine screen shakers have a wide variety of designs, they have a few
characteristics in common. The various designs are differentiated by screen
orientation and shape, screen tensioning mechanism, placement and type of vibrator
and other special features.

57
 Horizontal Deck, Single Screen

Sloped Deck, Triple Screen

Sloped Deck, Single Screen

Horizontal Deck, Double Screen

Mixed Deck, Double Screen

Figure 6-10. Screens and Orientation

Single deck, single screens (horizontal deck single screen and sloped deck single
screen) are the simplest design, with all mud passing over one screen of uniform
mesh. This type of shaker requires efficient vibrator mechanisms to function properly
under all possible drilling conditions and requires high throughput (conductance) per
square foot of screen cloth.
Units with screens placed in parallel (mixed deck double screen and sloped deck triple
screen) have two or more screen sections acting as one large screen so that no
cuttings can fall between them. All screen sections should be the same API screen,
since the coarsest screen section determines the units screening capability.
Shakers with screens stacked in series (horizontal deck double screen) have a coarse
screen above a finer screen, with the finer screen controlling the final size of solids
being removed. The operating theory is that the top screen will remove some of the
cuttings from the mud to reduce the load on the bottom screen and increase screening
efficiency.

58
6.1.1 Screen Tensioning Mechanisms
Shakers are designed to use either a hook strip or a rigid panel (pretension) screen.
Hook strip screens are made without a rigid frame and can prematurely fail if allowed
to operate with uneven tension. The shaker manufacturer instructions for screen
installation should be followed, but the following steps usually apply:
Inspect the supports and tension rails to be sure they are in good condition
and clean
Position the panel on the deck and inspect the screen to be sure it lays flat
Install both rails loosely to the hook strip
Push one side of the screen against the positioning blocks, if present; and
tighten the screen against these blocks
Evenly tighten the tension bolts on the other side
Torque to manufacturers recommended setting
Pretension screen panel installation should proceed as per the manufacturers
instructions. Panel screens usually can be installed or replaced much quicker than a
hook strip screen since the cloth already is tensioned and the mechanical devices lock
the panel with much less manual effort. Pretension screen also will outperform hook
strip screens using the same screen material.

6.1.2 Vibrator Mechanisms

Vibrator mechanisms vary widely in design and placement and greatly affect the
capacity of fine screen shakers. Most modern shakers utilize balance elliptical, tuned
elliptical or linear motion vibration with the vibrator mechanism mounted above the
screen bed. One important advantage of linear motion is positive conveyance of
cuttings across the screen surface even when the surface is at a positive angle. This
generally allows the use of an uphill sloped screen deck, greatly increasing throughput
capacity and cuttings dryness.
Most vibrators are electrically operated, although a few are hydraulically operated. In
some units the vibration-inducing eccentric weights are separated from the drive
motor, while in others the eccentric weights and motor form an integral part of the
assembly. In some units, the nature of the vibratory motions can be easily modified to
take advantage of specific solids-conveying characteristics, but most units have a
fixed vibratory motion.

6.1.3 Maintenance
Because of their greater complexity and use of finer screens, fine screen shakers
require more attention than rig shakers. Nonetheless, their more effective screening
capabilities justify the higher operating cost. This is especially true when expensive
mud systems are used.
Besides periodic lubrication, fine screen shakers require the same minimum
maintenance as rig shakers. During trips:
Wash down screens.
Check screen tension (if hook-strip).
Shut down shaker when not drilling to extend screen life.
Dump and clean possum belly. Try to do this when changing out a mud so the
solids can be removed from the mud system.
In addition, frequent checks must be made for screen plugging and blinding, screen
flooding and broken screens. All will occur more frequently on fine screen shakers
than on coarse mesh rig shakers.
59
6.1.4 General Guidelines
General guidelines for operating shale shakers include the following:
Use the finest screen capable of handling the full volume from the flowline
under the particular drilling conditions. This will reduce solids loading on
downstream equipment, therefore improving their efficiency. Several screen
changes, normally to progressively finer screens over the course of the hole,
are quite common.
Large cuttings which settle in the mud box (possum belly) of the shaker should
never be dumped into the mud system. Dump the solids into the sump or
waste pit. Small vacuum pumps also can be used to remove settled solids for
proper disposal.
All mud should be screened unless lost circulation material is added to the mud
or if special sized particulate is being added to the mud system for a specific
reason. All make-up mud hauled in from other locations should be screened
before use.
Unless water sprays are absolutely necessary to control screen blinding, water
should not be used on the screen surface while drilling. Water sprays tend to
wash smaller cuttings through the screen which would otherwise be removed
by their clinging to larger particles (piggy-back effect).
For a more complete analysis of different types of screens and shakers, ask your local
NOV representative for copies of the latest Product Bulletins/Brochures for the specific
shaker installed on your rig.

6.2 Shale Shaker Product Line and Options

6.2.1 Optional Upgrade Kit for Linear Motion Shakers

All NOV linear motion shakers can be ordered with an upgrade kit that adds a variable
frequency drive (VFD) controller so rig hands can change the speed of the vibratory
motors to give varying G-force. By varying the G-force one can extend screen life by
reducing the Gs as hole size and solids loading decrease (Table 6-1).

Table 6-1. King Cobra Shaker with Optional VFD Controller

Setting Gs Hole Section
NORMAL 6.1 Production
HIGH 6.7 Intermediate
MAXIMUM 7.3 Top

60
6.2.2 Mini Cobra 2-Panel

The Mini Cobra 2-Panel is a two panel, linear-motion shaker that shares many parts
with other Cobra series shakers; including screens, screen support material and
hammerwedge screen fasteners. (Figure 6-11) This simplifies inventory requirements
for contractors using Cobra series shakers.

Figure 6-11. Mini Cobra 2-Panel

Multiple units can be supplied on a single skid and feature a common feed tank. The
single skid and common feed tank arrangement helps reduce installation time and cost,
while ensuring a balanced flow to each shaker. The Mini Cobra 2-Panel generates 6.4
Gs of efficient linear motion while rapidly removing drilled solids, saving valuable drilling
fluid and reducing drilling waste. NOVs hammerwedge design makes screen changing
simple. The heat, chemical and corrosion resistant hammerwedge can be installed and
removed easily using only a hammer or pry bar. NOVs exclusive BHX Venom screen is
field repairable, extending the service life of the screen. The reusable plug forms a tight,
leak-proof seal. The basket design sets the feed end at 0 and the discharge panels at
+5. These basket angles minimize liquid pool depths which reduces fluid weight on the
screens. The screen deck is adjustable. The flat screening surface distributes fluid
evenly across the shaker. The low weir height of 15 inches (386 mm) allows the Mini
Cobra 2-Panel to fit on smaller land rigs where flow line slope is critical. The Mini Cobra
2-Panel has 16.8 square feet (1.6 mm) of screen area.

61
6.2.3 Mini Cobra 3-Panel
The Mini Cobra 3-Panel is a three panel linear motion shaker that shares many parts with
other Cobra series shakers, including the screens, screen support material and
hammerwedge screen fasteners. (Figure 6-12) This simplifies inventory requirements for
contractors using Cobra series shakers.

Figure 6-12. Mini Cobra 3-Panel

The Mini Cobra 3-Panel has 25.5 square feet (24.4 mm) of screen area. The low weir
height of 24 inches (610 mm) allows the Mini Cobra 3-Panel to fit on smaller land rigs
where flowline slope is critical. Multiple units can be supplied on a single skid and feature
a common feed tank. The single skid and common feed tank arrangement helps reduce
installation time and cost while ensuring a balanced flow to each shaker. The Mini Cobra
3-Panel generates 6.6 Gs of efficient linear motion, rapidly removing drilled solids, while
saving valuable drilling fluid and reducing drilling waste.

6.2.4 Cobra
The Cobra shaker is a three panel linear motion shaker that shares many parts with other
Cobra series shakers, including screens, screen support material and hammerwedge
screen fasteners (Figure 6-13). For contractors with Cobra series shakers in their fleet,
this simplifies inventory requirements.

Figure 6-13. Cobra

62
With minimal replacement parts, Cobra shakers provide years of dependable, economical
service. Performance is exceptional; detrimental drilled solids are removed with efficient
linear motion and 5.4 Gs. Mud loss is minimized and cuttings dryness is enhanced with
NOVs patented drying deck and the new flow diverter plate. The drying deck also saves
space by reducing the overall footprint.
Dual Cobra shakers have a common back tank, reducing installation time and cost, while
ensuring a balanced flow to each shaker. The drive system is simple, reliable, low
maintenance and field proven. NOVs heat, chemical and corrosion resistant
hammerwedges are used to secure the pretension screens to the shaker deck. The
pretension screens are field repairable. The screen plug forms a tight, leak-proof seal.
The Contour Plus basket design mounts the feed end panel at 0 and the other panels
inclined at +5. This minimizes liquid pools and reduces undue weight on the screens.
The weir height is 41 and can be modified to 37 if necessary.
With features like Contour Plus and the NOV patented drying deck, cobra shakers save
valuable fluids, remove more detrimental drilled solids, extend screen life and optimize
screen coverage.

6.2.5 King Cobra

The King Cobra shaker is a four-panel, linear-motion shaker that shares many parts with
other Cobra series shakers, including the screens, screen support material and
hammerwedge screen fasteners (Figure 6-14) The King Cobra shaker is recognized as
the industry leader for cost-effective performance. Multiple units can be supplied on a
single skid and feature a common feed tank. This feature reduces installation time and
cost, while ensuring a balanced flow to each shaker. Performance is exceptional;
detrimental drilled solids are removed with efficient linear motion using field repairable
pretension screens. Mud loss is minimized and cuttings dryness is enhanced with the
Brandt patented drying deck and flow diverter tray. The drying deck also saves space by
reducing the overall footprint.

Figure 6-14. King Cobra

The weir height is 41 (104 cm) and can be modified to 37 (94cm) if necessary. The King
Cobra generates 6.1 Gs of efficient linear motion rapidly removing drilled solids, while
saving valuable drilling fluid and reducing drilling waste.
The heat, chemical and corrosion resistant hammerwedges are used to secure the
pretension screens to the shaker deck. The pretension screens are field repairable. The
screen plug forms a tight, leak-proof seal.

63
6.2.6 King Cobra II
The King Cobra II has several unique automated features (see Figure 6-15). This
shaker can handle more flow than other shakers without losing fluid because the unit
can monitor fluid levels on the shaker and can optimize its configuration automatically.
Features of the King Cobra II include:
Automatic bed angle adjustment increases flow capacity.
Automatic G-force increase at high fluid loading.
Requires less rig hand involvement than other shakers.
Reduces mud cost minimizes mud losses while handling large flow
rates.
Reduces screen cost promotes longer screen life by keeping screens
flooded.
Operational simplicity dual motion (elliptical or linear) capability at the
flip of a switch.
Has manual override.

Figure 6-15. King Cobra II

The King Cobra II operates optimally because the deck angle is adjusted
automatically (patented) to keep fluid flow at the end of the third shaker screen as
the flow rate changes. If the shaker becomes overloaded and the shaker basket
reaches maximum tilt, the unit will automatically provide a boost in G-force (7.3 Gs).
The increase in Gs will temporarily help clear the screen of solids and then will
automatically return to normal operation. All these automated features allow rig
hands to stay out of the shaker room for extended periods when the system is
operating because the system is self-adjusting. The unit also promotes longer
screen life since screens are constantly covered with fluid. Four pretension field
repairable screens are used and the shaker shares common parts with the other
Cobra series shakers: including screens, screen support material and hammerwedge
screen fasteners. The shaker has a dual motion drive system, linear or tuned
elliptical and a manual override of the automated features for operational simplicity.
This set of features provides a unique combination of optimized performance,
extended screen life, reduced worker exposure, operational simplicity and reduced
losses of whole mud. Fluid loss is minimized and cuttings dryness is enhanced with
NOVs patented drying deck and flow diverter tray. The drying deck saves space by
reducing the overall footprint. NOVs heat, chemical and corrosion resistant
hammerwedges are used to secure the pretension screens to the shaker deck. The
pretension screens are field repairable; the screen plug forms a tight, leak-proof seal.

64
 6.2.7 King Cobra Venom
The King Cobra (KC) Venom (Figure 6-16) has several features that are utilized by all KC
models. The basic shaker basket and back tank will be basic to all KC shakers and
customers will be given the opportunity to select options as needed for their specific
drilling conditions. The Venom has several unique features as shown in Table 6-2.

Figure 6-16. King Cobra Venom

Table 6-2. Features & Benefits for the King Cobra Venom Shaker
Features
Unique, rugged basket design
Few replacement parts
Linear motion (available in all configurations)
Tuned elliptical motion (available on models
configured with the dual motion option)
Dual motion configuration
Patented drying deck
Exclusive shaker screen deck angles (0,
+5, +5, +5)
Low weir height of 34.5 inches (876 mm)
Modular back tank design
New epoxy and glass flake paint system
Utilization of VNM series screens
Improved wiring harness
Redesigned screen wedge
Benefits
Provides improved energy transfer from the shaker basket to
the screen, thus improving solids separation
Requires only a small parts inventory, thus enabling cost
savings to be realized
Rapidly separates and discharges solids
Easily removes large, sticky hydrated clays and other
troublesome solids
Allows the user to select the vibration motion that bests fits the
drilling situation
Reduces mud losses
Keeps the mud pool volume small, thereby increasing screen
life
Enables installation on a wide variety of rigs, including those
where space is limited
Provides reduced tank volume which decreases solids
settling
Offers bolt-on link sections (no welding required) for
multiple-shaker configurations
Provides adjustable, stainless steel weir gates with a
bottom feed to reduce solids settling
Prolonged shaker life
Eliminates the need for crown rubbers
2 2
Offers 34.5 ft (3.1 m ) of screening area
Utilizes screens that are repairable
Eliminates screen leakage and mud by-pass via
individually sealed screens
Keeps wires securely attached to bed
Permits easier installation using a pry bar

New basket, skid and possum belly Makes interchanging parts easy
Pushbutton (pneumatic) single-point deck Allows quick and easy deck angle adjustments
angle adjustment mechanism

65
6.2.8 VSM 300 Shale Shaker
The VSM 300 was the worlds first balanced elliptical motion, low profile, cascade shaker.
The VSM 300 delivers dramatic increases in throughput capacity through unique vibratory
motion and screen deck layouts (see Figure 6-17). The VSM 300 is the ultimate shaker
for all drilling applications!

Figure 6-17. VSM 300

The VSM 300 offers improved flexibility by employing variable G force using a Variable
Frequency Drive (VFD). Simply at the push of a button, the VSM can be operated at 4, 6
or 8 Gs thereby allowing the operator to contend with variable flow rates, fluctuating
fluid conditions and drilling breaks without the need to stop or bypass the unit. The VSM
300s unique drive motion delivers significant improvements in the transportation of sticky
hydrated clays often encountered when drilling top hole sections with water based
fluids.

The use of integral secondary drying technology, demonstrates NOVs commitment to

delivering cost effective, environmentally responsible solutions to the oil industry. The
VSM 300 is an extremely simple machine to operate; maintenance requirements are
minimal and screens can be changed in two-to-three minutes by one operator.
The VSM 300 uses genuine NOV screens. These screens provide exceptional capacity
and unsurpassed life. The screens are clamped into the unit with the pneumoseal air
inflatable clamping system.

Supplied with a highly effective integral scalping deck, deployment of the VSM 300
reduces the need for upstream scalping shakers, thereby removing the cost and weight
burden.
Significant benefits also are derived from incorporation of a novel 7 Through Ramp on
the lower (primary) deck. The balanced elliptical drive system along with the 7 Through
Ramp provides excellent solids conveyance even when reactive formations are
encountered.

The VSM 300 employs Integral Drying Modules whereby appreciable savings in fluids
can be achieved by drying the solids on the shaker itself, without the need for expensive
secondary High G drying equipment. The reduction in fluid discharge delivers immediate
cost and environmental benefits.
66
With due consideration of HSE requirements, the VSM 300 can be assembled on site to
produce multiple units, thereby reducing installation time and cost (Figure 6-18).

Figure 6-18. Multiple VSM Units

NOVs proven shallow header tank system is used to optimize flow distribution
across multiple units. The shakers also can be fitted with hoods to vent any noxious
fumes away from rig personnel. (Figure 6-19)

Figure 6-19 VSM 300 Fitted with Vent Hoods

67
 Table 6-3. Features & Benefits of VSM 300

Features Benefits

Balanced elliptical motion Effective removal of sticky, hydrated clays

Adjustable G-force Adjustments in G-force to adapt to changes in drilling

conditions

Integrated scalping deck (3 screens) Reduces the need for (and subsequent costs and
weight) upstream scalping shakers and/or gumbo
equipment
1.9 m (20.5 ft) screen area

Integrated drying deck (2 screens Reduces mud losses by creating a dry solids
optional) discharge
0.3 m (3.0 ft) screen area

Pneumoseal clamping system Screens are properly secured to the basket for quick,
easy screen changes

Variable frequency drive (VFD) control Soft starting, fingertip adjustments of motor speed
and matching G-force to operating conditions

6.2.9 NOV Automated Shaker Control

NOV was the first company to supply the industry with a shale shaker that can
automatically adjust to changing drilling conditions. Automated Shaker Control (ASC)
is designed to optimize the VSM 300 operating efficiency and to remove personnel
from the shaker house environment. The VSM 300 also is the quietest high
specification shaker on the market with single shakers generating a maximum noise
level of 67 dBa and a complete multi shaker package being as low as 73 dBa.
The system monitors fluid levels within the header tank and each shale shaker. Using
these levels, the system automatically controls the mudflow to each shaker and brings
on or off-line the optimum number of shakers for the volume of drilling mud being
processed.
The main advantages gained when utilizing the ASC are listed below:
Expensive whole mud losses over the shaker screens are prevented.
Screen life is maximized.
Personnel exposure to the hazardous environment within the shaker
house is minimized.
Rig personnel are automatically alerted when screens fail, minimizing the
recirculation of separable solids.
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The shaker house can be an unpleasant working environment and can foster an
aversion to monitoring and adjusting the shale shakers as attentively as desired. ASC
makes these adjustments automatically, relieving operators from the task of
continually monitoring and making adjustments as flow rates, viscosity, or the solids
content of the drilling fluid changes. Efficient solids control is assured by automatic
adjustments in response to changing conditions. Audible and visual alarms notify
personnel of the need for shaker attention. The operator can easily isolate a shaker
for minor maintenance or screen changing. Screen displays in the shaker room can
be networked to other terminals on the rig. An optional system offers remote/ manual
control utilizing the hydraulic control station and hydraulically actuated feed chutes.
ASC is proprietary to VSM 300 shale shakers and is applicable to both floating and
fixed installations.
ASC can enhance solids control efficiency and rig economics. ASC can detect screen
failures or screen plugging by monitoring the change in process capacity of each
shaker. Timely screen cleaning reduces liquid losses, while prompt screen
replacement minimizes contamination of the drilling fluid. Rig personnel are freed
from tedious shaker monitoring and can spend their time on more productive tasks.

6.2.9.1 ASC Functionality

When flow rate or viscosity increases
1. More shakers are brought on line automatically.
2. The G force is automatically boosted for all shakers for a set amount of time.
3. If still more throughput is required, the beach length is automatically reduced,
preventing mud loss from shakers.
When flow rate or viscosity decreases
1. The number of operating shakers would automatically be decreased, so that the
fluid level is maintained at its optimum for each shaker.
2. Finer screens will be fitted on the shakers, thus improving solids control efficiency
and reducing drilling fluid dilution. Screens within the non-running shakers need not
be compromised.
3. Excessively long beach lengths are automatically avoided, diminishing the negative
effects of non-wetted screen surfaces.

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6.2.10 VSM Multi-Sizer
In 2009 NOV introduced the VSM Multi-Sizer, a new and innovative shale shaker (Figure
6-20). The reliable, operator friendly VSM Multi-Sizer separator provides high
performance and flexibility for modern-day drilling practices. The VSM Multi-Sizer
separator is the first to introduce Constant-G Control to provide optimum performance to
meet drilling rates and separation efficiency.

Figure 6-20. VSM Multi-Sizer

In-Series Operating Mode

The primary function of the VSM Multi-Sizer separator, while in the in-series mode, is to
collect lost circulation and/or wellbore stabilization materials. In this mode, each of the
three screening decks is equipped with screens of differing API designations. The
Scalping Deck is outfitted with screens for coarse solids removal. Primary Deck 1 is
outfitted with API-designated screens that allow for the collection of the desired
recoverable solids, such as lost circulation or wellbore stabilization materials. The desired
material is conveyed off the screens of Primary Deck 1 and into a collection trough. The
trough is angled to route the collected material down two recovery trough sections of the
machine and into the sump and active mud system. Primary Deck 2 is outfitted with API-
designated screens that allow for the removal of low-gravity solids and other fines.

In-Parallel Operating Mode

The primary function of the VSM Multi-Sizer separator, while in the in-parallel mode, is to
maximize screening capacity and throughput. The Scalping Deck is outfitted with screens
for coarse solids removal, while Primary Deck 1 and Primary Deck 2 are outfitted with
screens of the same API designation. An adjustable overflow weir routes any overflow
from Primary Deck 1 to Primary Deck 2. This adjustable weir enables control of the fluid
endpoint on Primary Deck 1. Once the desired fluid endpoint is reached on Primary Deck
2, flow is maximized. When operating in the in-parallel mode, the built-in recovery trough
on the end of Primary Deck 1 is closed, allowing for the discharge of solids. The design of
this trough allows the user to easily switch between collection and disposal modes, with
no special tools.

Composite Materials
National Oilwell Varco has designed the Brandt VSM Multi-Sizer separator to provide
an improved power-to-weight ratio by the use of composite materials (patent-pending)
throughout the vibration basket. This provides an improved g-force rating without the
need for increased horsepower requirements. Composite materials also provide
exceptional corrosion resistance in high fluid flow areas.
70
 The VSM Multi-Sizer separator features balanced elliptical motion to effectively separate
solids from liquid. Screen changes are quickly facilitated with the field-proven
Pneumoseal clamping and sealing system. (See Table 6-4) The HVAC hood, a
standard feature on the VSM Multi-Sizer separator, routes hazardous fumes away from
the unit and into a ventilation system.

Features
Constant G Control
In-parallel operational mode
In-series operational mode
Manual flow diverter
Pneumoseal clamping and sealing
system
Three-screening decks design
(scalping, first primary, second
primary)
6.79 m (73.08 ft) of screening area
Built-in recovery trough on first
primary deck
Balanced elliptical motion
Finely-tuned motor weight balancing
Vibratory drive system
Scalping deck allows inspection of the
first primary deck system
Shallow header tank design
Low spare parts inventory
HVAC hood
Automated Shaker Control (optional)
Benefits
Maintains a constant g-force during variable liquid/solids loading
conditions. Improves flow capacity, constant solids conveyance
and finer screening capability.
Doubles the effective screening area for increased capacity of fine
solids removal. Allows for finer screening and higher flow rates
Allows for classification of solids by using screens of varying API
designations on each respective deck. Allows for the recovery of
designer solids, including lost circulation material (LCM).
Allows for easy switching between in-series and in-parallel
operational modes by a single operator with no tools required
Ensures screens are properly secured to shaker basket; allows for
quick and easy screen changes
Increased screening area - allows for higher flow, allows for
classification of solids
Highest available amount of screening area on the market
Easy switching between the collection and disposal of solids in the
different modes: In-series collection and In-parallel collection
Easy removal of large, sticky, hydrated clays and other
troublesome solids; Improved solids conveyance in situations
where reactive formations encountered; Minimizes solids
degradation: Improves screen life, minimizes likelihood of screen
blinding
Optimal solids conveyance by providing a consistent balanced-
elliptical motion and stroke profile under varying basket loading
conditions; Different sized weight compensate for the differing
distances of elliptical motions, thus maintaining balance
Field proven, 8-bearing drive system with cylindrical roller bearings
and a short shaft design, offering unsurpassed reliability and
performance (10 years proven the VSM 300 shaker)
Designed and sized to allow for quick and easy inspection of first
primary deck screens condition
Even distribution of drilling fluid to all separators in the system
Cost Savings
Routes hazardous fumes away from the unit and into a ventilation
system for safe transfer away from personnel
Automatic optimizing of shaker utilization during varying flow
conditions (unneeded shakers are brought offline); Increases
screen life by keeping screens wet with fluid

Table 6-4. Features & Benefits VSM Multi-Sizer

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6.2.10.1 Constant G-Control

Constant-G Control (CGC) is a patented technology developed to maintain an

optimal G-force rating on Brandt shaker products during varying liquid/solids loading
conditions. (Figure 6-21) CGC maximizes shaker screen performance, solids
conveyance and throughput while enhancing screen life. CGC is an industry first that
sets a new standard in separator performance.
Figure 6-21. Constant G-Control

How CGC Works

On a conventional shaker, G-force drops as weight on the basket increases, due to the
fact that motor rpm and force is constant. This causes the unit to be less efficient while
loaded and reduces its ability to process drilling fluids.
With the addition of an accelerometer on the basket tied to the VFD operating the motors,
the VFD is able to constantly monitor the basket G-force and adjust the motor speed in
order to maintain the G-force at predetermined set points, depending on fluids and solids
loading on the basket. The basket will run at a lower G-force and reduce wear on screens
and components, while operating with little solids loading. When loading becomes more
extreme and higher Gs are needed to process all of the drilling fluid, the basket will
automatically ramp up to a higher G-force.
Constant-G Control is a standard feature on the new Brandt VSM Multi-Sizer separator.
CGC is also available as a performance upgrade option on the Brandt King Cobra family
of shakers and the VSM-300 shaker. CGC can be easily installed via retrofit kit on
existing King Cobra and VSM-300 shakers already in operation in the field.

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6.2.11 Cascade Shakers
A cascade shaker removes coarser solids before the drilling fluid flows to a second
shaker situated directly under the first. The top shaker can utilize any motion, circular,
elliptical or linear and the bottom shaker usually utilizes linear motion. The motion,
however, can be selected based on specific drilling needs or customer preference.
Normally, one uses a non-linear motion scalping shaker (top shaker) to remove the
sticky drill solids that tend to plug screen area. NOV can make any combination
cascade shaker desired. Currently we market the LCM-3D/CM-2 (the CM-2 is the top
shaker) and the LCM-3D/King Cobra models.

LCM-3D/CM-2 Cascade
The LCM-3D/CM-2 uses circular motion on the top
scalping deck of the CM-2 and linear motion on
the LCM-3D bottom deck. (Figure 6-22)

The CM-2 deck has 22.5 square feet of screening

area provided by three hook strip screens and has
a deck angle of 0. The circular motion helps
remove sticky solids before they reach the fine
screens mounted on the LCM-3D deck.

Figure 6-22. LCM-3D/CM-2 Cascade

The Contour plus LCM-3D uses four rigid pretension screens with a screen area of 33.4
square feet. The basket angle is adjustable from -5 to +5. The linear motion bottom
deck removes solids efficiently. Mud loss is minimized and cuttings dryness is enhanced
with NOVs patented drying deck and flow diverter tray. The drying deck also saves space
by reducing the overall footprint. The CM-2 basket and the LCM-3D baskets generate 4.2
and 5.4 Gs, respectively.
The LCM-3D shaker was the precursor to the Cobra family of shakers. Many of the
features of the Cobra series shakers are used by the LCM-3D shaker; including the
screens, screen support material, screen plugs and hammerwedge screen fasteners.

6.2.12 LCM-3D/King Cobra Cascade

The LCM-3D/King Cobra Cascade shaker has the King
Cobra shakers scalping the large solids using elliptical
motion. The shakers have a combined deck area of 66.8 ft,
which improves handling capacity (Figure 6-23). Both use
four repairable pretension screens. The scalping shaker
provides 6.5 nominal Gs and the primary shaker provides 6.1
nominal Gs.

Figure 6-23. LCM-3D/King Cobra Cascade

73
7 GAS CONTROL

7.1 Introduction

The drilling industry specifically searches for crude oil and natural gas. So drilling through
a gas bearing formation is common and expected. The equipment necessary
to handle a gas flow is designed into the drilling plan and the rig.
There are two basic types of degassing equipment; flowline degassers and mud pit
degassers. The NOV flowline degasser, called the Mud Gas Separator (MGS),
handles all of the flow from the wellbore before any of the mud reaches the mud pits
and the solids control equipment. The mud pit degassers are positioned right after the
shale shakers. These units are designed to handle all of the mud flow from the
wellbore and remove the entrained gas left in the mud after the fluid flows through the
MGS. Brandt markets four mud pit degasser models. The majority of gas is removed
by the MGS and more gas escapes when the mud goes over the shaker screens. If
gas cut mud is evident at the shale shakers personnel should minimize their time
around the shale shakers.

7.2 Mud Gas Separator

The mud from the flowline is directed to the mud gas separator to remove any large
volumes of gas encountered while drilling. (See Figure 7-1.) To protect personnel, the
removed gas is directed to a remote location and is vented and flared.

Figure 7-1. Mud Gas Separator

The MGS can handle hazardous gas and conforms to ASME and NACE specifications.
They can be modified to fit specific rig conditions.

74
7.2.1 Mud Gas Separator Operational Guidelines
Mud and gas are diverted from the flowline through a choke and into the
MGS.
Gas is released as the mud impacts the internal baffles.
Free gas collects at the top of the MGS and is vented a safe distance
from the rig for flaring or discharge to the atmosphere.
Mud, being heavier than gas, remains at the bottom of the MGS and is
maintained at a specific level (mud leg).
The mud returns then goes to the shale shakers and then to the active
mud system where Brandt degassers remove additional entrained gas.

7.3 Atmospheric Degasser

The gas-cut mud is pumped to the spray chamber of the atmospheric degasser at high
velocity through a disc valve. The mud strikes the inside wall of the spray chamber with
enough force to drive most of the entrapped gas out of the mud. The removed gas is
usually discharged to the atmosphere at pit level, or it can be routed to a safe place and
the degassed mud returned to the active system. These devices are simple to operate
and maintain, but their effectiveness is often limited by the ability of the centrifugal pump
to handle gas-cut mud. The NOV VG-ATM can process about 700 gpm (2650 liter/min).
(See Figure 7-2.)

Figure 7-2. Atmospheric Degasser

Installation
Atmospheric degassers are placed in the mud tank right after the shale shaker tank and
consist of an elevated spray chamber and a submerged centrifugal pump. The unit takes-
up very little space.

75
7.4 Vacuum Degassers
Vacuum-type degassers separate gas bubbles from drilling mud by spreading the gas
cut mud into thin layers and then drawing off the gases with a vacuum pump. Vacuum
degassers normally are skid-mounted and installed on top of the mud tanks. NOV
offers horizontal and vertical models based on the arrangement of equipment on the
specific rig. The various models can process from 500 to 1200 gpm (1942 to 4542
liter/min) of mud. (See Figure 7-3 and 7-4)

Figure 7-3. DG-10 (Vertical Degasser)

Figure 7-4. VG-1 (Horizontal Degasser)

The vacuum models use a centrifugal pump and Venturi to produce an efficient eductor
that feeds the degasser with mud. The
Venturi generates a negative pressure that
pulls the mud into the degasser (Figure
75). A separate vacuum unit on the
degasser helps remove the entrained gas.
A float inside the degasser actuates a
vacuum breaker to allow air into the unit as
the mud level fluctuates. We decided to
leave the floats out of the above pictures
for clarity purposes only.

Figure 7-5. Venturi that Pulls Mud into Degasser

76
The centrifugal pump must take suction from a pit that contains degassed mud. The
suction of the centrifugal pump and Venturi can be as much as 25 feet apart. The
feed pipe for the vacuum degasser takes feed from the downstream mud pit adjacent
to the sand trap (see Figure 7-6).

DG-10 Vacuum Degasser

one per 1000 GPM @ 9 ppg
one per 700 GPM @ 12.5 ppg

High overflow equalization Line lengths not to

exceed 20 feet

Bottom equalization

Gas-Cut
Gas-Cut Mud Mud Degassed
Sandtrap #1 Degasser Mud
Suction

Figure 7-6. Typical Degasser Rig-Up

7.4.1 Installation
Actual placement of the degasser and related pump will vary with the design of the
degasser, but these recommendations may be used as a general rule:
Install a screen in the inlet pipe to the degasser to keep large objects
from being drawn into the degassing chamber. Locate the screen about
one foot above the pit bottom and in a well-agitated area.
There should be a high equalizer between the suction and discharge
compartment. The equalizer should be kept open to allow backflow of
processed mud to the suction side of the degasser.
Route the liquid discharge pipe to enter the next compartment or pit
below mud level to prevent aeration.
Install the gas discharge line to safely vent the separated gas to the
atmosphere or to a flare line.

7.4.2 Maintenance
Maintenance of degassers varies considerably depending on make and model. In
general, the following guidelines apply:
If a suction screen is in place be sure it is not plugged.
Routinely lubricate any pumps and other moving parts and check for
wear.
Change vacuum pump oil with SAE 30 or 40W non-detergent every six
months.

77
 Keep all discharge lines open and free from restrictions, such as caused
by solids buildup around valves.
If the degasser utilizes a vacuum, keep it at the proper operating level,
according to the manufacturers recommended range for the mud weight
and process rate.
Check all fittings for air leaks.
If the unit uses a hydraulic system, check it for leaks, proper oil level and absence of
air in the system.

7.5 Degasser Product Line

NOV offers a basic mud gas separator, an atmospheric degasser and four models of
vacuum degasser. (See Table 7-1.)

Table 7-1. Degasser Product Line

Model Capacity
GPM Liters/Min
Mud Gas Separator 1200 4542
DG-5 500 1893
DG-10 1000 3785
DG-12 1200 4542
VG-1 1000 3785
VG-ATM 700 2650

78
8 HYDROCYCLONES

8.1 Introduction
Hydrocyclones (also referred to as cyclones or cones) are simple mechanical devices
without moving parts. They are designed to speed up the settling process. Feed energy
is transformed into centrifugal force inside the cyclone to accelerate particle settling in
accordance with Stokes Law. In essence, a cyclone is a miniature settling pit which
allows very rapid settling of solids under controlled conditions.

Hydrocyclones are important in solids control systems because of their ability to efficiently
remove particles smaller than the finest screens used on shakers. They are also
uncomplicated devices, which make them easy to use and maintain. Although cones are
easy to monitor, the real issue is will the rig hands put out the effort to keep the units
operating correctly? The feed pressure should match the mud weight (4 x mud weight,
ppg = pounds per square inch) and the cones need to be operating in spray discharge.

A hydrocyclone consists of a cylindrical/conical shell with a small opening at the bottom

for underflow discharge (See figure 8-1), a larger opening at the top for liquid discharge
through an internal vortex finder and a feed nozzle on the side of the body near the
cylindrical (top) end of the cone.

Figure 8-1. Hydrocyclone Diagram

Hydrocyclones should be used when the mud does not contain weight material since the
cyclones will remove the weight material. When the mud weight gets close to 10 to 11
ppg the cyclones should be shut down. A mud cleaner or mud conditioner, (cyclones
mounted over a shale shaker) can be used with weighted mud if the rig shale shakers
cant use fine enough screens to remove most of the drill solids larger than 75 microns.
79
Drilling mud enters the cyclone using energy created by a centrifugal feed pump. The
velocity of the mud causes the heavy, coarse solids and the liquid film around them to
spiral outward and downward for discharge through the solids outlet (bottom of cone).
Light, fine solids and the liquid phase of the mud tend to spiral inward and upward for
discharge through the liquid outlet (top of cone).
Design features of cyclone units vary widely from supplier to supplier, and no two
manufacturers cyclones have identical operating efficiency, capacity or maintenance
characteristics.
In the past, cyclones were commonly made of cast iron with replaceable liners and
other wear parts made of rubber or polyurethane to resist abrasion. Newer designs
are made entirely of polyurethane, are less expensive, last longer and weigh less.
Most well designed oilfield cyclones operate most efficiently when 75 feet of inlet head
(5 ft) is applied to the cone inlet.
Centrifugal pumps must be properly sized for cones to operate efficiently. Centrifugal
pumps are constant energy (head) devices and not constant pressure devices. Feed
head is constant regardless of mud weight; pressure varies with mud weight. (See
Figure 8-2.)

P = 0.052 x D x
Where: P = pressure, pounds per square
D = depth, feet
= mud weight, pounds per gallon

Figure 8-2. Pressure Changes with Mud Weight

Table 8-1 shows the relationship of feet of head to psi for various mud weights. Figure
8-3 shows a pressure gauge that is mounted on the manifold showing the various
pressures and mud weights needed to maintain 75 feet of head.

Table 8-1. Pressure Changes as Mud Weight Changes

Pressure, psig Feet Head, ft Mud Weight, ppg
32.5 75 8.34
35 75 9.0
37 75 9.5
39 75 10.0
41 75 10.5
43 75 11.0
45 75 11.5

80
 Figure 8-3. Pressure gauge on Manifold
Head (in feet) = (pounds per square inch)/(0.052)(mud weight in pounds per gallon)
Although centrifugal pump theory and sizing exercises are beyond the scope of this
text, if you are not able to properly size your centrifugal pump to create 75 feet of inlet
head to your set of cyclones, it is highly recommended that you contact the Technical
Services Staff at NOV for assistance. Remember, more errors in cyclone applications
are made with centrifugal pumps, rather than with the cyclones themselves.
The size of oilfield cyclones commonly varies from 2 to 12 (5.08 to 30.48 cm). This
measurement refers to the inside diameter of the largest, cylindrical section of the
cyclone. In general but not always the larger the cone, the coarser its cut point
and the greater its throughput. Typical cyclone throughput capacities are listed in
Table 8-2.

Table 8-2. Hydrocyclone Capacities (@ 75 feet of head)

Cone Cone Diameter, Flow Rate per Flow Rate per
Designation Diameter, in cm Cone, gpm Cone, l/m
Desilter 2 5.1 10-30 38-114
Desilter 4 10.2 50-65 189-246
Desilter 5 12.7 75-85 284-322
Desander 6 15.2 100-120 379-454
Desander 8 20.3 200-240 757-909
Desander 10 25.4 400-500 1514-1893
Desander 12 30.5 500-600 1893-2771

The internal geometry of a cyclone also has a great deal to do with its operating
efficiency. The length and angle of the conical section (and the ratio of cone diameter
to cone length), the size and shape of the feed inlet, the size of the vortex finder and
the size and adjustment means of the underflow opening all play important roles in a
cyclones effective separation of solids particles.
Operating efficiencies of cyclones may be measured in several different ways, but
since the purpose of a cyclone is to discard maximum abrasive solids with minimum
fluid loss, both solids and liquid aspects of removal must be considered (A simple
technique for comparing the efficiencies of two cyclones is given in Appendix B of this
handbook).
In a cyclone, larger particles have a higher probability of reporting to the bottom
underflow (apex) opening, while smaller particles are more likely to report to the top
(overflow) opening. The most common method of illustrating particle separation in
cyclones is through a cut point curve. The D50 point is where 50% of a specific
particle size is removed from the system and 50% is returned to the system.
81
Table 8-3 shows the approximate cut point ranges for cyclones used with unweighted
water-base mud and operated at 75 feet 5 feet of inlet head.

Table 8-3. Typical Cut Point Ranges for Various Sized Cones

Cone Diameter, in D50 Cut Point in Drilling Fluid, microns

2 15+
4 35-70
6 70-100
10 90-120
12 200+

8.2 Operation

Cut Point
Particle separation in cyclones can vary considerably depending on such factors as feed
head, mud weight, percent solids, and properties of the liquid phase of the mud.
Generally speaking, increasing any of these factors will shift the cut point curve to the
right, i.e. only the larger solids would be removed by the cyclone.
By itself, the cut point does not determine a cyclones overall efficiency because it ignores
the liquid loss rate. The amount of fluid in the cone underflow is important; if the solids
are too dry, they can cause roping or dry-plugging of the underflow. In contrast, a
cyclone operating with a spray discharge (Figure 8-4 and Figure 8-5) gives solids a free
path to exit. A cone operating in spray discharge will remove a significantly greater
amount of solids than a cone in rope discharge.

Figure 8-4. Cones in Spray Discharge

82
 Figure 8-5. A few cones in spray discharge

Rope versus Spray Discharge

Hydrocyclones should not be operated in rope discharge because it will drastically reduce
the cone separating efficiency. In a rope discharge, the solids become crowded at the
apex, cannot exit freely from the underflow, and become caught by the inner spiral
reporting to the overflow. Solids which otherwise would be separated are forced into the
overflow stream and returned to the mud system. This type of discharge also can lead to
plugged cones and much higher cyclone wear. (See Figure 8-6.)

Figure 8-6. Rope Discharge (Plugged Flow)

While a spraying cyclone appears to discharge more fluid, the benefits of more
efficient solids removal and less cone wear outweigh the additional fluid loss. In cases
where a dry discharge is required, the underflow from hydrocyclones can be screened
or centrifuged to recover the free liquid.

83
8.3 Desanders
Desanders are hydrocyclones that are 6 or larger in diameter (6, 8, 10 or 12 ID).
Generally, the smaller the cone, the smaller size particles the cone will separate.
Desanders are primarily used to remove the high volumes of solids associated with
extremely fast drilling of a large diameter hole where the shakers cant handle the flow
with fine screens. The 10-inch cones can process about 500 gpm.

Figure 8-7. Desander

Desanders are installed downstream from the shale shakers and degasser (Figure 8-7).
The desander removes sand sized particles and larger drilled solids which have passed
through the shaker screen and discards them along with some liquid into a waste pit. The
partially clean mud is discharged into the next pit downstream.
NOV markets 10-inch and 12-inch cones.

8.3.1 Installation
When installing a desander, follow these general recommendations:
Size the desander to process 110125% of the total mud circulation rate.
If the estimated maximum rig flow rate is 800 gpm, size the desander to
handle 1000 gpm (800 gpm X 125% = 1000 gpm). When using 10-inch
cones which handle about 500 gpm, one would need at least two cones
to handle the flow.
Keep all lines as short and straight as possible with a minimum of pipe
fittings. This will reduce loss of head on the feed line and minimize back-
pressure on the overflow discharge line.
Install a guard screen with approximately openings at the suction to
the desander to prevent large trash from entering the unit and plugging
the cones
Do not reduce the diameter of the overflow line from that of the overflow
discharge manifold.
84
 Direct the overflow line downward into the next downstream
compartment at an angle of approximately 45. The overflow discharge
line should not be installed in a vertical position - doing so may cause
excessive vacuum on the discharge header and pull solids through the
cyclone overflow, reducing the cyclones efficiency.
Keep the end of the discharge line above the surface of the mud to avoid
creating a vacuum in the line.
Position the underflow trough to easily direct solids to the waste pit.
Install a low equalizer line to permit backflow into the desander suction.
Operating desanders at peak efficiency is a simple matter, since most
desanders are relatively uncomplicated devices.

8.3.2 Guidelines
Here are a few fundamental principles to keep in mind:
Operate the hydrocyclone unit at the suppliers recommended feed head
(usually around 75 feet). Too low a feed head decreases efficiency, while
excessive feed head shortens the life of cyclone wear parts.
Check cones regularly to ensure the discharge orifice is not plugged.
Run the hydrocyclones continuously while drilling and shortly after
beginning a trip for catch-up cleaning.
Operate the desander with a spray rather than a rope discharge to
maintain peak efficiency.

8.3.3 Maintenance
Maintenance of desanders normally entails no more than checking all cone parts for
excessive wear and flushing out the feed manifold between wells. Large trash may
collect in feed manifolds which could cause cone plugging during operation.
Preventive maintenance minimizes downtime, and repairs are simpler between wells
than during drilling.
Use of desanders is normally discontinued when expensive materials such as barite
and polymers are added to a drilling mud, because a desander will discard a high
proportion of these materials along with the drilled solids. Similarly, desanders are not
generally cost effective when an oil-base mud is in use because the cones also
discard a significant amount of the liquid phase.

85
8.4 Desilters
A desilter uses smaller hydrocyclones (usually 4 or 5 ID {10.2 cm or 12.7 cm}) than a
desander and therefore generally removes smaller particles. Desilter can remove
solids in the range of 15 microns and larger. This makes it an important device for
reducing average particle size and removing abrasive grit from unweighted mud.
The cyclones in desilter units operate on the same principle as the cyclones used on
desanders. They simply make a finer cut and the individual cone throughput
capacities are less than desander cones. Multiple cones are usually manifold in a
single Desilter unit to meet throughput requirements. Desilters should be sized to
process 110125% of the full rig flow rate. The 4-inch cones can process about 60
gpm (227 liters/min).
NOV markets a 4-inch cone but will furnish a 5-inch cone based on customer needs.
A 2-inch cone called a Microfine Separator can also be supplied. The 2-inch cone can
handle about 15 gpm (57 liters/min).
Manifolds for cyclones can be in horizontal (Figure 8-8) or circular (radial) design
(Figure 8-9), the choice being one of convenience.

Figure 8-8. Desilters

Figure 8-9. Desilter using radial feed

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8.4.1 Installation
Installation of desilters is normally downstream from the shale shaker, sand trap,
degasser and desander, and should allow ample space for maintenance. Here are
some fundamentals for installing desilters:
Size the desilter to process 110125% of the total mud circulation rate.
If the estimated maximum rig flow rate is 800 gpm (3028 liters/min), size
the desilter to handle 1000 gpm {3785 liters/min} (800 gpm X 125% =
1000 gpm) or {3028 lpm X 125% = 3785 lpm}. When using 4-inch cones
(10.2 cm) that process about 60 gpm (227 liters/min) one would need 18
cones.
Take the desilter suction from the compartment receiving fluid processed
by the desander.
Do not use the same pump to feed the desander and desilter. If both
pieces of equipment are to be operated at the same time, they should be
installed in series and each should have its own centrifugal pump.
Keep all lines as short and straight as possible.
Install a guard screen with approximately (1.3 cm) openings at the
suction to the desilter to prevent large trash from entering the unit and
plugging the cones.
Position the desilter on the pit high enough so the overflow manifold will
gravity-feed fluid into the next downstream compartment at an angle of
approximately 45. Remember, no vertical overflow discharge lines.
Keep the end of the discharge line above the surface of the mud to avoid
creating a vacuum in the line.
Install a low equalizer line for backflow to the desilters suction
compartment.
Position the underflow trough to easily direct solids to the waste pit.
Running a desander ahead of a desilter takes a big load off the desilter and improves
its efficiency. If the drilling rate is slow, and the amount of solids being drilled is only a
few hundred pounds per hour, then the desander may be turned off (to save fuel and
maintenance costs) and the desilter may be used to remove solids. Appendix C
includes a chart to calculate the pounds per hour of solids generated for a range of
hole size and rate of penetration.
Operating efficiencies of competitive desilters vary widely according to differences in
design features. The same technique described in Appendix B for comparing two
desanders will work to compare the efficiencies of competing desilters operating on
the same rig.

8.4.2 Guidelines
To operate desilters at maximum efficiency, follow these basic guidelines:
Operate the cones with a spray discharge. Never operate the desilter
cones with a rope discharge since a rope underflow reduces cone
efficiency in half or worse, causes cone plugging and increases wear on
cones. Use enough cones and adjust the cone underflow openings to
maintain a spray pattern.
Operate the desilter unit at the suppliers recommended feet of head.
This is generally about 75 feet of head. Too much energy will result in
excessive cone wear.
Check cones regularly for bottom plugging or flooding, since a plugged
cone allows solids to return to the mud system. If a cone bottom is
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 plugged, take the cone off line, clean obstruction and replace the cone.
If a cone is flooding, the feed is partially plugged or the bottom of the
cone may be worn out.
Run the desilter continuously while drilling and also for a short while
during a trip. The extra cleaning during the trip can reduce overload
conditions during the period of high solids loading immediately after a
trip.

8.4.3 Maintenance
Due to the smaller size of the desilters cyclones, desilters are more likely to become
plugged than desander cones, so it is important to inspect them often for wear and
plugging. This may generally be done between wells unless a malfunction occurs
while drilling. The feed manifold should be flushed between wells to remove trash.
Keep the shale shaker well maintained never bypass the shaker or allow large
pieces of material to get into the active system.
A desilter will discard an appreciable amount of barite, because barite particles fall
within the silt size range. Desilters are not recommended for use with weighted mud.
Similarly, since hydrocyclones discard some absorbed liquid along with the drilled
solids, desilters are not normally used with oil-base mud, unless another device
(centrifuge or mud cleaner/conditioner) is used to remove excess liquid from the
discharged solids.

Figure 8-10. Typical Rig Layout for Cyclones

A typical rig lay-out for hydrocyclone equipment is shown. The desander and Desilter use
individual centrifugal pumps properly rated for each unit by NOV personnel. The mud
pumped to the specific unit is processed and then discharge downstream of the unit. This
makes sure the largest solids are removed before the processed fluid is sent downstream
for more processing.
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9 MUD CLEANERS AND CONDITIONERS

9.1 Introduction
In many cases, combinations of vibratory screening
and settling/centrifugal force are used together to
provide an effective separation. The most familiar
combination separator is the original Sweco Mud
Cleaner (Figure 9-1) or Mud Conditioner (Figure 9-2).

Figure 9-1. The Original Mud Cleaner

Figure 9-2. King Cobra Mud Conditioner

Mud cleaners were developed in the early 1970s to remove drilled solids from weighted
mud without excessive loss of barite and fluid. Mud cleaners also can be beneficial
when used in closed systems and other dry location applications. These devices use
a combination of desander and desilting hydrocyclones mounted on top of a circular or
unbalanced elliptical shaker. The shakers used fine screens (API 120400) to remove
as much liquid from the solids, returning valuable mud additives and liquids back to the
active mud system. Remember that this volume of mud returned to the active mud
system contains fines. These fines which would have been discharged are now
returned to the mud system along with the mud that would have been discharged. To
save mud, one also must save fines that can adversely affect mud properties (viscosity
and filtration properties). This is a balancing act that the mud engineer and solids
control specialist must review on a daily basis. When mud properties get excessive, a
centrifuge must be used to remove the fines or some active mud will have to be
removed and replaced with fresh fluid so that the fines are removed or diluted.

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Traditional mud cleaners use multiple - 4 or 5 (10.2 to 12.7 cm) cyclones, mounted
over the circular or unbalanced vibrating screens, and are able to effectively process
400600 gal/minute (gpm) {1514-2271 liters/min}. The process capacity is limited by
screen capacity and its ability to discard dry solids.
With the introduction of linear motion vibrating screens, the capacity of the mud cleaner
screen has been greatly increased. This, in turn, allows the use of additional
hydrocyclones and higher, overall process capacities.
The combination of hydrocyclones and linear-motion vibrating shaker screens will be
called a mud conditioner for the remainder of this handbook, to differentiate these
machines from earlier mud cleaners. Mud conditioners often combine desander and
desilter cones mounted above the screen deck to take full advantage of the higher
process capacity, usually 10001500 gpm (3785-5678 liters/min).
After removal of large cuttings by the rig shakers, feed mud is pumped into the mud
cleaner/conditioners hydrocyclones with a centrifugal pump sized for the rigs maximum
flow rates +25%. The overflow from the cyclones is returned to the mud system.
Instead of simply discarding the underflow, the solids and liquid exiting the bottom of the
cyclones are directed onto fine screens of the shale shaker. Drilled solids larger than
the screen openings are discarded; the remaining solids, including most of the barite in
a weighted mud system, pass through the screens and are returned to the active mud
system.
The cut point (the d50 value; where 50% of the solids are returned to the active system
and 50% of the solids are discharged) and amount of mass solids removed by a mud
cleaner/conditioner depends primarily on the fine screens used (Figure 9-3). Since
there are many designs of mud cleaners/conditioners available, performance and
economics will vary with machine and drilling variables.

Figure 9-3. Screens Used on Mud Cleaner/Conditioner

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9.1.1 Applications

Mud cleaners/conditioners should be considered in these applications:

1. Whenever the application requires finer screens than the existing

shaker can handle
2. Unweighted oil-base mud (OBM)
3. Expensive polymer systems
4. When the cost of water is high
5. Unweighted water-base mud (WBM) with high disposal costs and/or
environmental restrictions
6. When use of lost circulation material requires bypassing the shaker
7. Workover and completion fluid

Mud cleaners/conditioners are simply a bank of hydrocyclones (4, 5, 10 or 12)

mounted over fine screens (How fine? Fine enough so the solids are not too wet
this is a function of the specific wells situation). The question to answer becomes how
to achieve the necessary level of screening at the lowest cost. The alternatives are:

1. Add additional similar shakers to handle the flow rate,

2. Replace the existing shakers with more efficient units or

3. Add a mud cleaner/conditioner downstream from the existing

shakers.

Any of these may be correct, but a thorough study of the capital cost (the actual cost
of new equipment, plus transportation, rig modifications and installation) and the
operating cost (screens and other expendables, plus fuel) is necessary to make the
proper choice based on customer needs.

Salvage of the liquid phase of an unweighted drilling mud often cost-justifies use of a
mud cleaner/conditioner when the fluid phase of the mud or disposal is expensive.
Compared to desanders and desilters, whose cyclone underflow may discharge as
much as 15 bbl of fluid/hr or more, mud cleaners/conditioners can achieve efficient
solids removal while returning most liquid back to the active mud system. Use of fine
screens (API 200 to 325) significantly improves solids control in any high-value fluid
system.

An increasingly important application of mud cleaners/conditioners is the removal of

drilled solids from unweighted water-base mud in semi-dry form. This system is
commonly used in areas where environmental restrictions prohibit the use of earthen
reserve pits and expensive vacuum truck waste disposal from steel pits is the
alternative. The mud cleaner/conditioner is used to discard drilled solids in semi-dry
form which is classified as legal landfill in most areas and is subject to economical dry-
haul disposal techniques (dump truck or portable waste containers).
91
When used for this purpose, the screen overflow from the mud cleaner/conditioner
often is diverted to a separate steel waste pit for vacuum truck disposal. This may
seem counterproductive, but since a vacuum truck can only carry a limited amount of
sand because of over-the-road weight restrictions, whenever a vacuum truck must
haul normal full-flow desilter waste, the waste must be diluted with rig water to reduce
density. The operator is billed for the haulage of a vacuum truck load comprised
largely of rig water. On the other hand, since most of the solids are removed in semi-
dry form by the mud cleaner/conditioner screen, the remaining solids in the screen
overflow are dilute enough to be hauled away without watering them back. Vacuum
truck loads often can be reduced to a small fraction of those required with full-flow
desilting.
This approach to dry-solids disposal can be carried further by using a centrifuge with a
mud cleaner/conditioner to form a closed system which eliminates discarding of any
fluid. These systems are being used increasingly in areas where liquid mud waste
must be hauled a significant distance and is subject to a high disposal fee.
In a closed system, underflow from the mud cleaner/conditioner screen is diverted to a
holding tank and then centrifuged, which results in disposal of very fine, semi-dry
solids and return of liquid to the active system. Such a system virtually eliminates the
need for reserve pits, minimizes dilution, eliminates vacuum truck services for disposal
of liquid mud and meets environmental constraints when drilling within ecologically
sensitive areas.
One special mud cleaner/conditioner application is the use of a double-deck unit
(scalping shaker over an elliptical or linear motion shaker) for salvage of coarse lost
circulation material (LCM). When running LCM, the shale shaker usually is bypassed
and drilled solids build up rapidly in the mud, necessitating a high level of dilution and
new mud. Use of a two-deck mud cleaner/conditioner allows salvage of the LCM
while minimizing the increase in solids content.
Within the mud cleaner/conditioner, a coarse top screen is used to pre-screen the mud
and remove the lost circulation material. This material is discharged back into the
active system for recirculation downhole. The drilled solids, mud additives and liquid
phase pass through the top screen onto the lower, finer mesh screen, where the
drilled solids are separated out and discarded. The cleaned mud then flows back into
the mud system and is re-blended with the salvaged lost circulation materials.
Another mud cleaner/conditioner application is the clean-up of workover and
completion fluids. In order to reduce costs associated with this expensive task, a mud
cleaner running fine screens (API 200 or finer) can be used to remove most of the
solids before they reach cartridge type filters.
This application can significantly reduce filter replacement costs, reduce downtime in
changing filters and allow larger volumes of fluid to be cleaned at a faster rate.

9.1.2 Installation
Installation of the mud cleaner/conditioner is made downstream of the shale shaker
and the degasser. The same pump used to feed the rigs desander or desilter is often
reconnected to feed the mud cleaner/conditioner when weight material is added. Most
mud cleaner/conditioners are designed to function as desilters on unweighted mud by
rerouting the cone underflow or by removing or blanking off the screen portion of the
unit. The mud cleaner/conditioner may be used to replace or augment the rigs
desilter during top hole drilling.)
92
Follow these guidelines when installing mud cleaner/conditioners to allow peak
efficiency:
Size the mud cleaner/conditioner cyclones to process 110125% of the
full circulating flow rate.
Take the mud cleaner/conditioner suction from the compartment
receiving fluid processed by the degasser.
When using mud conditioners that have both desander and desilter
cones, use a separate feed pump for the desander cones and another
feed pump for the desilter cones. The desander cone suction should be
from the degasser discharge compartment. The desilter cone suction
should be from the desander discharge compartment.
Keep all lines as short and straight as possible.
Install a guard screen with approximately (1.3 cm) openings at the
suction to prevent large trash from entering the unit and plugging the
cones.
Position the mud cleaner/conditioner on the pit high enough so the
overflow manifold will gravity-feed fluid into the next downstream
compartment at an angle of approximately 45.
Avoid vertical overflow discharge lines from hydrocyclones.

9.1.3 General Guidelines

To operate mud cleaner/conditioners at maximum efficiency, remember these
fundamentals:
Operate mud cleaners/conditioners continuously on the full circulating
volume to achieve maximum drilled solids removal.
Operate mud cleaners/conditioners within the limits of the screen
capacity. A mud cleaner/conditioner with a cyclone throughput of 800
gpm (3028 liters/min) is of little value if the cone underflow exceeds the
screen capacity, resulting in flooding and high mud additive losses.
Feed the cone underflow to the screen at a single point. Multiple feed
points on the screening surface minimize use of the available screen
area and reduce overall capacity and efficiency.
Screen throughput is reduced by increased solids content and viscosity.
The cyclone underflow plays a critical role in overall mud
cleaner/conditioner efficiency.
Do NOT judge screen efficiency simply on the basis of cuttings dryness
or color. The total amount of drilled solids in the discarded material,
along with the ratio of barite to drilled solids, must be determined to
correctly evaluate economic performance.
A technique for measuring and calculating these values is given in
Appendix F of this handbook.
Select the number of cones to be operated and the particular mesh
screen to be used according to drilling conditions. As a general rule, use
the finest mesh screen possible (to process the full circulating rate) and
size the number of cones accordingly.
In some instances, a number of cones will have to be blanked off in order for the
desired screen to be used. This may involve an experimental determination of the
number of cones and screens to optimize performance. In some cases, more than
one mud cleaner/conditioner will be needed. The following example illustrates the
point:
93
Earlier mud cleaner designs with 12 - 16 cones over a single screen bed have not
proven to be practical; the fine screens simply cannot handle the underflow volume
from the cones.
One exception to this is the mud conditioner; a linear-motion shaker coupled with a
manifold of properly designed hydrocyclones yields a high-performance mud
conditioner with sufficient capacity for even the largest holes drilled.
Follow these general guidelines for correct mud cleaner/conditioner operation:
Run the mud cleaner/conditioner continuously while drilling and for a
short period of time while making a trip for catch-up cleaning.
Start up the shaker portion of the mud cleaner/conditioner before
engaging the feed pump(s).
Shut down the feed pump(s) before turning off the vibrating screen
portion of the mud cleaner/conditioner. Permit the screen to clear itself.
Then rinse the screen with water or oil sprays before shutting down the
screen portion of the unit.
For peak efficiency, operate the cones with a spray rather than a rope
discharge. This is just as important with a mud cleaner/conditioner as
with desilters and desanders.
Check cones regularly for bottom plugging or flooding, since a plugged
cone allows solids to return to the mud system. If a cone bottom is
plugged, take the cone offline and clear the plug or obstruction. If a cone
is flooding, the feed is partially plugged or the bottom of the cone may be
worn out.
When a significant amount of barite is added to increase mud weight,
shut down the mud cleaner/conditioner for one or two full circulations.
This permits the fresh barite to thoroughly mix with the system and
reduce losses over the screen.
Use low-volume sprays on the screen surface to reduce piggy-backing
only if 1) this liquid addition to the mud is permissible, and 2) the
resultant reduction in barite discard outweighs the resultant reduction in
drilled solids discard. This must be determined experimentally on a
case-by-case basis. In some cases, adding a small stream of cleaned
mud from the hydrocyclone overflow (reflux) provides the same reduction
in piggy-backing without reducing the overall efficiency of the unit.

9.1.4 Maintenance
Maintenance of mud cleaners/conditioners generally combines the requirements of
desilters and those of fine screen shakers:
Periodic lubrication
Check screen tension
Inspect the screen to ensure it is free of tears, holes and dried mud
before start up.
To extend screen life, shut down the unit when not circulating.
Check feed manifold for plugging of cyclone feed inlets.
Check cyclones for excessive wear and replace parts as necessary.

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9.1.5 Mud Conditioner Product Line
NOV offers an assortment of mud conditioner configurations to meet the customers
requirements as shown in Table 9-1.

Table 9 -1. Mud Conditioner Product Line

Model
Mini Cobra 2-Panel MC
Mini Cobra 3-Panel MC
Cobra MC
King Cobra MC

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10 CENTRIFUGES

10.1 Decanting Centrifuge

Centrifuges for oilfield applications were introduced in the early 1950s. The early
applications used the available industrial decanting centrifuges and for this reason
were called decanters in the oilfield. The current oilfield centrifuge has become a very
important part of solids control in most solids control systems. Centrifuges continue to
increase in use because of low-solids mud and environmental dewatering applications
that require higher process volumes, greater clarification, increased solids capacity
and additional fine solids removal.

10.1.1 Separation Process

A decanting centrifuge is so named because it decants, or removes, free liquid from a
fluid containing solids. A decanting centrifuge consists of a conveyor inside a rotating
bowl. (See Figure 10-1.)

Figure 10-1. Decanting Centrifuge

Decanting centrifuges subject the processed fluid to increased G-forces, thus

accelerating the settling of solids in the fluid. The rotating bowl creates high G-forces
(see Figure 10-2) and forms a liquid pool inside the bowl. The centrifuge is usually
installed downstream from all other solids control equipment. The G-Force Algorithm
is:

G-Force = 0.0000142 x rpm2 x bowl diameter (inches)

OR
2
G-Force = [rpm x bowl diameter (inches)]
U

70414

Figure 10-2. G-Force Algorithm

96
Drilling fluid, (sometimes diluted with water or base oil), is pumped into the bowl
through the feed tube. As the bowl rotates, centrifugal force pushes the mud out the
feed ports into the bowl. The heavy, coarse particles in the mud are forced against the
inner surface of the bowl, where the scraping motion of the conveyor blades moves
them toward the solids discharge ports. The light, fine solids tend to remain in
suspension in the pools between the conveyor flights and are carried out the overflow
ports along with the liquid phase of the mud (see above).The free liquid and finer
solids flow toward the cylindrical end of the centrifuge and are removed through the
effluent overflow weirs. The heaviest solids settle against the bowl wall, forming a wall
cake. These solids are pushed across the drainage deck or beach by the conveyor.
The dewatering of the heaviest solids actually takes place on the beach. A gear box
controls the relative speeds of the conveyor and bowl. The speed differential controls
the rate at which the separated solids are discharged. The bowl and conveyor are
rotated at speeds between 1500 and 4000 rpm depending on bowl diameter.
In weighted mud applications, feed mud capacity rarely exceeds 25 gpm (95
liters/min). Total liquid throughput may be as high as 40 gpm (152 liters/min),
including dilution liquid. Dilution liquid is required to compensate for increasing
viscosity, generally associated with increasing mud weight which coincides with a
much higher concentration of solids. The raw mud feed rate is substantially
decreased as mud weight and solids concentration increases.

10.1.1.1 Weighted Water-Based Mud Applications

In this application, centrifuges are used to process a small portion of the volume
circulated from the wellbore to reduce the volume of colloidal-sized particles and thus
improve the rheological (viscosity) and filtration properties of the mud. Viscosity and
filtration properties can be controlled by discarding a relatively small amount of
colloidal size solids and replacing the discarded liquid with fresh make-up water. (See
Figure 10-3 for a typical rig-up for a weighted water-based mud system.)

Figure 10-3. Weighted Water-Base Mud

97
To remove these colloidal solids, the liquid fraction (the effluent) from the centrifuge is
discarded and the underflow which contains the heavy semi-dry solids (predominantly
weight material and some drilled solids) is returned to the active system.
The centrifuge underflow (heavy solids) should be discharged to a well-stirred spot in
the pit for thorough mixing with whole mud before the solids have a chance to settle to
the bottom of the pit. This is especially important with a centrifuge, which discharges
dry solids. The overflow containing liquid and colloidal solids is discharged to a waste
container or the reserve pit for disposal. A centrifuge should be run when the mud
viscosity or mud filtration exceeds the operator-established maximums. The maximum
and minimum limits should be established as part of the mud program. The viscosity
and the filtration rate will creep up when the centrifuge is shut down. Over-centrifuging
and under-centrifuging should be avoided as the economics of operation are
negatively impacted in either case.
When centrifuging a weighted mud, bentonite and chemicals are lost with the
discarded overflow and their concentration must be replenished. The amount of
replacement bentonite may be calculated exactly from mass balance equations, but a
good rule of thumb is to simply add about one sack of bentonite per hour of centrifuge
operation. Under-centrifuging simply will not achieve the desired mud properties.

10.1.1.2 Unweighted Water-Based Mud Applications

As part of a closed loop, larger high capacity (75500 gpm) {284-1893 liters/min}
centrifuges are used to maximize drilled solids removal. The coarser solids fraction is
discarded in dry form, while the liquid and colloidal solids fraction is returned to the
mud system. See Figure 10-4 for a typical unweighted water-based mud system.

Figure 10-4. Unweighted Water-Base Mud

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10.1.1.3 Weighted Non Aqueous Fluids (NAFs) Applications

In weighted, NAFs applications, a decanting centrifuge should be used to separate the

effluent from the drilled solids and weight material. The effluent (containing the base fluid
and fines) should be discarded, thus removing the fines that can cause rheology and
filtration problems. The weight material and drilled solids are returned to the mud system
to a well-stirred spot in the pit for thorough mixing with whole mud before the solids have
a chance to settle to the bottom of the pit.
Sometimes two centrifuges are used in series, especially when the liquid phase (effluent)
is costly (Figure 10-5). The first unit returns the coarse solids fraction (weight material
and drilled solids) to the active system, with the effluent, the liquid fraction, being routed
to a holding tank. A second centrifuge, often a higher G-Force machine, strips out the
heavy solids left in the effluent and discards them, returning the effluent to the active
system. The customer makes the choice of how the centrifuge is used based on mud
properties. NOV does not recommend returning the effluent from the second centrifuge
back to the mud system. This effluent contains the colloidal sized solids that are causing
the poor rheological and filtration properties and the effluent should be discarded.

Figure 10-5. Weighted Non-Aqueous Mud

Using centrifuges in series on a weighted non-aqueous mud is not as effective as using a

single unit for controlling the viscosity and filtration properties of the mud. The cost of the
base fluid will influence how one goes about removing detrimental solids. Usually the
coarse solids fraction from the second centrifuge is discarded and the base fluid is
retained for re-use. The second centrifuge is used to discharge solids that might grind
down into colloidal solids but the effluent returned to the mud system still contains the
colloidal sized solids that caused the detrimental mud properties.
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 10.1.1.4 Other Applications
Other applications for centrifuges have become more important in recent years
because of the centrifuges ability to remove free liquid from the solids discharge. As
part of a closed loop, the decanting centrifuge is used to dewater the underflow from
solids control equipment, usually hydrocyclones. One customer even used a big bowl
centrifuge to dry the discharge from rig shakers to save fluid and reduce the waste
volume discard.
Large bowl high speed centrifuges, such as the HS-2172 can process 500 gpm (1893
liters/min) of unweighted mud and allow you the benefit of greater flow rates with
extremely good separation which was not possible prior to this machine.
Chemical enhancement (through the use of coagulants, flocculants, and other
chemicals) is becoming more popular as an economical way to reduce dilution
requirements and to reduce overall waste volume for haul-off and disposal.

10.1.2 Dewatering
There are times where one must minimize the fluid associated with discharged solids.
A typical lay-out can be seen in Figure 10-6. The industry has dewatered water-based
muds for many years. Chemically enhanced centrifuge separation uses a combination
of mechanical G-Force and chemicals to remove fines (solids) that cant be removed
by normal mechanical means. The mud is tested to determine which chemical
combinations work the best and how much of each chemical will be required for
removing solids from the mud. Coagulants, acid and flocculants can be used as
needed depending on the chemistry of the mud.

Figure 10-6. Dewatering Water-Based Mud: Dewatering and Clarification Process Typical Layout

The Dewatering engineer will select a specific, in-line mixer and length of Hose A
depending on the time it takes to make good flocs for separation. Batch processing
works the best but continuous processing works and is used the most. When
environmental regulations become stricter more process equipment will be added to
clarify and purify the treated water before reuse or disposal.
100
Operating Procedures
Operating procedures will vary from model to model, but a few universal principles
apply to almost all centrifuges:
Before starting a centrifuge, rotate the bowl or cylinder by hand to be
sure it turns freely.
Start up the centrifuge before starting the mud feed pump and dilution
water feed.
Set the raw mud and dilution feed rates according to the manufacturers
recommendations (usually variable with mud weight).
Remember to turn the feed and dilution water off before the machine is
stopped.
Centrifuges are relatively easy to operate, but they require special skills
for repair and maintenance. Rig maintenance of centrifuges is limited to
routine lubrication and speed adjustment of the unit.

10.2 CENTRIFUGE MODELS (SEE APPENDIX I - CENTRIFUGE CHART)

10.2.1 HS-3400 Centrifuge

Figure 10-7. HS 3400 Centrifuge

In addition to the variable speed drive (VSD), the HS-3400 (Figure 10-7) comes with fully
variable speed main and back drive (FVSD). FVSD models use variable speed back
drive to adjust scroll (differential) speeds independently. They can automatically
compensate for changes in torque that arise from increased solids density or increased
solids loading. There also is a belt drive version available which is speed adjustable by
changing pulley sheaves and v-belts. The HS-3400 has a bowl diameter of 14 inches
(35.6 cm) and a bowl length of 49.5 inches (125.7 cm). The HS-3400 can process 205.7
gpm (779 liters/min) of 9.2 ppg mud or about 4.6 tons of solids per hour making a cut of
0.4 ppg (mud in 9.2 ppg and mud out 8.8 ppg). This data is from a certified test
conducted June 19, 2002. The normal operating range for the unit is 100 - 160 gpm (379
606 liters/min).

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10.2.2 HS-2000 Centrifuge
The HS-2000 has three models; a cast steel base (C), a modular frame in-line drives (M)
and a fixed drive (F). The HS-2000 C weighs 11500 lb (5216 kg) and is very stable
(Figure 10-9). Each unit has a different footprint. The HS-2000 C is the shortest in length
but the largest in width and height and weighs the most (see Appendix I for details). All
three units have 12 port feeds. The HS-2000 F is a fixed drive unit where the C and M
are VFD units. The bowl diameter is 18 inches (45.7 cm) and the length is 60 inches
(152.4 cm). Each unit can process approximately 300 gpm (1136 liters/min) of water.

Figure 10-9- HS 2000 Centrifuge

10.2.3 HS-1960 Centrifuge

This centrifuge is a 19 inch by 60 inch (48.3 cm by 152.4 cm) unit designed with power in
mind (Figure 10-10). The 100 hp main drive and 20 hp back drive makes this unit a
workhorse. It has more power and more ability to handle high torque which equates to
more throughput and better performance.
Drilling fluid (mud) is introduced into the feed chamber of the HS-1960 through a feed
tube and, with the assistance of built-in S shaped accelerators, exits into the bowl
through two elongated windows. The HS-1960 centrifuge is able to exert up to 2,684 Gs
on the mud.
The HS-1960 is equipped with variable frequency drive (VFD) control, which provides a
controlled application of motor drive power to the centrifuge components (bowl, conveyor
and feed pump). Customized hardware and software packages can be designed to meet
specific installation and operational requirements. With a processing capacity (water) of
up to 350 gal/min (1325 lit/min), the HS-1960 series centrifuge is able to quickly process
high volumes of mud while allowing prescribed mud weights and separation efficiencies to
be maintained. This enables the HS-1960 series centrifuge to produce fine cut points at
higher flow rates, making it ideal for high-flow applications and critical-conditions solids
control.

102
 Figure 10-10. HS 1960 Centrifuge

Table 10-2. HS-1960 Centrifuge Features & Benefits

FEATURES BENEFITS
350 gal/min (1325 lit/min) maximum processing High processing capacity for utilization in high-flow drilling
capacity (water) applications and conditions
75:1 ratio planetary gearbox Reduced motor size
Feed from solids end Short feed tube with less vibration
Variable frequency drive (VFD) control Easy adjustment of bowl, conveyor and feed pump speeds
for varying process conditions, torque overload protection
Bowl and heads forged of stainless steel Corrosion resistance for long life, smooth operation and
low maintenance
Stainless steel case High strength and corrosion resistance
Tungsten carbide tiles and other wear Abrasion resistance for long life and low maintenance
protection items
Flush connections Aid in cleaning excess material from inside the case
Case gaskets Contain process materials within the case
Vibration switch shut-off mechanism Automatically disables operation in situations of high
vibration
Stainless steel rotating assembly Corrosion resistance for long life, smooth operation and
low maintenance
Split-case cover Easy access for inspection and maintenance
Spherical roller and cylindrical roller main Long life and low maintenance
bearings
Sturdy WF-beam skid Solid foundation for smooth operation and long bearing life
Six epicentric orifices Convey the liquid effluent to the discharge and enable
easy adjustment of the pond depth
Dual 6 in (152 mm) effluent discharge pipes High-capacity processing

10.2.4 HS-2172
There are three models of the HS-2172 centrifuge. The HS-2172 model (part # A11261)
used in Canada has a feed outlet called the MM design. The MM type feed is a
rectangular opening that allows for large flow rates and consequently processes a large
volume of fluid. The model L has the feed entering the machine from the beach side of
the centrifuge (Figure 10-11). Both models are 21 inches (53.3 cm) in diameter and 72
inches (182.9 cm) long.

103
 Figure 10-11. HS 2172 Centrifuge

Table 10-3. HS 2172 Features & Benefits

FEATURES BENEFITS

550 gal/min (2082 lit/min) maximum High processing capacity for utilization in high-flow drilling
processing capacity (water) applications and conditions

75:1 ratio planetary gearbox Reduced motor size

Fluid fed from solids end (HS-2172L) Short feed tube with less vibration

Variable frequency drive (VFD) control Easy bowl adjustment, conveyor and feed pump speeds for
varying process conditions and torque overload protection

Bowl and heads forged of stainless steel Corrosion resistance for long life, smooth operation and low
maintenance

Stainless steel case High strength and corrosion resistance

Entire scroll fitted with tungsten carbide Abrasion resistance for maximum operational life and low
tiles maintenance

Flush connections Aid in cleaning excess material from inside the case

Case gaskets Contain process materials within the case

Stainless steel rotating assembly (HS- Corrosion resistance for long life, smooth operation and low
2172L) maintenance

Split-case cover Easy access for inspection and maintenance

Spherical roller and cylindrical roller main Offer long life and low maintenance
bearings

Sturdy I-beam skid Solid foundation for smooth operation and long bearing life

Dual 6 in (152 mm) effluent discharge High-capacity processing

pipes with optional bottom discharge

Five epicentric orifices easy adjustment of pond depth

104
10.3 Drying Centrifuges
NOV has two distinct designs of drying centrifuges. These devices help reduce the
amount of non-aqueous (diesel, mineral or synthetic-based oils) mud left on solids
discharged by the drilling rig. Both units perform the same function but are designed
differently. The Vortex Dryer is a vertical unit and can be used where vertical space is
not limited. (See Figure 10-12 and 10-13.)

Figure 10-12. Vortex Dryer

Feed solids

Screen
Screen
basket
basket
Recovered
Fluid

Clean solids
Figure 10-13. Vortex Dryer Flow Process

105
The Mud 10 and Mud 8 are horizontal units and can be positioned where head room is
limited. The Mud 10 has a unique feed system that is difficult to plug and easy to work
with as shown in Figure 10-14.

Figure 10-14. Mud 10

The dryers reduce and recover base fluid from a variety of feed slurries. In drilling
operations, shale shakers can discard drilled cuttings that are up to 20% oil by weight.
The dryer can process the cuttings discharged from the shakers and reduces the oil
content dramatically. It also can:
Recover valuable base fluid for reuse
Reduce solid waste volumes to lessen haulage cost
Meet environmental objectives or guidelines
Reduce fluid content on cuttings prior to other forms of treatment,
thereby increasing waste treatment efficiency.
Often, the dryer can meet more than one of these objectives simultaneously. In some
applications, it offsets operational cost by saving time, reducing drilling fluid dilution
needs or increasing process treatment capacity.
Extensive field use of the centrifugal dryer and long term monitoring has proven that it
can meet strict environmental discharge criteria. For instance, a dryer system can
help operators comply with effluent limitations as mandated by the US Environmental
Protection Agency for offshore drilling operations in American waters.
106
The dryers have been used in various applications including thermal desorption pre-
treatment and bioremediation pre-treatment. Numerous benefits are realized including
energy conservation and increased process efficiency.

10.3.1 Vortex Dryer

The Vortex dryer uses centrifugal force to recover oil from drilled solids with oil or
synthetic-base drilling fluids. A stainless steel screen bowl traps wet solids and
accelerates them up to 540 Gs with centrifugal force. Liquid is forced through the
screen bowl openings. Dry solids are extracted by the angled flights attached to the
cone of the bowl. Tungsten carbide protects the flights from abrasive solids and
ensures long operational life. In turn, this aids in maintaining a constant gap between
the scroll and screen bowl, which is crucial for proper operation.
Many units are supplied with a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to facilitate soft
starting. Instant control by the VFD changes motor speed and thus G-force can be
matched to operating conditions. An externally mounted lubrication system circulates
clean oil to the differential gear assembly during operation. The lubrication system is
electrically interlocked with the main motor starter to prevent machine operation in the
event of low or no oil pressure to the gearbox.
Each Vortex Dryer system is configured to specific wellsite requirements. Low-profile
versions integrate dual augers to remove the solids. These models are ideal for height
restrictive installations. Most units come with an overhead crane to facilitate
maintenance of the screen bowl and rotating components. Newer units have the lid
split in two pieces for easy removal.
Vortex Dryer systems have set the standard for offshore operation and feature key
elements for successful project completion, including:
Redundancy of critical components
Fit-for-purpose technology
Certified operators to assure project success
Every effort has been made to reduce maintenance requirements for the Vortex.
Normal wear parts are accessible from the top of the machine; belts can be changed
without removing the gear assembly and the entire gear assembly can be removed
with little effort. Special materials, such as tungsten carbide and ceramic tiles are
applied to high wear areas.

10.3.2 Mud 8 and 10

NOV uses the horizontal Mud 8 and Mud 10 centrifugal dryers on rigs that have
adequate horizontal space and limited vertical height.
The Mud 8 and Mud 10 generate approximately 155 and 112 Gs respectively. The
units are difficult to plug because of their feed tube design. They are dependable
under heavy use and require very little maintenance and repair.

107
11 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

11.1 Introduction
Every centrifugal pump should be sized for its specific application. Only one
centrifugal pump should be used per piece of solids control equipment.
Accurate centrifuge pump selection can occur only with knowledge of system details.
It is imperative that accurate information is used for the selection of a pump. The
following information is required for selecting the proper pump for a specific
application:
Fluid temperature
Specific gravity of fluid (maximum)
Pipe diameter
Length of pipe
Fittings (elbows, suction design, etc.)
Elevation flow required
Head required at end of transfer
Type of driver required
Type of power available

Without the above information, assumptions have to be made that could cause pump
failure, high maintenance costs, downtime and/or improper performance.

11.2 Understanding Pump Performance Curves

The head vs. flow curves in the Mission Centrifugal Catalog give the performance of
the Magnum, 2500 Supreme, Vertical Magnum and Sandmaster pumps at various
speeds and with various impeller sizes. The horsepower (HP) rating is based on
pumping water with a specific gravity of 1.0. The flow is measured in US liquid gallons
per minute (GPM). The total differential head is measured in feet. There also are a
series of Efficiency and Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHr) lines showing
the pump hydraulic efficiency and minimum NPSHr. The performance curves are
plotted based on actual test results for each size of pumps running at various RPM
with various impeller sizes.

To determine the HP required for your system you will need to determine the highest
Specific Gravity (Sp.Gr.) of the fluid being transferred and then multiply the Sp.Gr. by the
HP shown on the curve. To determine your Sp.Gr., divide the density of the fluid in
pounds per gallon by 8.34 (Figure 11-1)
:

Specific Gravity = ppg of fluid

U

8.34

Figure 11-1. Specific Gravity Formula

108
11.3 How to Select a Pump
Details one needs to know to properly select a pump are as follows:

11.3.1 Pump Speed

This depends on what kind of drive you put on the pump; 3500, 1750 or 1150 RPM for
60 Hz motors and 3000, 1500 or 1000 RPM for 50 Hz motors. Variable speed curves
are provided for diesel, belt drive and hydraulic motors.

11.3.2 Total Head Required

The total head (TH) required is the total of vertical elevation (He) and friction head (Hf)
plus the head required at the end of the piping. TH = He + Hf + head required at of the
end of piping. Subtract the suction head when the source of supply is above the pump.
To calculate Friction Head losses, refer to the latest revision of NOVs Mission
Centrifugal Pump Catalog (document number 0001-0567-90).

11.3.3 Flow Rate

Obtain the flow requirement in GPM or cubic meters per hour.

11.3.4 Specific Gravity

Obtain the maximum specific gravity of the fluid to be pumped.

11.3.5 Procedure for Selecting the Pump Impeller Size and Horsepower
Requirements
1. Find the required flow rate on the bottom or the top scale on the pump curve and
draw a straight line up or down.
2. Find the total head at the left or right hand scale and draw a straight line to the right
or left. Locate the intersection of the above two lines and pick the nearest larger
impeller size. Speeds below 2900 RPM select impeller to next larger -inch
diameter and for speeds above 2900 RPM select impeller to next larger -inch
diameter. Also, a set of horsepower lines gives you the horsepower requirement
for pumping water (It is best to choose a motor size larger than the minimum
required). If you pump fluid other than water, you have to adjust the required HP
(kW) by multiplying the specific gravity to the HP (kW) rating based on water. Find
the total head at the left or right hand scale and draw a straight line to the right or
left.

109
11.4 Net Positive Suction Head (npsh)
Net positive suction head is the useful pressure existing at the suction flange of the pump
to push water into the impeller vanes. It is measured in feet of head. It is called NPSH
Available (NPSHa). NPSH Required (NPSHr) is read from the pump curve at the
designed pump impeller, RPM, and flow rate. NPSH on the curve is the lowest NPSH
that will prevent the formation of vapor bubbles which cause cavitation.

Most customers are not concerned about NPSH problems. However, more than 50% of
all rigs do have NPSH problems. These problems are due in part to high mud
temperatures and poor suction design. You should check your net positive suction head
(NPSH).

NPSHa = Ha + He - Hf - Hvp

Where:
NPSHa = NPSH Available
NPSHr = NPSH Required
Ha = atmospheric head feet
He = elevation head feet (lowest possible liquid level above or below pump center
line)
Hf = Friction head feet (suction line friction losses)
Hvp = Vapor pressure of fluid at pumping temperature (refer to latest revision of
NOV Mission Centrifugal Pump Catalog, document number 0001-0567-90)

The NPSHr as shown on the curves is the minimum NPSH required by the pumps. If the
NPSHa is greater than the NPSHr the pump will perform. If the NPSHa is less than
NPSHr then the pump will activate and some changes to the suction conditions are
necessary. Possible solutions are reducing the flow rate, increasing the suction pipe size,
selecting a larger pump or lowering the pump speed.

11.5 Formulas

To convert Head in feet to pressure in pounds per square inch:

PSIG= Feet of head X Specific Gravity
2.31
To convert pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI) to head in feet:
Feet of Head = PSIG X 2.31
Specific Gravity of mud

Specific gravity of mud:

Specific Gravity of Mud = Mud Weight (lbs/gal)
8.34
Horse Power (hp) of motor:
Horse Power required = Curve HP X Specific Gravity of Mud

110
11.6 Details to Remember about Centrifugal Pumps
1. Volume leaving pump increases until the volume pumped causes total head
losses equal to its impeller output head.
2. It will help in the selection of impeller size if the friction loss curve is plotted on the
pump curve Pressure or Head in Feet.
3. When the pump is running pressure will build up. Pressure developed by the
centrifugal pump is always specified as Head in Feet liquid. The relation between
PSI and head is shown in 11.5.2 and 11.5.3. When sizing centrifugal pumps, it is
crucial to work in feet of head rather than PSI. PSI varies with the fluid weight
while Feet of Head is constant.
4. Centrifugal Pump Rotation: Stand at the drive end to determine the pump
rotation. A right hand rotation pump turns clockwise looking from the motor end.
All the pumps featured in the NOV pump catalog are right hand rotation.

Table 11-1. Conversion Factors used with Centrifugal Pumps

CONVERT FROM CONVERT TO MULIPLY BY

m3/hr GPM 4.4
m3/min GPM 264
liters/min GPM 0.264
liters/sec GPM 15.9
Barrels/day GPM 0.02917
Cubic Feet Gallons 7.481
2
Kg/cm PSI 14.223
M3 Gallons 264
Meters Feet 3.28
Bars PSI 14.7
2
Kg/cm PSI 14.2
Grams/cu. cm Sp. Gr. 1.0

BHP= GPM X Feet X Sp. Gr.

U U KW= m3/hr x meters x Sp. Gr.
U

3960 x Efficiency 367 x Efficiency

Efficiency from curve written as 0.XX

111
12 MUD MIXING AGITATORS AND MUD GUNS

12.1 Introduction
There are two types of mud mixing devices used on drilling rigs, mechanical agitators
and mud guns.
Except for the sand trap all compartments in an active mud system must be agitated
in order to suspend solids and maintain consistent mud properties throughout the
surface system. Suspension of the solids permits their separation by the mechanical
solids control equipment.

12.2 Mechanical Agitators

Mechanical agitators (Figure 12-1) are the best means of mixing mud pits. Agitators
use an electric motor to drive impeller blades which mix the mud in a specific pattern
throughout the tank.
Given proper tank design, agitator sizing and impeller placement, this method of
agitation prevents settling, enhances the efficiency of solids removal devices and
maintains a well- blended mud system.

Figure 12-1. Mechanical Agitator

12.2.1 Selection of Agitator Size and Quantity

NOV will select the proper size and number of agitators based on the maximum mud
weight expected, the size of the pit and pit function (See Table 12-1).
Table 12-1. Agitator Selection
Factors to Consider
1. Maximum mud weight
2. Pit dimensions, L x W x H
3. Pit function; mixing or storage

112
12.2.1.1 Mechanical Mud Agitators
Agitators serve the drilling industry with high quality and time-proven mechanical
agitation.
MA
The horizontally mounted MA series agitator has been the industry standard for many
years. The rugged design, simplicity and dependability have made the MA agitator
the preferred choice of a majority of operators and contractors.
MA-RG
The skid mounted MA-RG agitator is very compact. The low profile reduces
headroom requirements and provides more layout space on top of the tanks. The
gearbox is a triple reduction helical-bevel gear drive system that reduces the
rotational speed of the motor to drive the impeller(s). Up to 95% mechanical efficiency
helps reduce horsepower requirements.
MA-RG-LP
The MA-RG-LP agitator offers a lower profile version of the MA-RG. This is
accomplished by using a base plate instead of the mounting skid to reduce the overall
height. Maintenance and reliability are maximized by the triple reduction, helical bevel
gearbox driven by an explosion proof motor.
MA-RG-C
The MA-RG-C agitator uses a C-face motor with a close coupling style. This variation
also features a base plate instead of a mounting skid, reducing the overall height.
VMA
The VMA agitator is vertically mounted, reducing the footprint requirement. It offers a
motor with a vertical direct mount to a helical inline gearbox with a drop bearing
configuration.
VMA-I
The VMA-I agitator shares the same design principles as the VMA. The gearbox is
equipped with a strong output shaft bearing rather than the drop bearing
configuration.
HMA AND HMA-RG
HMA and HMA-RG agitators are very robust, heavy duty mechanical mixers. The
gearbox is a triple reduction helical-bevel gear drive system that reduces the
rotational speed of the motor to drive the impeller(s). These agitators are skid
mounted and are offered with a 900 rpm or 1200 rpm motor.
Impellers
Impellers are available with flat blades (radial flow), contour blades (axial flow) and
canted blades (radial/axial flow). The impellers are sized according to tank volume
and expected duty. Active mud system compartments - such as solids removal
sections, mud mixing sections and slug pits - which need a higher shear force to
produce immediate mixing, are another consideration in impeller sizing.
For active mud system compartments less than 5 feet high (1.52 meters), a flat blade
impeller can be used to induce radial flow patterns in the mud. Properly placed, the
impeller will impart some axial flow to the system and suspension will be adequate for
more applications.
113
High efficiency contour impellers are best for bulk storage tanks. This variable pitch
impeller reduces horsepower requirements and induces less shearing force to the
fluid.
Canted blades are recommended, depending on the tank depth. Low shear contour
blades are ideal for bulk storage and suction compartments.
Shafts
NOV offers several types of shafts. Mild steel shafts are cut to length and joined to
the gearbox output shaft with a rigid coupling. Solid shafts are keyed at the bottom for
adjustment of impeller height. A bottom end stabilizer is supplied when tank depths
exceed 6 feet. The stabilizer reduces side loading and protects the agitator when
auxiliary equipment is carried inside the mud tanks during rig moves.
Hollow pipe shafts are available for deep tanks. They are supplied in flanged sections
and bolted together making them ideal when lifting height is limited. Most hollow
shafts use contour impellers that are bolted in place, further simplifying on-site
assembly.
Sizing Recommendations
Regardless of what style agitator or impeller is used, proper sizing is critical. Impeller
sizes are determined by calculating the Turn Over Rate (TOR) for each agitated
compartment. TOR is the time required in seconds to completely move the fluid in a
compartment and can be calculated by knowing the tank volume and impeller
displacement. (See Table 12.3)

Flat Impeller Canted Impeller Contour Impeller

Axial Flow Radial Flow

Table 12-2. Typical Turn Over Rate

Typical Turn Over Rate (TOR) Per Compartment

Shaker Intermediate Suction Reserve Pill
Canted/Flat Impeller 50-75 50-75 65-85 50-80 40-85
Contour Blade 25-38 25-38 30-42 25-40 N/A

114
 Table 12-2. Agitators Features & Benefits

MA-RG-LP

MA-RG-C
MA-RG

VMA-I

HMA
VMA
MA
FEATURES BENEFITS
Explosion proof motors & starters (optional) Can be used in a variety of places

Optimal mixing Lower mud cost

Triple reduction helical gearbox Quiet, efficient, low operational temperature

95% mechanical efficiency Reduced horsepower requirement

Small footprint Requires less space

Helical drive train gearbox Quiet, efficient, low operational temperature

Robust worm-worm gearbox Long life

Rugged design Dependability

Low profile Less head room

Baseplate mounted & motor direct mounted Less head room

Double reduction helical gearbox Smooth vibration free operation

Double/Triple reduction helical gearbox Smooth vibration free operation

Motor 900 rpm & 1200 rpm Large Impellers for use in deeper tanks

Specifications and Dimensions

Model Part Number HP Length Width Height Weight
(less the shaft and impeller)

MA-3 3696 3 35 in (895 mm) 19 916 in (497 mm) 151116 in (398 mm) 406 lb (184 kg)
9
MA-5 3705 5 40 in (1022 mm) 21 16 in (548 mm) 16 in (425 mm) 580 lb (263 kg)

MA-7.5 9740 7.5 5218 in (1324 mm) 2758 in (702 mm) 24 in (616 mm) 1200 lb (544 kg)

MA-10 3709 10 5218 in (1324 mm) 2758 in (702 mm) 24 in (616 mm) 1224 lb (555 kg)
1 5
MA-15 4442 15 52 in (1324 mm)
8 27 in (702 mm)
8 24 in (616 mm) 1320 lb (599 kg)
1
MA-20 3687 20 61 in (1556 mm) 34 in (870 mm) 27 in (689 mm)
8 1898 lb (861 kg)
5 7
MA-25 3696 25 68 8 in (1743 mm) 39 in (1003 mm) 30 8 in (784 mm) 3130 lb (1420 kg)
5 7
MA-30 8789 30 68 8 in (1743 mm) 39 in (1003 mm) 30 8 in (784 mm) 3180 lb (1442 kg)

MA-5RG 17511 5 40 in (1022 mm) 17 in (432 mm) 17 in (445 mm) 500 lb (227 kg)

MA-7.5RG 19651 7.5 44 in (1118 mm) 275/8 in (702 mm) 177/16 in (443 mm) 500 lb (227 kg)

MA-10RG 17507 10 46 3/8 in (1178 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 18 in (457 mm) 750 lb (340 kg)

MA-15RG 16857 15 53 in (1352 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 195/8 in (498 mm) 885 lb (401 kg)
7 13
MA-20RG 12548 20 58 in (1495 mm)
8 26 in (660 mm) 25 / in (656 mm)
16 1267 lb (575 kg)
7 13
MA-25RG 12508 25 66 8 in (1699 mm) 33 /16 in (859 mm) 25 in (648 mm) 2025 lb (918 kg)
7 13
MA-30RG 12554 30 66 8 in (1699 mm) 33 /16 in (859 mm) 25 in (648 mm) 2027 lb (919 kg)
3 3
MA-40RG 14467 40 70 /8 in (1787 mm) 36 in (914 mm) 26 /8 in (670 mm) 2350 lb (1066 kg)

115
Specifications and Dimensions

Model Part Number HP Length Width Height Weight

(less the shaft and impeller)

MA-15RG-LP 21544 15 51 in (1302 mm) 23 in (584 mm) 14 5/8 in (371 mm) 1008 lb (457 kg)

1
MA-20RG-LP 16980 20 56 in (1422 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 16 /16 in (408 mm) 1500 lb (680 kg)

MA-25RG-LP 21541 25 67 in (1702 mm) 30 in (762 mm) 17 in (451 mm) 2298 lb (1042 kg)

MA-30RG-LP 14571 30 67 in (1702 mm) 30 in (762 mm) 17 in (451 mm) 2300 lb (1043 kg)

MA-40RG-LP 14572 40 70 in (1778 mm) 33 in (838 mm) 18 5/8 in (473 mm) 2500 lb (1133 kg)

MA-3RG-C 15915 3 34 in (876 mm) 17 in (432 mm) 1158 in (295 mm) 326 lb (148 kg)

MA-5RG-C 17044 5 37 in (952 mm) 17 in (432 mm) 11 in (298 mm) 394 lb (179 kg)

MA-7.5RG-C 22806 7.5 40 in (1022 mm) 16 in (406 mm) 1838 in (467 mm) 440 lb (200 kg)

MA-10RG-C 21505 10 45 in (1155 mm) 21 in (533 mm) 1338 in (339 mm) 745 lb (338 kg)

9
MA-15RG-C 22809 15 50 /16 in (1284 mm) 22 in (559 mm) 14 in (375 mm) 880 lb (399 kg)

HMA-25RG 23072 25 83 in (2108 mm) 399/16 in (1005 mm) 37 in (940 mm) 2250 lb (1020.5 kg)
(900 RPM)

HMA-30RG 13041 30 88 in (2248 mm) 44 in (1118 mm) 339/16 in (852 mm) 2950 lb (1338.097 kg)
(1800 RPM)

HMA-40RG 19135 40 88 in (2248 mm) 44 in (1118 mm) 37 in (940 mm) 3300 lb (1496.85 kg)
(900 RPM)

HMA-50RG 20866 50 88 in (2248 mm) 44 in (1118 mm) 37 in (940 mm) 3150 lb (1428.815 kg)
(1200 RPM)

VMA-3 12353 3 20 in (508 mm) 20 in (508 mm) 3478 in (886 mm) 410 lb (186 kg)

VMA-5 13020 5 20 in (508 mm) 20 in (508 mm) 36 in (927 mm) 595 lb (270 kg)

VMA-7.5 13021 7.5 20 in (508 mm) 20 in (508 mm) 407/16 in (1027 mm) 632 lb (287 kg)

VMA-10 22008 10 22 in (559 mm) 22 in (559 mm) 42 in (1067 mm) 967 lb (439 kg)

5
VMA-15 21649 15 22 in (559 mm) 22 in (559 mm) 48 /8 in (1235 mm) 1009 lb (458 kg)

VMA-20 16648 20 26 in (660 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 50 5/8 in (1286 mm) 1257 lb (570 kg)

VMA-25 13025 25 26 in (660 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 55 in (1410 mm) 1587 lb (720 kg)

VMA-30 13026 30 26 in (660 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 5678 in (1445 mm) 1900 lb (862 kg)

VMAI-3 22012 3 20 in (508 mm) 20 in (508 mm) 319/16 in (802 mm) 410 lb (186 kg)

VMAI-5 23325 5 20 in (508 mm) 20 in (508 mm) 357/16 in (900 mm) 535 lb (243 kg)

VMAI-7.5 22010 7.5 20 in (508 mm) 20 in (508 mm) 38 in (984 mm) 632 lb (287 kg)

VMAI-10 22008 10 22 in (559 mm) 22 in (559 mm) 39 in (991 mm) 967 lb (439 kg)

5
VMAI-15 22009 15 22 in (559 mm) 22 in (559 mm) 47 /8 in (1210 mm) 1009 lb (458 kg)

VMAI-20 22004 20 26 in (660 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 5438 in (1381 mm) 1257 lb (570 kg)

VMAI-25 22003 25 26 in (660 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 5613/16 in (1443 mm) 1587 lb (720 kg)

VMAI-30 22006 30 26 in (660 mm) 26 in (660 mm) 59 in (1505 mm) 1900 lb (862 kg)

116
12.3 Mud guns
For many years, Mud Guns (Figure 12-2) were the sole means of
agitation. These devices usually carry mud from a down-stream
compartment and spray it at high velocity into an upstream compartment
to keep solids suspended. Mud Guns mix only where the gun is pointed,
an inefficient process.
The mixing effected by mud guns is restricted to the point where the
nozzle-spray discharges, leaving dead spots in other areas of the tank.
Also, mud guns increase the load on downstream solids control
equipment because each nozzle adds 100 - 200 gpm (379 l/m - 757 l/m)
of mud into the tank in addition to the normal flow from the well.

Figure 12-2. Mud Gun

12.4 Sand Traps

The sand trap is a settling tank and is usually the first compartment, or the first pit, in
the surface system. A shale shaker is normally installed on top of the sand trap and
discharges into it.

Sand traps serve an important role in solids control by removing large particles and
protecting downstream equipment from plugging caused by torn shale shaker
screens, by-passed shakers or screens that are poorly sealed to the shaker bed.
Particles that are greater than 74 microns (sand sized) can plug cyclones or other
downstream equipment.

Sand traps should have a top weir over which mud can flow into the next
compartment and a slanted bottom, at 45, with a quick-opening, quick-closing dump
valve or gate so that settled solids can be discharged with minimum loss of mud.
(See Figure 12-3)

Figure 12-3. API Drawing Showing Sand Trap

117
12.5 Tank/Pit Use
The surface mud system consists of the flowline, active tanks, reserve tanks, trip
tank, agitators, pump motors, solids removal equipment and gas removal devices.
The tanks are classified as:
Removal
Addition
Suction
Reserve
Discharge
Trip Tank

12.5.1 Removal
All compartments except the sand trap require proper agitation. Solids control
equipment works best when solids loading remains constant. Slugs of solids tend to
plug hydrocyclones and centrifuges.

12.5.2 Addition
The addition tanks need proper agitation. A mud system is treated with chemicals to
alter the mud properties in order to achieve the desired performance characteristics
or to increase mud volume. In critical situations, such as well-control problems, it is
desirable to mix additives rapidly and thoroughly.
NOV provides four- and six-inch hoppers along with a stand-alone shearing unit called
TurboShear and a high pressure shearing unit called the HP Shear Unit.
The four inch hopper can be equipped with 1 or 1 nozzle; the 1 nozzle is standard.
The six inch hopper can be equipped with 1 , 2 or 2 nozzle; the 2 nozzle is
standard. If one selects 80 feet of head for the inlet feed as shown in Table 12-2, the 1
and 2 nozzles can handle 296 and 531 gpm (1120 and 2010 liters/min), respectively.
For example, the six inch (15.2 cm) hopper using the 2 (5.1 cm) nozzle at 80-feet of
feed head can handle 7-to-8 100-pound sacks of barite per minute assuming the back
pressure is less than 50% of the inlet feed. (See Table 12-2.)

Table 12-2. Hopper Flow Rate for 6" NOV Mud Hopper
Inlet Pressure 1 1 2 2
Feet of Head
50 105 227 403 627
80 130 298 531 830
90 140 317 566 885
100 150 337 600 938
130 167 375 665 1039

A hopper with a jet-venturi operates with a downstream back pressure of up to 50% of

the inlet head. That is, if the hopper inlet feed rate is 80 feet of head the downstream
elevation and frictional losses must be less than or equal to 40 feet of head (50% of 80
feet of head = 40 feet of head). If downstream elevation and frictional losses are more
than 50% of the feet head one only has to increase the feed head to the hopper so that
the back pressure is less than 50% of the feed.

118
Venturi sizes are matched to the nozzle size to ensure the greatest feed rate, while
providing the highest shear rates. The liquid stream leaving the nozzle expands as it
enters the hopper mixing chamber. Additives should be slowly and evenly sifted into the
hopper. The additives are sucked into the hopper mixing chamber by the action of the
liquid stream leaving the nozzle.

Hopper feed rate is a function of additive density. Low density additives having a
specific gravity of 2.6 like bentonite (gel), are mixed much slower than high density
additives like API barite, which has a specific gravity of 4.20. Tests have shown that with
80 feet of feed head, a six inch hopper with a 2 (5.1 cm) nozzle can handle about eight
100-pound sacks of barite per minute or about 3.5 sacks of gel per minute. There is no
reason to mount the hopper on top of the mud tanks since the jet-venturi allows for
convenient location of the hopper. Sizing assistance should be requested when
extensive piping or elevation is planned for the downstream side of the hopper.

NOV provides a dust collector for its hoppers. The dust collector utilizes a 1- hp fan
and filtration system to greatly reduce the air borne solids, creating a safer working
environment. The air inlet is at the bottom of the dust collector and draws the air and
dust into the polypropylene bag filter. Accumulated solids can be dislodged from the
filter media into the hopper, reducing waste and keeping the process simple.

NOV also can provide dual sack tables which allow two men to feed the hopper
simultaneously. Contact your NOV representative for more information.

12.5.2.1 TurboShear
A properly designed mud system will have adequate storage and mixing capacity.
(See Figure 12-4) In situations where adequate mixing or capacity is lacking,
especially when rapid shearing is required, the use of the NOV TurboShear mixing
system is recommended. The pre-mix system can mix bentonite and other hard to
mix polymers such as CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose), PHPA (partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamide) and XC Polymer (Xanthan gum). The TurboShear mixes best when
the fluid is circulated in one pit allowing the chemicals to properly hydrate before
pumping into the active mud system or downhole.

Figure 12-4. TurboShear Unit

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12.5.2.2 High Pressure Shear Unit (HP Shear Unit)

This unit allows fast hydration and mixing of chemicals which are normally slow to
hydrate, chemicals such as bentonite, polymers and lignite (see Figure 12-5). The
chemical is mixed via the sack slitting unit or surge tank into the pre-defined pit with an
"HP Shear Unit" installed. Suction is then taken from the designated pit through a
designated low pressure mud line to a designated super charge pump and high pressure
mud pump. The mud is then returned to the pit under high pressure through a
designated high pressure line passing through the HP shear unit prior to entering the
pit. This system is ideal for pre-hydrating bentonite and for mixing pre-mix mud, the
advantage is that fewer chemicals need to be used because they react quicker and
better once they have been sheared. NOTE the HP Shear Unit should not be used to
shear weighted mud as it will degrade the weighting agent.

Figure 12-5. High Pressure Shear Unit (HP Shear Unit)

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12.5.2.3 Suction
All compartments in this section require proper agitation and the selection of blade
type and mixing styles are important. This section contains the tank(s) and/or
compartment(s) from which the rig pumps and any charging pumps take suction. A
slug/pill tank is usually included in this section. This compartment is used for the
preparation of heavy slugs mixed to facilitate trips or viscous pills used to sweep the
hole.

Figure 12-6. Agitator Blade Types and Flow Schemes

12.5.3 Reserve
These pits require proper agitation. The contour-type agitator impellers give the best
agitation and require less horsepower per unit of fluid displaced. These
compartments are designed for long term storage of drilling fluids.

12.5.4 Discharge
Those tank(s) or pit(s) that hold the drilling waste for discharge/disposal. NOV can
provide various containers based on the type of waste generated. Some situations
call for a container that can be used with a front-end loader, others might need a truck
mounted tank or even the BTS (Brandt Transfer System).

12.5.5 Trip Tank

This tank is used to isolate mud from the active mud system for gauging pipe
displacement during tripping operations. No agitation is required under normal
conditions.

12.6 Auxiliary Equipment

Rig Fan/Blower
Mud Bucket

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12.7 Agitation/Mixing

All compartments in an active mud system other than the sand trap must be
agitated in order to suspend solids and maintain uniform mud properties
throughout the surface system. Suspension of the solids prevents their settling
and permits their separation by mechanical solids control equipment.

12.8 Summary

A homogeneous mud system is a must. Good agitation helps keep the mud
system homogeneous and reduces the amount of solids settling on the bottom of
the pits. Mechanical agitators are the best means of mixing mud.

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 13 MUD TANK SYSTEMS
Mud tank systems are a critical component of any drilling operation for
maximizing solids control efficiency and effectiveness. NOV markets two
complete, flagship mud tank systems: The Ideal Mud Tank System and The
Rapid Mud Tank System. Both systems are comprised of two tanks and are
complete with all the essential solids control equipment necessary for
successful drilling operations. Additionally, optional solids control
configurations are available to suit the needs of specific applications. The
Ideal system has a total active (operating) capacity of 1318 barrels
(total/nominal capacity of 1500 barrels); while The Rapid system has a total
active (operating) capacity of 620 barrels (total/nominal capacity of 800
barrels).
Table 13-1. Mud Tank Systems Features & Benefits
FEATURES BENEFITS
Vertical, direct-driven centrifugal pumps Minimize the footprint required by the pumps
Centrifugal pumps and control manifold Provides easy access for controlling processes
installed on a pump porch
Each centrifugal pump is located in close Allows for shorter piping runs with less friction
proximity to a specific piece of equipment Maximizes horsepower and hydraulic
efficiency
Caustic barrel telescopes and remains on Allows for quick and easy mobilization and
tank during transportation demobilization and also provides a safe way to add
caustic to the mud system
Vortex breakers at each suction Prevent cavitation of centrifugal pumps
Minimal piping inside tanks Allows for proper agitation, thus improving
homogenization of the mud
Integrated cement and active bypass Prevents equipment contamination
Sloped sand trap with integrated mud gun Facilitates quick, easy and thorough cleaning
Electrical cable trays Eliminate cable sag
Collapsible handrails Provide quick and easy rig-up, rig-down and
transportation
Mud level sensors (optional) Provide well control
Reduce contamination of the drill site
Hammerseal piping connections Facilitate quick and easy rig-up and rig-down, while
guaranteeing proper alignment
Fold-down crossover walks between tanks Facilitate quick and easy rig-up and rig-down, while
eliminating the need for a crane lift
Easy-access tank compartments Provide quick and easy access to tank
compartments for maintenance, inspections, etc.

In addition to the Ideal and Rapid Mud Tank Systems, NOV also markets tub-
bottom, sloped-bottom and customized mud tank systems. As is the case
with the Ideal and Rapid systems, these additional mud tank systems are
complete with all the necessary solids control equipment for successful drilling
operations.
The tub-bottom systems tank design virtually eliminates dead spots within the
tank and ensures homogenization of the fluid. This two-tank system can be
thoroughly cleaned without the need to physically enter the tank and has a
total active (operating) capacity of 1028 barrels. The sloped-bottom tank
design is a tried-and-true design with a bottom slope of four inches. This
three-tank system also is easily cleaned and has a total active (operating)
capacity of 1300 barrels (207 cubic meters).
123
Finally, NOV also markets customized mud tank systems per customer
specifications. These systems typically consist of a custom-designed (per
customer specifications) mud tank and all the necessary solids control
equipment.

Figure 13-1. Rapid Mud Tank System

Figure 13-2. Ideal Mud Tank System

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14 WASTE MANAGEMENT
For years the basic solids control equipment for unweighted drilling fluid
U U

has consisted of the following items:

Gumbo removal
Mud gas separator
Scalping shakers (optional)
Primary shale shakers
Dryers (optional)
Degasser
Desanders
Desilters
Centrifuge
Dewatering system (optional)

The equipment for weighted drilling fluid has consisted of the following
U U

items:
Gumbo removal (if needed, primarily for offshore use)
Mud gas separator
Scalping shakers (optional)
Primary shale shakers
Dryers or drying shakers (optional)
Degasser
Mud cleaner/conditioner (optional)
Centrifuges (one or two)
Dewatering unit (optional)

Unweighted muds use hydrocyclones and weighted muds use mud

cleaners/conditioners (hydrocyclones mounted over a fine screen shale
shaker).
The industry then added equipment to help reduce mud losses or to dry
solids being discharged and thus the industry coined the words Waste
Management. Waste Management equipment can be sorted into three
main categories:
Cuttings storage
Cuttings transfer
Cuttings treatment and disposal

14.1 Cuttings Storage

NOV provides several methods of storing drill cuttings or drilling waste
to accommodate customer needs.
Brandt transfer system (BTS)
Catch tanks/shale sloops
Cuttings boxes/skips
FreeFlow air conveyors and slider tanks

125
 Figure 14-1. Brandt Transfer System (BTS)

14.1.1 Brandt Transfer System (BTS)

The Brandt Transfer System (BTS) consists of a patented submersible pump

and transfer system that can pump drilling wastes and sludge (See Figure 14-1).
The pump is available as a stand-alone, semi-portable unit on a traversing rack,
mounted on a self-contained tank with integral power pack. The BTS is suitable
for offshore, dockside or onshore installations. On land rigs, the BTS can be
installed next to a closed loop system to capture discarded drilling waste, thus
eliminating the need for backhoes or similar equipment. Once filled, the BTS
can safely transport the waste slurry to the trucks that can haul off the waste.
This process reduces costs by eliminating much of the need for trucks to stand
by and provides a cleaner location (See Figure 14-2).

Figure 14-2. Trucks for Transport

The submersible pump features a unique intake assist head and hydraulic drive
motor that easily mixes and moves concentrated slurries. The variable speed
hydraulic motor provides flexibility for the handling of different types of waste.

126
14.1.2 Catch Tanks/Shale Sloops
NOV catch tanks/shale sloops (See Figure 14-3) are metal containers used to
store drilling waste. They come in various sizes to meet customer requirements.

Figure 14-3. Shale Sloop - The tanks have external bracing for support and smooth
interior surface to facilitate unloading

14.1.3 Cuttings Boxes/Skips

NOV provides skips and cuttings boxes worldwide. Both types hold about 20-25
barrels (about 10 tons) of drilling waste and can be stacked to save space.
North Sea skips are designed to DNV 271 Specifications and are approved by
Lloyds register. (See Figure 14-4 and 14-5)

Figure 14-4

Figure 14-5

127
In order to ensure quick, safe and efficient emptying of the containers a cuttings
box/skip turner is offered (Figure 14-6). The device helps empty the containers
quickly and effortlessly.

Figure 14-6

14.1.4 FreeFlow Slider Tank

The Brandt FreeFlow Slider Tank Storage Unit

stores and transfers drilling waste. (See Figure
14-7) The unit design prevents the blockage
associated with conventional conical bottom
bulk storage tanks. The slider base allows the
introduction of a flat bottom tank while
eliminating the danger of bridging. Discharge
is aided by the Slider Ram and the use of an
integrated, controlled 14 (36 cm) discharge
screw. The Slider Tank features diverter
valves and load cells within the compact frame
design which allows for easy installation of
multiple tanks. Each tank is filled and emptied in a safe and controlled fashion
aided by a PLC-based control system. The design of the Slider Tank allows for
easy transportation by road and eliminates any need to modify a supply vessel
for offshore transportation. The Slider Tanks have the following features:

Automated filling and discharge via diverter valves (common inlet

and outlet)

82 bbl (13 cubic meters) available volume, 72 bbl (11.4 cubic

meters) nominal fill volume

109 psi pressure rating

Zone 1 classification

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14.2 Cuttings Transfer
Cuttings transfer methods are listed as follows:
BTS
Brandt FreeFlow System
Air conveyor
Slider tank
Screw conveyors
Vacuum units
Moyno sludge pump

14.2.1 Brandt FreeFlow System

Brandts FreeFlow System is a positive pressure system for the transfer and
storage of drilled cuttings. Normally used offshore, it allows cuttings to be
transferred from below the shakers to almost any location on the rig. The
Brandt FreeFlow consists of an Air Conveyor and Slider Tanks. The Air
Conveyor (see Figure 14-8) transports solids from the shakers to the Slider
Tanks (see Figure 14-9). Three or four Slider Tanks normally are used to
provide temporary storage (in case of supply boats being unable to come
alongside the rig or platform due to bad weather) and a further series of slider
tanks are fitted onto the back of a supply boat. Transfer of cuttings from the
storage tanks can be made directly to the tanks on the supply boat and after
docking at the quayside cuttings can be transferred directly into a thermal
processing plant. This process eliminates numerous crane lifts and greatly
improves the safety of operations.

The system is flexible, as an air conveyor may be used on its own to fill skips,
and, unlike competitive systems, FreeFlow can handle both wet and dry cuttings
as well as cuttings from water-based and synthetic, oil-based muds. The ability
to convey dried cuttings enables the system to be used in conjunction with a
vortex or a mud 10 dryer, reducing the volume of cuttings shipped to shore and
requiring additional processing by as much as 40%. The systems ability to
convey vertically in excess of 164 ft (50 m) means it also can be used for inter-
field transfer where drill cuttings from one platform or rig are transferred to
another installation for disposal by injection.

14.2.1.1 Brandt FreeFlow Air Conveyor

The Brandt FreeFlow Air Conveyor offers unique features that ensure reliability
and consistent performance. The chisel base minimizes bridging, while the
integrated 14 (35 cm) screw ensures accurate feed control as cuttings entering
the line are metered. The screw generates a series of aerated slugs, which
improves pressure control and achieves a consistent flow pattern. Cuttings flow
readily into the pipe in an aerated state. Such control minimizes pressure
fluctuation, ensuring that pressures are safely controlled and low exit velocities
are achieved. A single Air Conveyor can move more than 80 tons/hour of dried
solids. The Air Conveyor also can transfer cuttings as much as 164 ft (50 m)
129
vertically, as is often required for inter-field transfers. The unit can transport wet
or dry solids. If a cuttings dryer is being used, the processed solids (dry solids)
are easily transported by the Air Conveyor.

Figure 14-8

Figure 14-9

130
14.2.1.2 FreeFlow Slider Tank
The Brandt FreeFlow Slider Tank Storage Unit is (see Figure 14-10) used to
store and transfer drilling waste. The units design prevents the blockage
frequently associated with conventional conical bottom bulk storage tanks. The
slider base allows the introduction of a flat bottom tank which removes the
danger of bridging. (See Figure 14-11) Discharge is aided by the Slider Ram
and the use of an integrated, controlled 14 (35 cm) discharge screw. The
Slider Tank features diverter valves and load cells within the compact frame
design. This allows for easy installation of multiple tanks. Each tank is filled
and emptied in a safe and controlled fashion aided by a PLC-based control
system. The design of the Slider Tank allows for easy overland transportation
and eliminates the need to modify a dedicated supply vessel for offshore
transportation. (See Figure 14-12) The Slider Tanks have the following
features:

Automated filling and discharge via diverter valves

(common inlet and outlet)
82 bbl available volume, 72 bbl nominal fill volume
109 psi pressure rating
Zone 1 classification

Figure 14-10

131
Figure 14-11. Slider Tank Cut-Away

132
 Figure 14-12

Figure 14-13. Screw Conveyor

14.2.2 Screw Conveyors

NOV can supply screw conveyors for any application. (See Figure 14-13)
Screw conveyors are available with e-stop kill switches as well as grab lines,
which stop the unit in the event of an emergency. A variable speed drive
controls the rate of conveyance. The top of the units are fitted with expandable
metal covers for feed areas and solids covers for non-feed areas. Screw
conveyor size and horsepower requirements will vary with the length of the run,
hole size, rate of penetration and flow rate.
133
14.2.3 Vacuum Units
The Vacuum Transfer System (VTS) is able to move drilling waste and heavy
slurries quickly, quietly and safely to various locations on the rig. (See Figure
14-14) Experience has shown that the vacuum pump is capable of transferring
materials up to 30 feet (9.1 m) vertically and 90 feet (27.4 m) horizontally.
Modular construction and a stackable design provide installation versatility and
adaptability in a variety of situations.

Figure 14-14

134
14.3 Cuttings Treatment and Disposal
The equipment used to treat and dispose of drilling waste is listed below:
Cuttings Injection
Bioremediation
Drying Shakers
Centrifugal Dryers
Dewatering
Thermal Desorption

Figure 14-15. Cuttings Injection (CI) Unit

14.3.1 Cuttings Injection (CI)

(Note: Some call this Cuttings Re-Injection)
NOV has injected several million tons of solids downhole. Down-hole Cuttings
Injection (CI) is considered a viable option for disposing of drilling waste. (See
Figure-14-15)

Tightening of the allowable discharge limits and the increasing cost of land-
fills/land farms have forced many operators to engage in long term planning for
the handling of drilling waste, recognizing that environmental regulations are
based upon the cradle-to-grave concept. The operator never escapes
responsibility for the cuttings and the chemicals left on them.
CI represents the following:

The only permanent onsite disposal method that can fully comply with
zero discharge to the surface environment.
A method that returns cuttings to their native environment.
The process does not discharge hydrocarbon waste into the air.
An inexpensive process, as compared to many other environmental
solutions which are not permanent.

135
Complex modeling techniques have been created to establish fracturing
parameters for increased hydrocarbon production in tight and porous, brittle and
ductile formations. These models work well as a guide for CI. To utilize the
fracture models, an experienced CI subsurface engineer must temper the
fracture design with cuttings injection experience to adequately judge how the
formations are impacted from injection operations.
CI procedures consist of a different set of parameters than what the fracture
models were designed for. The fracture models for hydrocarbon simulation
were designed for:

High rates of injection to prevent sand-out.

Injection with specific brittle particles that are large when compared to
cuttings slurry particles.
No distribution of particle size.
High fluid horsepower at the formation face.
Short duration pumping.
Slurry that has low fluid loss is ultimately designed to create the
maximum fracture that can be obtained.

Fracture modeling for CI follows these parameters:

Cuttings slurry particles are small in size and soft/ductile in nature.
The slurry is pumped at low rates for long periods of time.
Injection is purposely designed to keep the fluid horsepower low.
The slurry generally has a high fluid loss and minimally impacts the
formation.
Large fractures are undesirable.

Down-hole cuttings injection technology is used by many operators to dispose of

drilled cuttings at the rig site. Developing sound slurrification and injection
methods has played an important role in expanding the utility of cuttings re-
injection. A clear, concise understanding of what happens down hole during the
cuttings re-injection operation is critical to successfully implementing this
technology and completing a project successfully.

14.3.1.1 Injection Process

Cuttings from the wellbore are removed from the drilling fluid using conventional
solids control equipment, and then transported to the cuttings slurrification
system using slides, vacuums or screw conveyors. When the cuttings reach the
CI system, they are transformed into a slurry by mixing water with the drilled
cuttings at an approximately a 4-to-1 ratio.

While the cuttings/water/chemicals are blended, the cuttings are reduced to an

acceptable particle size distribution and acceptable rheology by
grinding/shearing them into homogeneous mixtures with specially modified
centrifugal pumps and mills. When cuttings reach the CRI system, they are
transformed into slurry by mixing water with the drilled cuttings at an
approximately 4 to 1 ratio.
During shale sections higher volumes of water will be required, with slurry
building its own viscosity while being processed by the modified centrifugal
136
pump. During shale sections the viscosity injection limits will be reached long
before the weight so at this point the slurry should be injected.
During sand sections, lower volumes of water will be used with the slurry weight
injection range being reached first. During this process a chemical will be used
to raise the viscosity to help suspend the particles before the slurry is injected.
After homogeneous slurry is prepared and conditioned to site-specific
properties, the cuttings slurry is injected through a dedicated conduit, such as
the annular space between two strings of casing (annular injection) into the
exposed formation. The cutting slurries are pumped at planned rates into the
formation.

When the pressure increase resulting from the pumping operation exceeds the
strength of the exposed formation rock and the natural pore pressure, the
formation allows the cutting slurries to flow into the formation. If the
rheology/physical properties and pumping methods are correct, the formation
will safely hold large amounts of cuttings. Below are some guidelines for slurry
injection:
Slurry Density 1.15 to 1.4 SG (9.6 to 12.5 ppg)
Viscosity 60-80 funnel viscosity while processing shale
80-100 funnel viscosity while processing sand
Solids Ratio 15-30% by volume as measured with a retort every
12 hours.
Particle Size D90<300 microns
% sand <0.25% measured with 50 X 50 US mesh sieve
Process Continuous or batch, depending on ROP and
fracture propagation behaviour.
Injection Rate 1-5 barrel/min (206 795 liters/min) depending on
ROP, formation and fracture propagation
behaviour.

14.3.1.2 Operating Considerations

A variety of operational details must be dealt with to properly plan the project.
Successful operations dictate that the majority of the work is done in the
planning stage. Some of the details include:

Identification of suitable cuttings disposal/sealing formations

Selection of surface equipment
Design of the casing program
Design of the injection program and contingency planning
Plug prevention in the annulus and the formation
Preventing slurries from breaching to the surface or fresh water
formations
The impact on existing or future producing wells
Quality control/monitoring of injection procedures
Abandonment of disposed waste to ensure that it is permanently
entombed
Obtaining regulatory approval

137
Characteristics of the subsurface environment, sealing formations, injection
zone, slurry properties, drilling plans, subsurface slurry disposal dimensions and
other elements directly impact each of these operational considerations. Of the
various technical details that must be evaluated, the least understood but
among the most important, are those questions associated with downhole
considerations:

Into what formation can the cuttings slurry be injected?

How will the cuttings slurry be contained?
In what direction will the cuttings slurry propagate? And how far?
How significant of an impact will cuttings slurry have on nearby well
bores/formations?
How will the cuttings slurry affect existing wells and future drilling plans?
What volume of cuttings slurry can be safely disposed of?
What forces will be put on well casing?
How do we inject the cuttings slurries to minimize formation impact?
How do we protect the annulus and the formation?
When the formation changes what does the CI operator do next?

14.3.1.3 Lithology Concerns

Accurate description of the various lithologies and the transition depths from one
Lithology to another is integral in determining where injection of the cuttings
slurry should take place.

The disposal formation must be able to readily accept the cuttings slurry, and
also must be massive enough to accommodate the volume of cuttings
produced.

The target formation should not contain natural fractures or faults that might
communicate the slurry to the surface or to formations containing potable water.
Additionally, the disposal formation must be associated with some type of seal
mechanism that will adequately restrict the slurry to the specified formation
interval.

Review of mechanical property logs, cores, leak off tests, pore pressures, mud
logs and other data from offset wells can be used as a tool when addressing
these issues. Fracture modeling, although currently designed for hydrocarbon
stimulation operations, have proven useful for estimating the size and shape of
the disposal plumes.

Seismic data can be utilized for identification of natural vertical fracturing that
could make the project fail and can be utilized to define the formation properties,
such as fracture rock strengths, pore pressures, and other elements crucial to
CI.

138
14.3.1.4 Surface Equipment Requirements

The type of surface equipment required to process the drilled cuttings is based
on a number of parameters established after addressing downhole
considerations. The properties of the cuttings dictate the type of grinding
equipment required. Modified centrifugal pumps designed to reduce the size of
the cuttings using high shear rates are most effective when processing cuttings
from soft, hydratable shale formations. All modified centrifugal pumps are not
the same.

In those instances where a sizable quantity of hard cuttings will be processed,

the use of a mechanical grinder is recommended.

Proven equipment durability, manpower, requirements, utilities, ease of

installation/time requirements and contingency plans all must be considered
when designing the surface equipment system. Proper system design is
important since any downtime for repairs or maintenance can directly impact the
drilling process if injection is being done simultaneously. In zero discharge
operations, the rig cannot drill if the CI surface equipment is not adequately
designed and installed to stay ahead of the drill rate/surge conditions. The cost
of CI equipment skyrockets when the drilling progress is negatively impacted.
CI is not a service that should be evaluated and selected in the same manner
one selects a shale shaker for a rig. A typical offshore installation can be seen
in Figure 14-16.

Figure 14-16. Typical Offshore CI Installation

139
14.3.1.5 Casing Program

The casing program is developed after the injection zone and sealing formations
have been identified. The cement integrity of the surface casing defines the
upper sealing boundary of the injection zone and the top of cement for the
intermediate casing string provides the lower boundary.

The injection plume takes the path of least resistance and is likely being initiated
at the casing shoe. From that point, depending on a variety of conditions, it can
extend vertically or horizontally. For this reason, the casing shoe must be set at
an adequate depth below the top of the intended injection zone.

In theory, the height of the top of the cement for the intermediate casing string is
set to make certain that the length of exposed formation will allow for desired
downward fracture growth. Experience in designing the subsurface injection
profile and related casing/cement programs is paramount to successfully
implement the technology. Ignoring the required engineering experience and
judgment in this phase of the operation and in later evaluation of formation
changes will result in failure.

14.3.1.6 Monitoring Procedures

No matter how well the project is planned there is always the possibility of a
break down resulting in disposal failure. The impact on the existing drilling
program, the impact on future wells and the impact on the environment are all at
risk if proper quality control of the slurry and the surface operation is not
maintained. Quality control should monitor, at minimum, the following:

Pressure impact on nearby wells.

Disposal plumes, direction and location.
Injection rate, total volume and pressure.
Disposal slurry properties, density, viscosity, rheology and particle size.
Equipment condition.
Experience level of operators/management.

In many cases, a meeting with the appropriate regulatory agencies will not be
necessary, but adequate communication is always crucial to gain the agencys
understanding and approval. Obtaining early regulatory input has two primary
advantages:

Allows the operator to comply with pertinent regulations.

Provides the operator with an opportunity to hear concerns of regulatory
personnel so that special needs can be addressed and appropriate
changes made to the work plan.

Early dialogue makes it possible to resolve concerns and issues while

developing the cuttings injection plan. Some of the main components of a
Cuttings Injection system are shown in Table 14-1 and downhole injection
options are shown in Figure 14-17.

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Table 14-1 Main Components of Cuttings Injection System

COMPONENT FUNCTION OPERATED /

MONITORED BY
Cuttings screw conveyor Divert cuttings from cuttings Drilling Crew
caisson to screw conveyor NOV Service
Engineer

Vacuum system or Transport cuttings from NOV Engineer/Drilling

FreeFlow system shakers to slurry tank Crew

CI slurry tank Mix cuttings with sea-water NOV Engineer

and reduce cuttings size

CI classification shaker Control slurry particle size NOV Engineer

to D90 <300 microns

CI roller mill Aid breakdown of hard NOV Engineer

CI holding tank
CI HP injection pump
rock/cemented sands
Temporary storage of NOV Engineer
classified slurry to allow
control of rheology prior to
injection
Injection of slurry from NOV Engineer
holding tank into injection
well

CI slurry injection line Dedicated line to selected NOV Engineer/Drilling

injection well Crew

Charge pump Provides sufficient suction NOV Engineer

pressure to the high
pressure pump

141
 Figure 14-17. Cuttings Injection Options

14.3.2 Bioremediation
Land farming is one of the best ways to dispose of drilling waste. The waste
is spread over a specific amount of acreage and then fertilizer is spread over
the solids to help decompose the waste. The microbes digest the waste into
harmless nutrients which benefit the environment.
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14.3.3 Drying Shakers

A drying shaker is a vibrating screen separator used to remove free liquid from
cuttings prior to discharge. (See Figure 14-18) The effluent recovered is either
pumped back to the active mud system or to storage for later use or to a
centrifuge for further processing. Drying shakers are usually installed to process
the cuttings discharged from the primary rig shakers or fine screen shakers. A
typical drying shaker is a multi-screen unit, with a feed hopper in place of the
traditional back tank. Drying shakers are optimized to provide maximum
retention time and cuttings dryness. Large hole sizes or high penetration rates
may require more than one drying shaker to provide acceptable cuttings dryness
and liquid recovery.

Shale shakers often are the cause of excess mud loss during drilling operations,
primarily due to screening too fine for drilling conditions and due to the design of
some shakers. This mud loss can greatly increase mud costs and site clean-up
costs, especially when non aqueous fluids (oil-base muds or synthetic-base
muds) are used. The drying shaker is designed to expose wet drilled cuttings to
an additional vibrating screen surface and separate some of the bound liquid
coating the surface of the solids. The liquid is then returned to the active system
or transferred to a storage tank for future use or processed by a centrifuge.

Figure 14-18. Drying Shakers

14.3.3.1 Drying Shaker Designs

The first drying shakers were high-G units, operating at 6.5 to 8 Gs. Prevalent
thinking was that the additional impact force provided by the higher G-force
would improve cuttings dryness. Recent field studies indicate this is not
necessarily true.

Oil content on cuttings is primarily a function of retention time on the screen

surface and the exposure of the cutting to the vibration on the shaker screens.
The G-force greatly affects the speed at which cuttings move from the feed end
of the screen surface to the discharge end. At 4 Gs, the conveyance rate is
close to 1 inch per second, while at 7 Gs the conveyance rate is about 5 inches
per second.
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Given a screen length of 24 inches and operation at 4 Gs, a cutting will take
approximately 24 seconds to travel from the feed end of the screen to the
discharge end. Increasing the G-force to 7 Gs reduces the exposure time to 6
seconds and will actually increase the amount of oil remaining on the cuttings!
This assumes that both shakers having the different G-force have the same fluid
end point (place where solids separate from the liquid and the solids leave the
end of the shaker).
Since the amount of oil remaining on the cutting is a function of exposure time;
screen deck length and deck angle will greatly influence cuttings dryness.
Screen deck length determines the distance a cutting must travel prior to
discharge, and deck angle influences retention time - the longer the screen deck
and the more uphill the deck angle, the greater the retention time. However,
longer screen decks may not fit the available space and too steep an uphill deck
angle will result in cuttings grinding and an unacceptable build-up of fine solids.
Field tests indicate the optimum shale shaker dryer design provides about 45
Gs of force, with a deck design that is flat at the feed end to reduce cuttings
grinding and maximize usable screen area. The discharge screens should be
sloped uphill at 2.5-to-5 to increase retention time and maximize cuttings
dryness. The Cobra or the LCM-3D shakers are good drying shakers and both
generate approximately 5.4 Gs.

14.3.3.2 Installation
Locate the drying shaker(s) at a lower level from the main linear
shakers and other solids control equipment. Feed to the drying
shaker should be through an open hopper sized to eliminate solids
build-up or plugging. Cuttings should be evenly deposited as close
to the feed end of the drying shaker as possible to maximize usable
screen area.
Provide slides or conveyors to direct dry cuttings to solids
collection bins or discharge chutes
Supply flooded pump suction in the liquid collection tank for transfer
by pump to the desired storage or processing tank.
The screens on the drying shaker should be finer than the screens
on the main shakers to prevent the re-introduction of separated
solids to the active system.
Adjust the screen deck angle to properly convey solids, reduce liquid
loss and prevent cuttings grinding.
The liquid recovered from the drilled cuttings will contain base fluid,
plus any solids finer than the screen mesh of the drying shaker. The
recovered un-weighted liquid should be processed through a
decanting centrifuge to remove fine solids before the mud is
returned to the active system or storage tank. In some installations,
the decanting centrifuge may be eliminated, but only after careful
consideration of cuttings size and their effect on fluid properties.

144
14.3.4 Dewatering

Dewatering is the final step of a closed loop system and follows the separation
process after the shakers, hydrocyclones and centrifuges. The dewatering
process can remove colloidal particles down to almost clear fluid by using the
correct chemicals and a centrifuge that can generate over 2000 Gs. Water-
based mud easily can be dewatered and this process will be discussed in detail.
Dewatering oil-base or synthetic-based mud is not easy and requires an extra
step; the invert emulsion has to be broken before the water, oil and solids can
be processed.

The dewatering process incorporates coagulation and flocculation. Coagulation

is electrostatic in nature. As discussed below most water-based solids are
negatively charged and a coagulant would mitigate the repulsion charge and
cause solids to agglomerate (come together). Flocculation, the uniting of
particles in loose, porous groups or flocs, is brought about by the action of high
molecular weight materials such as starch or polyelectrolytes chemicals.

Most dewatering applications are in zero discharge areas where closed loop
systems are required. Dewatering is done, at times, in areas where there are no
unusual limitations other than the high cost or perceived negative future liability
of off-site disposal. Dewatering policy varies from operator to operator. This
variance is related to the corporate policy and to the economics of the
application of dewatering. Continued pressure by environmentalists to reduce
oilfield waste streams coupled with greater offsite disposal costs will mandate
increased use of dewatering while drilling.

There is a large volume of literature available on the subject of flocculation of

treated clay water slurries (muds). Currently, there are numerous suppliers with
a great variety of coagulants and flocculants available to the dewatering
practitioner. Most of these suppliers offer technical assistance. Given the
variety of products and technical systems, most fluids can be dewatered. The
treatment levels required for dewatering vary from area to area due to
lithological differences in the formations drilled within any specific region, and
will vary due to differences in mud types and mud treatment levels. Laboratory
tests and field experience has shown that chemical requirements increase with
higher Cation Exchange Capacities (CEC) of the rock being drilled. As the
minerals CEC value increases so does the amount of product necessary to
achieve a floc of acceptable quality. Field experience indicates that dewatering
is more difficult in areas that contain highly reactive drilled solids.
The pH of a typical water-based mud ranges from 8 to 10 with specialty muds
having a pH as high as 12 (example - lime-based muds). Solids in these muds
are negatively charged and this charge prevents the solids from agglomerating.
This is desirable in drilling but it interferes with solids removal, especially with
the removal of fine solids. To remove these small undesirable solids we must
make them agglomerate; make them form large dense clusters of solids so that
a centrifuge can remove them. The process of agglomerations can require
three steps. The first two steps, however, can be omitted with some fluids:
1. Destabilizing the submicron particles so they dont repel each
other. This can be done by adding acid to the mud. The acid
lowers the pH and changes the charge of the solids.
145
 2. Coagulate the solids, bring the solids together. We can do this
by adding inorganic or organic chemicals.
3. Flocculate, bundle or wrap together to create a large dense
cluster of solids.

14.3.4.1 The Dewatering Process

Specific components are required in order to minimize the amount of chemical to
dewater a mud while producing reusable water. One, two or three chemicals
may be used to treat a mud. Pilot testing (testing a small portion of the mud) of
the mud with acid, coagulant and flocculant helps give direction to the treating
process. To dewater a mud we should consider using the following
components:
1. A holding tank for storing mud to be dewatered
U

A complete dewatering system should use a tank type container for

mud storage. This tank must be equipped as more than a storage
container. The volume of fluid entering the tank must be measured
and should enter at a point opposite the suction to maximize blending
before dewatering begins. The tank must be equipped with mechanical
agitators to ensure adequate blending of treating chemicals, thereby
reducing the risk of over treatment. Ideally, the tank should be large
enough to accommodate one-third fluid of the surface mud system.
Sufficient storage capacity and a well-blended feed stream allow the
dewatering system to simultaneously accept fluids from any well site
source without disrupting the process. The effectiveness of the
dewatering processes after the fluid leaves the tank is largely
dependent of proper blending in the tank.
If the pH of the mud needs adjusting it should be treated while in the
holding tank. Treat slowly with acid and mix thoroughly. Most water-
based muds operate in the 9-to 12-pH range. There are chemicals that
can floc solids at almost any pH, but at low pH, the chemicals used are
cheaper and the flocs are more stable. Reducing the pH too much also
can cause problems. It can reduce the pH of the active mud system to
unacceptable levels. The preferred technique is to remove solids while
maintaining the pH at the level in the active mud system.

2. Storage tanks for chemicals

U

Use one tank for acid and another for coagulant. Use two tanks for
flocculant because its preparation takes time. One flocculant tank can
be used for treating the mud while the other is used for the preparation
of another batch of flocculant.
3. Pumps for metering mud volume and chemical treatment
U

The type of pump used to control the feed stream from the storage tank
to the flocculation manifold is very important. This importance is
magnified when the fluid becomes more difficult to process and at other
times when very fine control of chemical dosage is necessary. A
variable speed, progressive cavity pump is preferred. Rheological
properties of the feed stream are significantly affected by chemical
injections, thus effecting manifold pressure. With high solids muds, the
146
 viscosity in the flocculation manifold can become so high that a
centrifugal pump cannot move the fluid. Unlike centrifugal pumps,
progressive cavity pump output is unaffected by viscosity changes and
the feed rate remains constant. Without uniform pumping rates,
chemical additions must be constantly adjusted and over treatment is
likely.

Small metering pumps are required for acid, coagulant and flocculant
additions.

4. A manifold with in-line mixers

U

The use of in-line mixers and sufficient residence time after the addition
of coagulants and flocculants optimizes chemical usage. Different
fluids require different treatments. Thorough mixing of each addition is
critical to minimizing chemical usage. The use of in-line mixers of
various lengths and a flocculation manifold with various lengths of hose
facilitates this operation (Figure 14-19). The manifold should be sized
appropriately to provide optimization between residence time and
shear. A sample port should be located after each injection port so that
the progress of the process can be monitored and treatment levels
adjusted as necessary. Excess coagulant or flocculant in the
processed centrifuge water is not undesirable because it can cause
problems when it is returned to the active mud system.

5. High speed centrifuge

U

The treated mud should be metered into the centrifuge to facilitate the
formation of good flocs just as the mud reaches the centrifuge. This
takes time and practice. Here, a combination of science and art play
an important role in optimizing the operation.

6. Storage tank for processed water

U

A storage tank should be used to hold the processed fluid from the
centrifuge. This fluid should be tested to make sure the pH and residual
chemicals are at the proper values for recycling to the active mud
system or disposal.

NOV supplies dewatering units that can remove solids and return good reusable
water for drilling. The dewatering technician makes each component work
synergistically to remove as many solids from the mud as possible. A typical
dewatering diagram is shown in Figure 14-19.

147
 Figure 14-19. Dewatering Diagram for Water-Base Muds

NOV offers several models of dewatering units. A typical Texas unit is shown in
Figure 14-20. This unit can be closed-in if weather conditions turn ugly. Each
unit can process whole mud, returning reusable water to the mud system as
shown in Figure 14-21.

Figure 14-20. Brandt Dewatering Unit

148
 Figure 14-21. Typical Dewatering Field Operation

Processed Mud
Solids

Processed water
(effluent) is
discharged into
small tank and then
pumped to the
active mud system.

There are numerous water-based mud types and each requires different
treatment. The recommendations from Kemira, a polymer supplier for various
mud types are shown in Table 14-2. One should perform small pilot tests to help
select the polymers best suited for specific mud types. Field testing on site with
small quantities is still recommended to make sure the polymers perform as
required.

149
 Table 14-2. An Example of Dewatering Chemicals for Drilling Fluids (Kemira)
FLUID TYPE RECOMMENDED PRODUCTS
Spud Mud Coagulants: Cyfloc 6100, 6120, Superfloc
C573 or C577
Flocculants: Cyfloc 1146, 1143, Superfloc A-
100, N100, A110 or C492 (dry products).
Cyfloc 5500, 5320 Superfloc A1183 or A1881 or
1849 (emulsion products).
Non Coagulants: Superfloc C595, C577 or Cyfloc
Dispersed 6120
Flocculants: Cyfloc 1143, 4010, Superfloc
N100 or A100 (dry products).
Cyfloc 5500, Superfloc N1986, A1881 or A1849
(emulsion products).
Non Coagulants: Superfloc C601, C607, C610
dispersed
Flocculants: Cyfloc 1146, 1148, Superfloc
KCl/PHPA
C492 or C496 (dry products).
Superfloc C1592 or 1596 (emulsion products).
Highly Coagulants: Cyfloc 6000, 6100, Superfloc
Dispersed C521, C610, C573
Flocculants: Cyfloc 1143, 4010, Superfloc
N100, A100 or A110 (dry products). Superfloc
N1986 or A1849 (emulsion products).
Saturated Coagulants: Cyfloc 6610, 6620, 6000,
Salt Superfloc C515, C517, C521
Flocculants: Cyfloc 1143, 4010 or 4020
Superfloc N100, A100 or A110 (dry products).
Superfloc N1986 or A1849 (emulsion products).
Sildril Coagulants: Cyfloc 6100, Superfloc C573,
C607, C610
Flocculants: Cyfloc 1143, 4010, 4020,
Superfloc N100, A100 or A110 (dry products).
Superfloc N1986, A1849 (emulsion products).
Potassium Coagulants: Cyfloc 8500, Superfloc C591,
Silicate C592, C595
Flocculants: Cyfloc 1143, 4010, 1146,
Superfloc N100, A100 or C-492 (dry products).
Central Coagulants: Cyfloc 6610, 6620, 6110,6120,
treatment Superfloc C515, C517, C573, C577, C607,
centers, for C610, C7787, C9021
drilling fluid
Flocculants: Cyfloc 1143, 4010, 1146,
blends
Superfloc N100, A100, C492
RECOMMENDATIONS AND ESTIMATED
DOSAGE RANGE
Most Spud muds dewater with a flocculant alone. In
some cases, a coagulant might be required.
Suggested dosage range for coagulants is 500-5000
ppm. and for flocculants is 200-1,000 ppm.
pH reduction and/or dilution may be needed.
Non-dispersed dewater with a coagulant alone. In
some cases a flocculant might be required.
Suggested dosage range for a coagulant is
500 - 5000 ppm, and for a flocculant is 200- 500
ppm.
pH reduction may be needed and possible dilution.
Many non-dispersed KCl/PHPA muds dewater with
a flocculant alone. In some cases a coagulant might
be required.
Suggested dosage range for a coagulant is 5000 -
10000 ppm. and for a flocculant is 200-500 ppm.
pH reduction may be needed and possible dilution.
Highly dispersed muds require a coagulant and an
anionic or non-ionic flocculant.
Suggested dosage range for a coagulant is 5000
10000 ppm and for a flocculant is 200 500 ppm.
pH reduction may be needed and possible dilution
Saturated salt muds dewater with a flocculant alone.
In some cases, a coagulant might be required.
Suggested dosage range for a coagulant is 2000
6000 ppm. and for a flocculant is 200 500 ppm.
pH reduction may be needed and possible dilution
Sildril muds dewater with a coagulant alone after pH
correction. In some cases, a flocculant might be
required.
Suggested dosage range for a coagulant is 2000 -
5000 ppm and for a flocculant is 200 500 ppm.
pH reduction is needed and possible dilution
Potassium Silicate muds require a coagulant and an
anionic or non-ionic flocculant.
Suggested dosage range for a coagulant is 1000-
15000 ppm. and for a flocculant is 200-500 ppm.
pH reduction may be needed.
Suggested dosage range for coagulants is 500-5000
ppm and for flocculants is 200-1000 ppm. pH
reduction and dilution may be needed.
150
14.3.5 Thermal Desorption
NOV provides two different types of thermal units that can remove oil and water
from drilling waste.
Indirect Thermal Desorption Unit - THOR (See Figure 14-22)
Hot Oil Thermal Desorption Unit (See Figure 14-23)
Custom models are available that can process waste from one ton/hour to 15
tons/ hour. The control system for each unit can operate in manual or automatic
mode. A centralized control room contains the necessary electrical switch gear,
displays, programmable logic controller (PLC) and remote start/stop controls. A
data logging system is provided to maintain records of the operation.

Figure 14-22. Indirect Thermal Desorption Unit - THOR

Figure 14-23. Hot Oil Thermal Desorption Unit

The Hot Oil and Indirect Heat thermal units remove most of the hydrocarbon
contaminants from the cuttings, including fuel oils to heavy oils. The systems
have been uniquely designed and specifically customized for short and long
chain hydrocarbons that may be present in drilled cuttings. The equipment can
process a wide range of soil sizes from small fine solids (clays) to 4 rock.

151
14.3.5.1 Operation
The following discussion will outline how a typical THOR unit works.
Before processing, the contaminated cuttings are weighed and placed into a
holding hopper equipped with a variable speed auger-feeder that meters the
material fed into the rotary dryer at a rate up 10 to metric tons (wet) per hour.
The dryer unit is designed to dry and heat the contaminated cuttings indirectly
so that burner combustion gases do not come in contact with the cutting or the
hydrocarbon/water gas stream. The externally heated rotary dryer is sealed on
either end to limit oxygen entering the system and vapor exiting the system. The
dryer shell heats the cuttings to between 600-800F (316-427C) by conductive
heat transfer.
A special cleaning system in the dryer shell eliminates caking of solids and
keeps the material agitated to allow for even heat transfer.
In order to guarantee vaporization of the water and hydrocarbons from the
cuttings within the dryer, the cuttings stream must be thoroughly heated to the
minimum temperatures required for complete vaporization of all liquid
constituents. These temperatures are continuously monitored, regulated and
recorded within the UL-approved control room. Retention time within the dryer
varies between 20-40 minutes depending on specific clean-up levels required.
Processed inert soil leaving the dryer is mixed with recovered water for dust
control, cooling and added moisture.
The cleaned gases are subsequently quenched and condensed with cooling
sprays by means of a shell and tube condenser with cooling tower. The
recovered liquid is then passed through an oil/water separator and coalescer.
The recovered water is used for re-hydration of the processed cutting, and for
make-up water in the cooling tower. The recovered oil is returned to the client for
future use, or it can be used in the 20MM BTU primary burners to heat the
processes. Processed inert solids discharged from the system can be utilized as
road base, fill dirt or used in brick or construction projects. Air emission from the
system meet or are below the standards set by the EPA 1990 Clean Air Act for
Particulate Matter, SOx, NOx and VOCs. In fact, the EPA is designating this
type of system as BDAT (Best Demonstrated Available Technology) for cleanup
of hydrocarbon contaminated soils.
NOV thermal units are designed to operate 24 hours per day with scheduled
maintenance one day per month. The footprint of this particular installation is
approximately 100x100 (30m x 30m).

14.3.5.2 General
The skid mounted THOR System (See Figure 14-24) is capable of processing
3000+ metric tons per month of oil-based mud drill cuttings containing a
maximum of 25% oil, 25% water and 50% solids by volume.
The processed solids will have less than 1% TPH when tested with the EPA
8015 protocol or similar. Levels of 0.1% are achievable as a function of higher
operating temperature and longer retention time. The system is designed for a
maximum solids discharge of 700-800F (371-427C), if needed. The area
needed for processing is approximately 100 ft x 90 ft (30m x 27m), not including
space for raw storage or processed storage.

152
 Figure 14-24. THOR System

14.3.5.3 Feed system

The feed mix of oil cuttings is introduced into the system through a vibrating grid
to remove 4-inch and larger solids.
A feed hopper between the vibrating grid and the feed screw holds the feed mix
and prevents the intrusion of air into the dryer drum.
A single 24inch variable speed conveyor with slow rotation and precise feeding
is used along with a 25 HP VFD controlled feeder screw drive utilizing a dual
gearbox arrangement. All are mounted on a separate feeder skid attached to
the dryer skid.

14.3.5.4 Dryer Drum

Indirect fired with four 5MM BTU/hr burners.
Furnace separated into two 10MM BTU/hr zones for better drying control. The
furnace length is 30 ft (9.1m).
The dryer drum is 7 ft (2.1m) in diameter x 40 ft (12m) long. It is made from a
high-strength stainless steel alloy for extended service at elevated
temperatures.
Angular flights are used to get the material into the drum following the feeder
screw. Chains are used to break up the solids and assist with heat conduction.
Lifting plates are used in the hot section to roll the material for final drying. A
center dam is used to add to retention time. Rock lifting devices are provided
adjacent to the center and discharge dams.
40 HP VFD controlled electric motor coupled to a helical gearbox provide
variable drum rotation from one to six RPM at full load.
An air/gear motor is provided so that drum rotation can be continued should a
power failure occur.
153
Piping is provided that allows vapors to be pulled from the feed end or discharge
end of the dryer.
The firebox is built to withstand 2400F (1315.55C) and contains access
panels, removable top, flame view ports to check flame trajectory and
thermocouples to check firebox, stack and drum skin temperatures.
Dual combustion air fans and associated controls, one mounted on each end of
the dryer unit, provide air and fuel to the four 5MM BTU/hr burners.
Triple layered stainless/composite leaf seals are used to seal each end of the
furnace. Triple layered stainless/composite leaf seal, with a water spray fire
quench system, are used to make the drum end cover seal at the discharge end
of the drum.
Furnace stacks are made from a high-strength stainless steel alloy for extended
service at elevated temperatures.

14.3.5.5 Solids Discharge and Hydration

A 16-inch screw conveyor is used to remove the solids from the discharge end.
A thermocouple is mounted in the discharge end to check discharge dirt
temperature.
The 16-inch screw conveyor deposits the hot dirt into an 18-inch screw conveyor
for transfer to the re-hydration skid.
The 18-inch screw conveyor deposits the hot solids into dual 12-in double
tipping valves on the re-hydration skid to prevent air intrusion into the dryer.
From the double tipping valve the solids enter a dual-shafted pug mill, which
mixes water with the solids to cool and re-hydrate the solids.
All screw conveyors are oversized to prevent stoppages and designed for high-
temperature operation.

14.3.5.6 Vapor Recovery and Condensation

A quench tank is used as the initial mechanism to cool the vapor stream and
remove entrained solids from the produced gasses. Cooling water is sprayed
on the vapor stream in a specially designed quench tank where most of the
hydrocarbon vapors are condensed along with some of the water vapor. In
addition the entrained solids are removed by the small water droplets produced
by the spray system.
Re-circulated water is pumped through a series of spray nozzles to provide
evaporative cooling in the quench tank and remove the solids.
Cooling water is brought to the quench spray system from the weir separator
tank and from the recovered water tank after passing through a plate and frame
heat exchanger where the re-circulated water is cooled by water from the
cooling tower.
After passing through the quench tank, the uncondensed gasses move through
the shell and tube heat exchanger where additional cooling takes place, bringing
the vapor stream to its dew point temperature and condensing more water vapor
and uncondensed hydrocarbons. The uncondensed vapors are directed to the
oxidation system. The condensed liquids from the quench system and from the
condenser are directed to the water treatment system.

154
A cooling tower is used to remove the heat from the system. The cooling tower,
heat exchanger, and condenser system is capable of removing 12MM BTU/hr of
heat from the system at maximum average dew point temperatures. Normal
heat removal requirement is approximately 6.5MM BTU/hr. At 6.5MM BTU/hr
heat removal, the cooling tower consumes about 20 gpm of makeup water. An
Induced Draft Fan (IDF) moves the vapor and gasses through the system.

14.3.5.7 Oxidation system

A 5MM BTU/hr burner for thermal oxidation system destroys any remaining
uncondensed vapors. The thermal oxidizer unit burns only a small amount of
fuel and greatly improves the safety of the system and reduces air emissions to
meet local codes.
For safety, dual redundant flame arresters provide isolation between the thermal
oxidizer and the other upstream systems.

14.3.5.8 Water Treatment System

A simple weir tank is used to make the initial separation of the oily emulsion
from the water and the un-emulsified solids.
The oily emulsion and the un-emulsified solids are directed to a high speed and
high G force centrifuge where the solids are removed from the system. The
liquid faction is returned to the water treatment system.
A weir tank and a coalescing media oil/water separator are used to remove the
recovered oil from the water.
The recovered oil is sent to a retention tank for final polishing and settling before
it is sent to storage.
The water is re-circulated back to the quench system after it is pumped through
a plate and frame heat exchanger to remove the heat.
Excess water is directed to a recovered water tank where additional cooling
takes place. This water is used to re-hydrate the processed solids.

14.3.5.9 Control system

The skid-mounted, climate-controlled control house is 33.5 ft (10m) long by 8.5
ft (2.6m) wide by 13.5 ft (4m) high. It has dual personnel doors, one on each
side of the control house.
Controls are furnished for 460-vac/60Hz/3-phase power.
A multi-station motor control center provides control for all motors.
A 75KVA Delta-Wye transformer and distribution panel provides power for
operator controls and lighting.
Variable frequency drives are provided for the drum drive, feed augur, induced
draft fan and thermal oxidizer dilution air fan.
The unit has large windows on one side and adjoining end for observing TDU
plant operation.
Each system has four data recorders providing 48 analog input channels for
recording signals from thermocouples, flow meters, motor amp transmitters and
pressure sensors. Optional Ethernet connection for data transfer to PC is
available.
155
 An operator control panel for motor stop/start push buttons, VFD controls,
burner controls, motion detectors, data recording, and valve control is provided.
Emergency Stop buttons are strategically placed at the motor control center and
burner controls.

14.3.5.10 Utilities
Water 25 gpm maximum peak usage.
Electrical power - 500 kW @ 0.8 P.F.
Air 150 ACFM @ 100 psi minimum.
Fuel 12 gallons per ton processed (depends upon moisture content of
cuttings).

Table 14-3. THOR System Weights and Dimensions

Load Shipping Weight (lbs) Length Width (in) Height
(in) (in)
1 Dryer Skid 99,998 590 132 152
2 Control Room 35,000 585 111 170
3 Oil/Water Separator Skid 35,000 518 118 159
4 Condensor Skid 49,000 510 120 158
6 Thermal Oxidizer Skid 40,000 360 120 138
8 Weir Tank 50,000 360 120 108
9 HS3400 Centrifuge & Stand 12,000 185 96 132

Load Distribution (psi)

Load Operating Weight Length Width (in) Height Stands
(lbs) (in) (in) Front (2) Rear (2)
1 Dryer Skid 140,000 112 69
2 Control Room 35,000
3 Oil/Water Separator Skid 66,834 32 32
4 Condensor Trailer 58,337 28 28
5 Thermal Oxidizer 40,000 480 120 138 5 5
6 Pug Mill 19,750 180 121 120 9 9
8 Weir Tank 150,000 360 120 108 35 35
9 HS3400 Centrifuge & Stand 12,000 185 96 132 4 4

156
14.3.5.11 THOR Processing Capacity
On average 40,000 Tons/ year. The efficiency varies with water content, oil
content and makeup of the solids phase. NOV engineering can provide specific
efficiencies based on clients estimate of the percentages; however Figure 14-25
can be used as a guideline.
Figure 14-25. THOR System Processing Capacity

14

12 THOR - 8 Thermal Oil Recovery System Throughput

At 25% Oil Contamination Level
10

Tons per Hour 6

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32

Water Content %

14.3.6 Waste Management Services

NOV can provide several pieces of equipment that can make rig clean-
up much easier (Figure 14-26):
Vacuum Units used to help remove waste from the rig floor and
around the rig.
Tank cleaning equipment can clean out the toughest solids from
mud tanks.
Hot water pressure washers used to wash-down equipment.
Diaphragm pump used to transfer fluids.
Trash compactor uses compaction to reduce the volume of waste
material.

157
Small Vacuum Unit Large Pressure Washer

Small Pressure Washer Tank Cleaning System

Figure 14-26. Typical Cleaning Equipment

158
15 BULK STORAGE AND HANDLING
NOV can supply the equipment needed to handle the products used for
drilling and completion fluids.
Big bag handling system.
Big bag slitting unit.
Bulk control system.
Pallet lift system.

16 MUD CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT

NOV provides all of the necessary equipment to properly prepare a
good mud system for drilling oil and gas wells.
Agitators
Automated additive system
Caustic barrel
Centrifugal pumps
Choke nipples
Mix mixing hoppers
Mud buckets
Mud tanks
Pre-hydration pit
Rig blowers
Sack cutting system
Screw conveyors

17 INSTRUMENTATION

17.1 Introduction
NOV utilizes instrumentation to save our customers money and time. Here is
a list of items that are controlled or can be by some type of automated
electrical device:
Shakers Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) and Single Board
computer
FreeFlow Air Conveyor Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
FreeFlow Slider Tank PLC
Centrifuges VFD with Touch Screen Human Machine Interface
(HMI)
Cuttings Injection (CI) PLC
Liquid Additive Units PLC

17.2 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A PLC is programmed to act like a brain for a specific piece of
equipment. The PLC keeps equipment working at its highest potential.
159
17.3 Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
NOV utilizes VFDS on several pieces of equipment, e.g. shale shakers,
centrifuges and cuttings transfer systems. The VFD allows one to fine tune
equipment performance.

18 PRODUCT LISTING

18.1 Gumbo Removal

Gumbo Box (5-foot and 6-foot)

18.2 Mud Gas Separator

18.3 Shaker Header

Standard units for multiple shakers
Custom made for unique combinations

18.4 Rig Shakers

Brandt Tandem
Brandt Jr. Tandem
Brandt Standard
Brandt Jr. Standard

18.5 Primary Shakers

Variable G-Force Option Upgrade Kit/Controlled
Acceleration/Dual Motion
Mini Cobra 2-Panel
Mini Cobra 3-Panel
Cobra
King Cobra
King Cobra II
King Cobra Venom
LCM-3D
LCM-3D In-Line 4-Panel
LCM-2D
VSM 300
Automatic Shaker Control
VSM Multi-Sizer

18.6 Cascade Shakers

LCM-3D/CM-2
LCM-3D/LCM-3D
LCM-3D/King Cobra

18.7 Shaker Screens

VNM
PXL (VSM 300)
Replacement screens for competitor equipment; Derrick, MI-
SWACO, etc
160
18.8 Mud Cleaners
VSM 300

18.9 Mud Conditioners

Mini Cobra 2-Panel MC
Mini Cobra 3-Panel MC
Cobra MC
King Cobra MC

18.10 Degassers
VG-1
DG-ATM
DG-5
DG-10
DG-12

18.11 Desanders
10-inch
12-inch

18.12 Desilters
4-inch
2-inch (micro-fine separator)

18.13 Centrifuges
HS-3400 (3 models in USA & 3 in UK)
1850 (4 models)
HS-1960
HS-2000 (3 models plain, M & FS)
HS-2010
HS-2172L
Millennium (Canada)

18.14 Drying Shakers

Cobra
King Cobra
LCM-3D

18.15 Centrifugal Dryers

Vortex (vertical)
Mud 10 or 8 (horizontal)

18.16 Dewatering Units

DWU 150
Northern USA models
Automated models
Processing and Dewatering tank (Canada)

161
18.17 W ASTE MANAGEMENT

18.17.1 Cutting Transport

BTS (Brandt Transfer System)
Brandt FreeFlow System
Air Conveyor
Slider Tank
Screw Conveyor
Various sizes are available based on requirements
Vacuum Units
EnviroVac
SpaceSaver VTS (Quiet Pack Option)
MiniVac
RapidVac

18.17.2 Cuttings Storage

BTS
Catch Tanks/Shale Sloops
Cuttings Boxes/Skips
FreeFlow Slider Tank

18.17.3 Cuttings Treatment

Cuttings Injection (CI)
Bioremediation (site by site)
Drying Shakers
Cobra
King Cobra
LCM-3D
Centrifugal Dryers
Vortex (vertical)
Mud 8 & 10 (horizontal)
Dewatering
Thermal Desorption
Indirect Thermal
Hot Oil
Frictional heat

18.18 Mud Tanks

Ideal Mud Tank System
Rapid Mud Tank System
Sloped Bottom
Tub Bottom

18.19 Agitators
MA-RG Series
MA-R6C Series
VMA Series
162
18.20 Mud Mixing Equipment
Hopper
Venturi
Back Pressure Unit
Pallet Lift System
Automatic sack cutting unit
Big Bag Slitting Unit
Caustic Barrel
Caustic Mixer
Sack Handling Unit (with reservoir)
Dust Collector plus cyclone
Bulk Storage Tank
Bulk Control System
High Rate Mixer
Liquid Additive Skid
Pre-Hydration Mixing Tank and Hopper (TurboShear)
HP Shear Unit

18.21 Auxiliary Equipment

Safety Cool
Rig Blowers
B-150
B-250
B-400
Filtration Units
Bag Filter Unit
Cartridge Filter Unit
VPL 600 Vertical Leaf Filtration Unit
Portable Power
Auxiliary
Diesel Fuel Tanks
Distribution Panels
Lighting
Submersible Pumps
Transfer Switches
Transformers
Power Systems
Diesel Generators
Natural Gas Generators
Temperature Control Equipment
Air Conditioners
Heaters
Chillers

163
164
19 APPENDICES

19.1 Appendix A - Pre-Well System Selection Checklist

19.1.1 Well Design

Where is the well being drilled?
What type of well is it wildcat, development, injection, etc.
What problems are anticipated?

19.1.2 Drilling Program

What are the bit sizes, casing points, and washout factors?
What is the expected rate of penetration and type of bit?
What is the mud program?
Are there any environmental restrictions?
What rig is being considered?
Any anticipated hole problems?

19.1.3 Equipment and Vendor Capability

What size and type of solids need to be removed?
What equipment is already installed?
What is its process rate and expected removal efficiency?
Are there sufficient mud compartments?
Is the equipment installed properly?
What additional equipment is needed?
What is expected downtime?
What are the power and fuel requirements?
What rig modifications are required?
What is vendor experience and safety record?
Is HSE Plan available?

19.1.4 Logistics
Where is the specific location?
Where is the local stock/service base?
What on-site spares are required?
How many additional people are required?
Do they need housing or meals?
What personal protective equipment is required?

19.1.5 Environmental Issues

What are the preferred mud treatment and disposal options?
Will analytical testing be required?

19.1.6 Economics
What is the estimated mud cost per barrel per interval?
What is the equipment acquisition and installation cost?
What is the expected operating cost and expected savings?
What is the expected disposal and site remediation cost?

165
19.2 Appendix B Mud Engineering

19.2.1 Hole Capacities

To find the capacity of an unlisted hole size, use the following equation: (22/7) (r) (0.0519) /
(42) = bbls/ft

Hole Hole Barrels/ft Linear Liters Linear

Size, Size, ft/bbl per Meters per
inches cm Meter Liter
4.750 12.065 0.0219 45.649 11.4279 0.0875
5.625 14.288 0.0307 32.552 16.0259 0.0624
5.875 14.923 0.0335 29.840 17.4821 0.0572
6.000 15.240 0.0350 28.610 18.2340 0.0548
6.125 15.558 0.0364 27.454 19.0016 0.0526
6.250 15.875 0.0379 26.367 19.7851 0.0505
6.625 16.828 0.0426 23.466 22.2305 0.0450
6.750 17.145 0.0442 22.605 23.0773 0.0433
6.875 17.463 0.0459 21.791 23.9400 0.0418
7.375 18.733 0.0528 18.936 27.5488 0.0363
7.625 19.368 0.0564 17.715 29.4481 0.0340
7.750 19.685 0.0583 17.148 30.4216 0.0329
7.875 20.003 0.0602 16.608 31.4108 0.0318
8.375 21.273 0.0681 14.684 35.5261 0.0281
8.500 21.590 0.0701 14.255 36.5945 0.0273
8.625 21.908 0.0722 13.845 37.6787 0.0265
8.750 22.225 0.0743 13.452 38.7788 0.0258
9.500 24.130 0.0876 11.412 45.7115 0.0219
9.625 24.448 0.0899 11.118 46.9223 0.0213
9.875 25.083 0.0947 10.562 49.3915 0.0202
10.250 26.035 0.1020 9.803 53.2140 0.0188
10.625 26.988 0.1096 9.123 57.1789 0.0175
12.250 31.115 0.1457 6.863 76.0065 0.0132
13.500 34.290 0.1769 5.651 92.3094 0.0108
14.750 37.465 0.2112 4.734 110.1951 0.0091
17.500 44.450 0.2973 3.363 155.1152 0.0064
26.000 66.040 0.6563 1.524 342.3931 0.0029

166
19.2.3 Recommended Range of Properties for Dispersed Mud System

These values are in the minimum range and are designed to be indicative of a water-based
drilling fluid in very good condition. Dispersed muds refer to mud treated with lignosulfonate.
Fast drilling rates where high volumes of drilled solids are incorporated into the fluid may make
these minimum values difficult to obtain at the flow line. But, with proper use of solids control
equipment and some treatment with chemicals, these properties should be obtainable in the
suction pit. The rheology data was collected at 120 F.

2
Weight, lb/gal Plastic Viscosity, cP Yield Point, lb/100ft Solids, %

8.5 6-10 1-3 2-4

9.0 10-12 4-6 5-7
9.5 12-16 4-6 8-10
10.0 14-18 5-7 10-12
10.5 16-20 5-7 11-13
11.0 18-22 6-8 13-15
11.5 20-24 6-8 15-17
12.0 22-26 7-9 17-19
12.5 23-27 7-9 19-21
13.0 25-29 7-9 20-22
13.5 27-31 8-10 22-24
14.0 29-33 8-10 24-26
14.5 31-35 9-11 25-27
15.0 33-37 9-11 27-29
15.5 35-39 10-12 29-31
16.0 37-41 10-12 31-33
16.5 38-42 11-13 33-35
17.0 40-44 11-13 34-36
17.5 42-46 12-14 36-38
18.0 44-48 12-14 38-40
18.5 46-50 13-15 40-42
19.0 48-52 13-15 41-43
19.5 50-54 14-16 43-45

167
19.2.4 Water-Based Mud PV & YP Values @ 120 F.

168
19.2.5 Recommended Range of Properties for Non-Dispersed
Mud System
These values are in the minimum range and are designed to be indicative of a water-based
drilling fluid in very good condition. Non-dispersed muds are normally muds treated with
polymers. Fast drilling rates, where large volumes of drilled solids are incorporated into the fluid;
may make these minimum values difficult to maintain at that the flow line. However, with proper
use of solids control equipment and chemical treatment, it should be possible to maintain them
in the suction pit. The rheology data was collected at 120 F.

2
Weight, lb/gal Plastic Viscosity, cP Yield Point, lb/100ft Solids, %

8.5 5-10 5-10 2-4

9.0 10-15 5-10 3-5
9.5 10-15 5-10 5-7
10.0 10-15 5-10 7-9
10.5 10-20 5-10 9-11
11.0 10-20 5-10 11-13
11.5 10-20 7-12 13-14
12.0 15-20 7-12 14-16
12.5 15-20 7-12 16-18
13.0 15-20 7-12 18-20
13.5 15-20 8-12 20-22
14.0 17-25 8-12 22-24
14.5 17-25 8-15 24-26
15.0 20-30 8-15 26-27
15.5 20-30 10-15 28-29
16.0 25-35 10-15 29-31
16.5 25-35 10-15 31-33
17.0 30-40 10-15 33-34
17.5 30-40 10-15 35-36
18.0 35-50 10-15 37-38

169
19.2.6 Recommended Range of Properties for Non-Aqueous Mud Systems

These values are in the minimum range and are designed to be indicative of drilling fluids in
good condition. Fast drilling rates, where high large volumes of drilled solids are incorporated
into the fluid, may make these minimum values difficult to maintain at that the flow line. However,
with proper use of solids control equipment and appropriate treatment, it should be possible to
maintain them in the suction pit. The rheology data was collected at 150 F.

Gels
Weight, Plastic Yield Point, Oil/Water Solids, 10 Sec 10 Min
2
ppg Viscosity, cP lb/100 ft Ratio %

9 9-14 4-7 70/30 5-7 5-6 9-15

9.5 10-15 4-7 70/30 6-8 6-8 10-16
10 11-16 4-8 70/30 7-9 7-9 10-16
10.5 13-18 5-9 70/30 9-10 7-9 10-18
11 16-21 5-9 75/25 10-12 8-9 11-19
11.5 19-24 6-9 75/25 12-13 8-10 12-20
12 22-26 7-10 75/25 14-16 8-11 12-22
12.5 24-28 8-11 75/25 16-18 8-12 12-24
13 26-29 9-12 75/25 18-20 8-14 14-26
13.5 28-32 10-13 75/25 20-22 8-14 14-26
14 30-34 10-14 80/20 22-24 8-15 15-28
14.5 32-36 10-16 80/20 24-26 8-15 15-28
15 34-38 10-18 80/20 26-28 8-15 15-28
15.5 36-40 11-18 85/15 28-30 8-15 15-29
16 38-40 11-20 85/15 30-32 8-15 15-29
16.5 40-44 11-20 85/15 32-34 8-15 15-30
17 42-46 11-20 85/15 33-35 8-15 15-30
17.5 44-48 11-20 90/10 35-37 8-15 15-30
18 46-50 11-20 90/10 37-39 8-15 15-31
18.5 48-52 11-20 90/10 39-41 8-15 15-31
19 50-54 11-20 90/10 41-43 8-15 15-31

19.3 Appendix C - Standard Mud Calculations

19.3.1 Mud Volume

o Capacity annulus in bbl/ft = [(hole size)2 - (pipe OD)] (0.00097)
o Approximate capacity of hole in bbl/1000 ft = (diameter of hole)
o Pit volume in cu ft = (Length) (Width) (Depth)
o Pit volume in bbl = cu ft/5.6
o Hole volume in bbl = [(hole capacity, bbl/ft) (depth, ft)] - pipe
displacement (bbl)
o Annular volume in bbl = hole volume - capacity and displacement of
drill pipe
o Total Volume = hole volume + pit volume
170
19.3.2 Circulation Data

o Pump output in barrels per minute (bpm) = bbl/stroke x

strokes/minute

o Annular velocity in fpm = pump output (bpm x 100)

U

annular volume (bbl/100 ft)

o Bottoms up in minutes = annular volume (bbl)

U

pump output (bpm)

o Hole cycle in minutes = pump output (bpm x 100)

U

pump output (bpm)

o Mud cycle in minutes = total volume (bbl)

U U

pump output
(bpm)

19.3.3 Solids Determination

19.3.3.1 Low Weight Muds (muds without weight material or oil)

o Percent solids by volume = (mud weight water weight)(7.5)

o Correction for oil: For each 1% oil, add 0.1 to the % solids by
volume

o Correct for NaCl: For each 10,000 ppm salt, deduct 0.3% solids by
volume. Ignore if salt content is less than 10,000 ppm. Convert Cl
ppm to salt ppm (Cl ppm x 1.65 = salt ppm)

19.3.3.2 Weighted Muds

o Percent by volume desired solids = (mud weight-6)(3.2)

19.3.3.3 Drill Solids per Foot of Hole (assuming S.G. = 2.6)

o Barrels per foot = (hole size + washout)2(0.00097)

o Pounds per foot = (barrels per foot)(910.7)

171
19.4 Appendix D - Solids Control Evaluation Calculations
A. Average Specific Gravity (SG) of solids in WBM
1. Freshwater muds
SGa = (12 x ) - Vw
U

Vs
2. Salt water muds
SGa = (12 x ) - (Vwc x SGw)
U

(100-Vwc)
B. Volume percent solids (Vs) in freshwater muds, without
weighting material
Vs = 7.5 x ( - 8.34)
C. Volume percent solids in freshwater muds containing barite,
SG = 4.20.
Vb = (SGa 2.6) x Vsc x 0.625
Vlg = Vsc Vb
D. Volume percent solids in freshwater muds containing
hematite, SG = 5.10
Vh = (SGa 2.6) x Vsc x 0.417
Vlg = Vsc Vh
E. Volume percent in muds containing oil >1% or salt >10,000
ppm
Vlg = [(Vw x SGwc) + (Vo x SGo) + (Vsc x SGhg)]
U

(100 x SGm)U

SGhg - SGlg
F. Bentonite and reactive clay corrections
CECa = 7.69 x (MBTm)
U

Vlg
Vben = Vlg x (CECa CECds)
U

(CECbenCECds)

172
19.4.1 Terms
CECa = Average cation exchange capacity (CEC)
CECben = CEC of bentonite, typically 60
CECds = CEC of drilled solids, typically 10
Cl = Total chlorides, milligrams/liter (mg/l)
= Mud density, ppg
MBTm = Methylene blue test, pound per barrel (ppb)
SG = Specific gravity
SGa = Average specific gravity of solids
SGhgs = Specific gravity of high gravity solids (HGS)
SGlgs = Specific gravity of low gravity solids (LGS)
SGm = Specific gravity of mud
SGo = Specific gravity of oil
SGw = Specific gravity of water
SGwc = Specific gravity of water, corrected for chlorides
Vb = Volume % barite (entered as 50% not 0.50)
Vh = Volume % hematite
Vhgs = Volume % HGS
Vlgs = Volume % LGS
Vs = Volume % solids
Vsc = Volume % solids, corrected for salt
Vw = Volume % water
Vwc = Volume % water, corrected for salt

173
19.5 Appendix E - Field Calculations of Solids Discharges

19.5.1 Field Calculations to Determine Total Solids Discharge

Note: This method produces only a quick approximation of solids removal rate
and should be used only for unweighted muds, or where quick comparisons
need to be made on a mud system to observe the results of conditions change.
Are solids removal rates increasing, decreasing, or unchanged?
Use a one-quart container and wristwatch to determine how
many seconds (R) it takes to collect one quart of slurry from
a cyclone underflow or a screen discharge. Use as large a
sample volume as feasible; a five gallon sample would be
better than a quart sample.
Use a mud balance to obtain the density () of the slurry in
ppg. Mix the sample well before weighing the mud.
Use the following equations to calculate the rate of solids
removal in pounds per hour.
( - 8.34) (1450) = Total Solids Removed in lb/hr
U U

R
= Density of slurry in ppg.
R = Rate of solids slurry discharge in sec/qt
8.34 = Density of Water, ppg
Example: Given the following data,
= 12.3 ppg
R = 8 sec/qt
Then
( - 8.34) (1450)
U U = Total Solids Removed in
lb/hr
R

(12.3 - 8.34) (1450) =

U U Total Solids Removed in
lb/hr 8
(3.96) (1450)
U U = 717.75 lb/hr
8

174
19.6 Appendix F - Solids Control Performance Evaluation
There are several methods used to determine economic performance. This
appendix describes a method to compare the cost of dilution versus the cost of
mechanical solids removal by a centrifuge. It utilizes the concept of a dilution
factor (the amount of mud required to maintain a given solids concentration for
every barrel of drilled solids that are incorporated into the mud) to determine
dilution requirements. This method may be used to determine economic
efficiency of any type of solids control equipment. Note: Effluent is defined as
the process stream returned to the active mud system. The underflow is defined
as the waste stream removed from the mud system and discarded.
Example: This is an example for unweighted water-base mud.
Given:
Feed Rate = 30 gpm
Underflow Density (u) = 17.0 ppg
Feed Density (f) = 10.0 ppg
Effluent Density (e) = 9.0 ppg
Total Low Gravity Solids = 6%
Mud Cost = $15/bbl
Disposal Cost = $10/bbl
Equipment Cost per Day = $600

Note: It is very difficult to determine an accurate mud density of dry solids

discharged by a centrifuge unless one uses a gravimetric approach to mud
weight. A gravimetric method would be similar to using the Retention of Oil on
cuttings (ROC) technique used in the Gulf of Mexico in the USA. This requires a
balance and a calibrated sample cup (for the ROC we use a 50 ml retort cup).
In the above example we will assume the discharge of solids from the centrifuge
is very soupy (not dry) and a regular mud balance was used to obtain the
density of the sample collected. This assumption eliminates the possibility of
trapped air in the sample.

Feed Rate, Vf = 30 Solids Control Effluent Rate, Ve = ? gpm

Equipment
Feed Density, f = 10.0 ppg (Centrifuge) Effluent Density, e = 9 ppg

Underflow Rate, Vu = ? gpm

Underflow Density, u = 17.0 ppg
175
With the given data determine the following:
1) Determine the Effluent and Underflow Volume Rates.
2) Calculate the Low Gravity Solids Removed per minute.
3) Calculate the equipment effectiveness and cost, compared to
dilution
4) Calculate economic benefits

1) Determine the Effluent and Underflow Volume Rates.

(f f) (Vf) = (u) (Vu) + (e) (Ve);
Where:
f = Feed density of the slurry, ppg
u = Underflow density, ppg
e = Effluent density, ppg
Vf = Feed rate of slurry, gpm
Vu = Underflow volume, gpm
Ve = Effluent volume, gpm

Since the feed volume is equal to the underflow volume plus the effluent volume
then,
Vf = Vu + Ve
We can rearrange as follows: Ve = Vf - Vu
Then, use this to help solve the equation as shown below,
Substitute the (Vf Vu) for Ve to help eliminate one unknown and solve,
(10.0) (30) = (17.0)(Vu) + (9.0) (30 - Vu) =
300 = 17Vu + 9 (30 Vu)
300 = 17Vu + 270 -9Vu
300-270 = 17Vu 9Vu
30 = 8Vu
30/8 = Vu
Vu = 3.75 gallons per minute underflow rate volume

And since Vf = Vu + Ve, and Vf = 30 and Vu = 3.75 then, solve for Ve;
30 = (3.75 + Ve)
30 3.75 = Ve = 26.25 gallons per minute
Therefore, we have determined the following flow rates:
Flow rate, gpm
Underflow = 3.75 gpm
Effluent = 26.25 gpm

176
 Feed Rate, Vf = 30 Solids Control Effluent Rate, Ve = 26.25 gpm
Equipment
Feed Density, f = 10.0 ppg (Centrifuge) Effluent Density, e = 9 ppg

Underflow Rate, Vu = 3.75 gpm

Underflow Density, u = 17.0

2) Calculate the Low Gravity Solids Removed per minute.

a) Calculate the low gravity solids in the underflow:
Let X = the decimal fraction low gravity solids
17/8.34 = X (2.6) + (1-X)
2.04 = 2.6X + 1 - X
1.04 = 1.6X
X = 1.04/1.6 = 0.65 or 65% solids in underflow
b) Calculate the low gravity solids removed:
3.75 * 0.65 = 2.44 gallons of low gravity solids removed
per minute
The low gravity solids removed per minute = 2.44 gpm

3) Calculate the solids control equipment cost compared to dilution

a) Dilution: Assume the 9.0 ppg fluid is the desired fluid mud weight.
It contains 6% solids. The equivalent dilution required to treat
the solids removed is the volume removed divided by the desired
fraction of solids.
2.44/.06 = 40.66 gpm dilution required to match the machines
effectiveness or [(40.66 gal/min) (60 min/hr)] / (42) gal/bbl = 58 bbl/hr
equivalent dilution
Dilution Cost, $ = Volume * (Mud Unit Cost + Disposal Unit Cost)
Dilution Cost, $ = 58 bbl/hr * ($15/bbl + $10/bbbl) = $1450/hr
$1,450 per hour = equivalent dilution cost
b) Mechanical Treatment Cost, $ = [(Liquid Volume Lost) (Mud Unit
Cost + Disposal Unit Cost)] + Equipment Cost
If we assume the discharged solids contain 35% by volume mud, then
(3.75 gpm) (0.35) = 1.3 gallons of liquids lost per minute or,
(1.3 gal/min) (60 min/hr) / (42 gal/bbl) = 1.85 bbl/hr liquids lost
Mechanical Treatment Cost, $ = [(1.85 bbl/hr) ($15 + $10)] + $600/24hr =
$71.25 per hour = equipment cost to remove solids
177
4) Calculate the economic benefits
$ = (cost to remove) - (cost to dilute)
$ = ($71.25 - $1,450)
$ = $(1,378.75)
$ in parenthesis ( ) = Savings, Removal compared to Dilution

Therefore, in this example, prompt and continuous removal of drilled

solids will save $1,379 per hour with a cost to remove being $71.25 per
hour.

178
19.7 Appendix G - Conversion Constants and General Information

19.7.1 Conversion Constants

Field Units to Metric

If you have: Multiply by: To get:
Barrels (bbl) x 158.987 Liters
Barrels (bbl) x 0.1589 Cubic Meters
Fahrenheit Degrees x 0.56-17.8 Celsius Degrees
Feet x 0.305 Meters (M)
Gallon (gal) x 8.34 lb
Gallon (gal) x 0.00379 M3
Gallon (gal) x 0.1337 ft3
Gallon (gal) x 3.785 Liters
Cubic Meters x 0.003785 Gallon (gal)
Barrels (bbl) x 42 Gallon (gal)
Inches x 2.54 Centimeters (cm)
3
M x 264.2 gal
M3 x 6.29 bbl
Mile x 1.61 Km
Mud Weight (lb/ft3) x 1.602 Kg/M3
Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.1198 Kg/L
Mud Weight (ppg) x 119.83 Kg/M3
Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.1198 Specific Gravity
(SG)
Pounds (lbs) x 0.000454 Metric tons
Pounds (lbs) x 0.445 Decanewtons (daN)
Pounds (lbs) x 0.454 Kilograms
Pounds (lbs) x 454 Grams
Pounds/Barrel (ppb) x 2.853 Kg/M3
Pounds/in2 (psi) x 6894.8 Pascals (Pa)
psi x 0.93105 Kg/cm2
psi x 0.06895 Bar
Weight (lbs/ft) x 1.488 Kg/M

179
19.7.2 pH of Mud Additives in 10% Water Solution

Chemical Name pH
Chrome lignosulfonate 3.7
Quebracho 3.8
Sodium acid pyrophosphate, Na2H2P2O7 4.8
Lignite 5.0
Calcium sulfate, CaSO42 H2O, gypsum 6.0
Sodium hexametaphosphate, (NaPO)6 6.0
Calcium Lignosulfonate 7.0
Sodium tetraphosphate, Na6P4O13 7.5
Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, baking soda 8.3
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate, Na4P2O7 9.9
Barium carbonate, BaCO3 10.0
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, soda ash 11.0
Calcium Hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, slaked lime 12.0
Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH, caustic soda 13.0
(10% solutions)

180
19.7.3 Specific Gravity and Mohs Hardness of Common Mud Components

Material Specific Mohs

Gravity ppg ppb Hardness
Barite 4.5 37.5 1506 3-3.5
Bentonite 2.4 20.0 840 1-2
Calcium Carbonate 2.7 22.5 945 3
Cement 3.2 26.7 1120
Clays, drilled solids 2.6 21.7 911
Diesel Oil 0.84 7.0 294
Dolomite 2.9 24.2 1016 3.5-4
Fresh Water 1.0 8.34 350
Galena 6.5 54.1 2272 2.5-2.75
Gypsum 2.3 19.2 806 2
API Hematite 5.1 42.5 1785 5-6
Lead 11.4 95.0 3990
Salt 2.2 18.3 769 2.5
Sand (Silica) 2.6 21.7 911 7
API Barite 4.20 35 1471

Note: ppg = pounds/gallon; ppb = pounds/barrel

181
 19.7.4 Pounds of Drill Solids Generated per Hole Size

Hole
Size, Rate of Penetration, ft/hr
inches
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250
4.750 199 598 997 1396 1795 2194 2593 2992 3391 3790 4188 4587 4986
5.625 280 839 1398 1957 2516 3076 3635 4194 4753 5312 5871 6431 6990
5.875 305 915 1525 2136 2746 3356 3966 4576 5187 5797 6407 7017 7627
6.000 319 956 1594 2231 2869 3506 4144 4781 5419 6056 6694 7331 7969
6.125 332 995 1658 2321 2984 3647 4310 4973 5636 6299 6962 7625 8288
6.250 345 1035 1726 2416 3106 3797 4487 5177 5868 6558 7248 7939 8629
6.625 388 1164 1940 2716 3492 4268 5044 5820 6595 7371 8147 8923 9699
6.750 403 1210 2017 2824 3631 4438 5245 6052 6859 7666 8473 9279 10086
6.875 418 1254 2090 2926 3762 4598 5434 6270 7106 7942 8779 9615 10451
7.375 481 1443 2404 3366 4328 5290 6251 7213 8175 9136 10098 11060 12022
7.625 515 1544 2573 3602 4631 5660 6689 7718 8748 9777 10806 11835 12864
7.750 531 1593 2655 3717 4779 5840 6902 7964 9026 10088 11150 12212 13274
7.875 548 1645 2741 3838 4934 6031 7127 8224 9320 10417 11513 12610 13706
8.375 620 1861 3101 4341 5582 6822 8063 9303 10543 11784 13024 14265 15505
8.500 639 1918 3197 4475 5754 7033 8311 9590 10869 12147 13426 14705 15983
8.625 658 1975 3292 4609 5926 7243 8560 9877 11194 12511 13828 15144 16461
8.750 678 2033 3388 4743 6098 7453 8809 10164 11519 12874 14229 15584 16940
9.500 799 2396 3994 5591 7188 8786 10383 11981 13578 15175 16773 18370 19968
9.625 820 2459 4098 5738 7377 9016 10656 12295 13934 15573 17213 18852 20491
9.875 862 2587 4312 6037 7762 9487 11212 12937 14662 16387 18112 19837 21561
10.250 999 2997 4995 6993 8992 10990 12988 14986 16984 18982 20980 22979 24977
10.625 930 2790 4649 6509 8369 10228 12088 13948 15808 17667 19527 21387 23246
12.250 1321 3962 6603 9244 11885 14526 17167 19808 22449 25091 27732 30373 33014
13.500 1612 4836 8060 11284 14508 17732 20956 24180 27404 30628 33852 37076 40300
14.750 1924 5773 9622 13471 17319 21168 25017 28866 32714 36563 40412 44260 48109
17.500 2709 8128 13547 18966 24385 29804 35222 40641 46060 51479 56898 62317 67735
26.000 5981 17942 29904 41865 53827 65788 77750 89711 101673 113634 125596 137557 149519
Note: Assuming gauge hole.

182
 19.7.5 Percent Solids versus Mud Weight for Water-Based Muds

Solids Content, % by volume

50

40
100% Low Gravity ion
ondit
Solids (2.6 S.G.) od C
30 n Go
uds i
ield M
er -Base F
t
20 of Wa
ange lids
So lids R Gr a v
ity So
i mate % e Low
ro x Volum
10 App f 2%
by
um o
Minim

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Mud Weight, pounds per gallon

19.7.6 Base Exchange Capacities of Clay Minerals*

Mineral Milliequivalents/100g of Dry Clay

Mineral

Montmorillonite 70-130

Vermiculite 100-200

Illite 10-40

Kaolinite 3-15

Chlorite 10-40

Attapulgite-Sepiolite 10-35

* From Grim, and Weaver and Pollard

183
19.8 Appendix H - G-Force Derivation
The formula is derived from the centripetal acceleration of the motor weights,
Centripetal Acceleration = r2, even though the shaker basket is not moving in circular
motion around a central axis.

To accommodate this difference, the "radius" of the "circular" motion is converted to

"diameter" within the centripetal acceleration formula, and then the stroke of the basket
is equated to this "diameter".

Basket 1
= * "Diameter" (now = Stroke) * 2
Acceleration 2

The proper units for are radians which need to be converted from the RPM of the
motor and the English units for the acceleration of gravity are ft / sec2. All the
conversion factors are compiled and the final formula links Gs (Gravitational force) to
stroke in inches and motor RPM, like this:

Gs = Basket Acceleration = Stroke (inches) *

2
Radians
2
Acceleration of Gravity 2 * (32.174 ft / sec )

2
= Stroke (inches) * ft * Radians
2
2 * (12 inches) * (32.174 ft / sec )

2
= Stroke (inches) * ft * ((RPM value) Rev * 2 * pi Radians )
2 2
2 * (12 inches) * ( minute Revolution ) * (32.174 ft / sec )

2
= Stroke (inches) * ft * ((RPM value) Rev * minute * 2 * pi Radians )
2 2
2 * (12 inches) * (minutes * 60 seconds * Revolutions) * (32.174 ft / sec )

2
= Stroke (inches) * ft * ((RPM value) Rev * minute * 2 * pi Radians )
2 2
2 * (12 inches) * (minute * 60 seconds * Revolutions) * (32.174 ft / sec )

2
= Stroke * ft * ((RPM value) * 2 * pi )
2 2
2 * 12 * ( 60 seconds ) * (32.174 ft / sec )

2
= Stroke * ((RPM value) * 2 * pi )
2
2 * 12 * 60 * 32.174

2
= Stroke
2
* (RPM value) * 4 *
pi
2
2 * 12 * 60 * 32.174

Gs = (Stroke in inches) * (Motor

2
RPM)
70414
Or

Gs = (Stroke in inches)(Motor RPM)2(0.0000142)

184
19.9 Appendix I - Centrifuge Charts
19.9.1 US Units

US Units
HS-2172L HS-1960 HS- HS-3400 HS-3400 HS-3400
2000M VSD (UK) FS FVS
Part Number 16680 20000 15670 034-901 10849 10547
0-016

Manual M16730 M22080 M15490 M12958 M09252 M1339

Number
Water
Capacity 550 350 250 200 200 200
(gpm)
Feed 12 port 2-Elongated 12 port 4 port 4 port 4 port
Type Ports
Max Max Max Max Max Max
Bowl 3000 3000 3200 4000 3200 3200
Speed Typical Typical Typical Typical Typical Typical
2600-2800 2700 2800 2700-3000 2600 2700-3000
Drive VFD VFD VFD Hydraulic Fixed VFD
Electrical
Gearbox 75:1 75:1 59:1 52:1 52:1 52.1
Ratio
G-Force 2684 2480 2617 3181 2036 2036
Max Drive
(Bowl) hp 150 125 75 40 40 40
Back Drive
(hp) 40 40 30 NA NA 25
Beach
Angle 5 5 5 10 10 10
Weight
(lbs) 16500 12500 7500 6615 4800 6200
Bowl Dia.
(in) 21 19.4 18 14 14 14
Bowl Length
(in) 72 60 60 49.5 49.5 49.5
Length
(in) 174 160 172 98 98 124
Width
(in) 84 83 41 69 69 69
Height
(in) 46 44 47 57 44 59
F= Fixed Speed M= Modular Frame (in-line drives) VS= Variable Speed D= Hydraulic
FVS= Full Variable Speed (with back drive) L= Left Handed (feed from solids end)
VFDs are rated to match motor and load requirements
VFDs are available for arctic, desert and hazardous area use
Typical VFD overall dimensions: 83 H x 76 W x 52 D Typical Weight: 1679 lbs
NOTE: These are the latest updates. Some items may change without notice.
NOTE:
(1) Every centrifuge can remove and return barite to a weighted mud system.
The VFD units can change removal functions by a simple dial adjustment. The ideal G-Force is 800-1000
(2) Every centrifuge can dewater solids (remove low gravity solids from a mud).
The VFD units can change removal functions by simple dial adjustment
The idea G-Force is >1000
(3) The fixed drive centrifuges require sheave and belt changes to be able to change G-force

185
19.9.2 Metric Units

UK Units
HS-2172L HS-1960 HS- HS-3400 HS-3400 HS-3400
2000M VSD (UK) FS FVS
Part 16680 20000 15670 034-901 10849 10547
Number 0-016

Manual
Number M16730 M22080 M15490 M12958 M09252 M1339
Water
Capacity 2082 1325 950 757 757 757
(lpm)
Feed 12 port 2-Elongated 12 port 4 port 4 port 4 port
Type Ports
Max Max Max Max Max Max
Bowl 3000 3000 3200 4000 3200 3200
Speed Typical Typical Typical Typical Typical Typical
2600- 2700 2800 2700-3000 2600 2700-3000
2800
Drive VFD VFD VFD Hydraulic Fixed VFD
Electrical
Gearbox 75:1 75:1 59:1 52:1 52:1 52.1
Ratio
G-Force 2684 2480 2617 3181 2036 2036
Max Drive
(Bowl) kw 112 93 56 30 30 30
Back Drive
kw 30 30 22 NA NA 18
Beach
Angle 5 5 5 10 10 10
Weight
(kg) 7484 5670 3402 3001 2177 2812
Bowl Dia.
(mm) 533 493 457 357 357 357
Bowl Length
(mm) 1829 1524 1524 1257 1257 1257
Length
(mm) 4420 4064 4369 2489 2489 3150
Width
(mm) 2134 2108 1042 1753 1753 1753
Height
(mm) 1168 1118 1194 1448 1118 1499
F= Fixed Speed M= Modular Frame (in-line drives) VS= Variable Speed D= Hydraulic
FVS= Full Variable Speed (with back drive) L= Left Handed (feed from solids end)
VFDs are rated to match motor and load requirements -VFDs are available for arctic, desert and hazardous area
use
Typical VFD overall dimensions: 2108mm H x 1930mm W x 1321mm D Typical Weight: 762 kg
NOTE: These are the latest updates. Some items may change without notice.
NOTE:
(1) Every centrifuge can remove and return barite to a weighted mud system.
The VFD units can change removal functions by a simple dial adjustment. The ideal G-Force is 800-1000
(2) Every centrifuge can dewater solids (remove low gravity solids from a mud).
The VFD units can change removal functions by simple dial adjustment
The idea G-Force is >1000
(3) The fixed drive centrifuges require sheave and belt changes to be able to change G-force

186
19.10 Appendix J Centrifuge Performance Data

19.10.1 Flow Rate Data for HS-3400

187
19.10.2 PSA of Centrifuge Feed Sample

The feed sample (20.10.2) contained solids as large as 176 microns. After processing the mud
with the centrifuge removed most of the solids greater than 15.56 microns (see 20.10.3) were
removed. About 25% of the larger solids were removed from the feed sample when you
compare

the two samples.

188
19.10.3 PSA of Centrifuge Effluent Sample

189
 19.11 Appendix K - Shale Shaker Product Line
Motor
Data
Qty. Screens & Basket
Name Vibration Deck Type Angle Screen Type G-Force Qty Hp
Mini-Cobra Linear 2 Screens Adjustable Pretension 6.7 Nominal 2 1.5
2- Panel (0, +5) -2to +3 Repairable Gs
Mini-Cobra Linear 3 Screens Adjustable Pretension 6.6 Nominal 2 2.5
3 - Panel (0, +5, +5) 0 to +3 Repairable Gs
Cobra Linear 3 Screens Adjustable Pretension 5.3 Nominal 2 2
(0, +5, +5) -7 to +3 Repairable Gs
King Cobra Linear 4 Screens Adjustable Pretension 6.1 Nominal 2 2.5
Optional Dual Motion (0, +5, +5 +5) -5to +3 Repairable Gs
Linear & Tuned
Elliptical
6.1 Nominal Gs
King Cobra Linear & Tuned 4 Screens Adjustable Pretension Optional CGC* 2 2.5
Hybrid Elliptical (0, +5, +5 +5) -5 to +3 Repairable Constant 6.3
Optional CGC* 3.5
Auto 7.3-8.3
Linear 6.1 Nominal Gs 2 2.5
King Cobra Optional Dual Motion 4 Screens Adjustable Pretension Optional CGC*
Venom Linear & Tuned (0, +5, +5 +5) -2 to +2 Repairable Constant 6.3 2 2.5
Elliptical Optional CGC* 2 3.5
Auto 7.3-8.3
3 Screens Scalping
Deck (+2) Pretension CGC*
VSM Multi-Sizer Balanced Elliptical 4 Screens First Fixed 0 Repairable 5.3-6.3-7.3 2 4
Primary Deck (+7)
4 Screens
Secondary Primary
Deck (+7)
3 Screens Scalping
Deck (0) Pretension CGC*
VSM 300 Balanced Elliptical 4 Screens Primary NA Repairable 5.2-6.1-7.6 2 4
Deck (+7)
2 Screens Drying
Deck (+7)
2 Screens Hook Strip
Upper Basket Circular Scalping Deck (0) Fixed 0 Single Layer 4.2 Gs 1 1
LCM-3D/CM-2 or Linear
Cascade Lower Basket Linear 4 Screens Primary Adjustable Pretension 6.1 Nominal
(CM-2 = Belt Deck -5 to +5 Repairable Gs 2 2.5
Drive) (0, +5, +5 +5)
LCM-3D/King Upper Basket Elliptical 4 Screens Adjustable Pretension 6.1 Nominal 2 2.5
Cobra Cascade (0, +5, +5 +5) -5 to +3 Repairable Gs
Lower Basket 4 Screens Primary Adjustable Pretension 6.1 Nominal
Linear Deck -5 to +5 Repairable Gs 2 2.5
(0, +5, +5 +5)
Brandt Tandem Circular 2 Screens Scalping Hook Strip 4.9 Gs
Belt Drive Deck Fixed 0 Single Layer 1 5
(0)

190
* Constant-G Control
CGC Technology automatically adjusts shaker speed and G Force as solids loading increases and
decreases.
CGC increases shaker capacity up to 35% and allows finer screening, 2-3 API classes finer.

Shakers can be outfitted as multiple units (weir heights may change) sharing a common
back tank, which reduces installation time and expenses
Shakers in gray shaded area can also be ordered as Mud Conditioners
NOV will manufacture older model shakers by special request and will continue servicing
all models
The Cobra and King Cobra can have optional weir heights of 37 (940mm)
An optional manual VFD G-Force Controller is available for three models of the shakers.
The VFD allows the operator to tune the G-Force exerted on the shaker bed to one of
three settings: NORM, HIGH or MAX

Weir
Shaker Dimensions Deck Weir Height
Equipment Name Area Height Option Length Width Height Weight
ft in in in in in lb
Mini-Cobra 2- Panel 16.8 15 NA 76.67 66.20 39.88 2100
Mini-Cobra 3 - Panel 25.4 24 NA 104.63 66.13 53.00 3800
Cobra 25.4 41 37 94.63 66.13 61.00 3800
King Cobra 33.4 41 37 120.25 66.38 66.00 4800
King Cobra Hybrid 33.4 41 37 124.25 70.00 64.00 5755
King Cobra Venom 33.4 34.5 NA 120.00 67.00 61.00 4500
20.56
VSM Multi-Sizer 26.26 45 NA 104 74 68 5383
26.26
20.5
VSM 300 26.3 39 NA 108.44 73.62 59.25 5370
3
LCM-3D/CM-2 22.5
Cascade
(CM-2 = Belt Drive) 33.4 74 70 119.38 81.00 90.00 9100
LCM-3D/King 33.4
Cobra Cascade 33.4 93 NA 125 80 112 10400
Brandt Tandem 20
Belt Drive 20 36 NA 79.75 72.00 52.63 2865

191
 19.12 Appendix L - Screen Tables for Brandt Shakers

19.12.1 BHX Cobra/LCM 3D

BHX Cobra/LCM 3D XF

Part Number API # Small < D100 Large end Conducta Non-Blanked
end of of Range nce Open Area ft
Range Kd/MM

6BHX70-AT 60 231 <268 275 2.92 4.95

6BHX84-AT 70 196 <223 231 2.32 4.95
6BHX110-AT 80 165 <176 196 1.88 4.95
6BHX140-AT 100 137.5 <141 165 1.4 4.95
6BHX175-AT 120 116.5 <116.8 137.5 1.35 4.95
6BHX210-AT 140 98 <102 116.5 0.94 4.95
6BHX230-AT 170 82.5 <94.8 98 0.87 4.95
6BHX250-AT 200 69 <78.4 82.5 0.72 4.95
6BHX270-AT 230 58 <67.6 69 0.64 4.95
6BHX300-AT 270 49 <54.2 58 0.43 4.95
6BHX325-AT 325 41.5 <42 49 0.36 4.95
6BHX425-AT 400 35 <40.3 41.5 0.21 4.95
BHX Cobra/LCM 3D RHD

Part Number API # Small < D100 Large end Conducta Non-Blanked
end of of Range nce Open Area ft
Range Kd/MM

6BHX75ATRHD 45 327.5 <328.1 390 4.93 4.95

6BHX89ATRHD 50 275 <321.6 317.5 3.98 4.95
6BHX105ATRHD 60 231 <255.1 275 2.68 4.95
6BHX115ATRHD 70 196 <230.4 231 2.55 4.95
6BHX145ATRHD 80 165 <192.7 196 2.18 4.95
6BHX180ATRHD 100 137.5 <164.2 165 1.72 4.95
6BHX215ATRHD 100 137.5 <142.7 165 1.56 4.95
6BHX255ATRHD 120 116.5 <128.6 137.5 1.17 4.95
6BHX280ATRHD 140 98 <101.8 116.5 0.99 4.95
6BHX300ATRHD 170 82.5 <83.2 98 0.93 4.95
6BHX330ATRHD 200 69 <79.5 82.5 0.67 4.95

192
19.12.2 VSM 100

VSM 100 Light Weight XF

Part Number API # Small < D100 Large Conductance Non-Blanked

end of end of Kd/MM Open Area ft
Range Range

62536FXTD70 60 231 <261.4 275 2.95 3.2

62536FXTD84 70 196 <229.2 231 2.05 3.2
62536FXTD110 80 165 <187.5 196 1.75 3.2
62536FXTD120 100 137.5 <139.1 165 1.32 3.2
62536FXTD140 120 116.5 <136.6 137.5 1.35 3.2
62536FXTD175 140 98 <113.7 116.5 1.15 3.2
62536FXTD210 140 98 <110.4 116.5 1.00 3.2
62536FXTD230 170 82.5 <92.7 98 0.75 3.2
62536FXTD250 200 69 <80.3 82.5 0.71 3.2
62536FXTD270 230 58 <68.6 69 0.55 3.2
62536FXTD300 270 49 <49.5 58 0.52 3.2
62536FXTD325 325 41.5 <48.0 49 0.57 3.2
62536FXTD425 425 35 <40.2 41.5 0.21 3.2
VSM 100 Light Weight RHD

Part Number API # Small < D100 Large Conductance Non-Blanked

end of end of Kd/MM Open Area ft
Range Range

62535FOTD089 50 275 <323.0 317.5 4.17 3.2

62535FOTD115 60 231 <254.0 275 3.3 3.2
62535FOTD125 70 196 <216.4 231 3.63 3.2
62535FOTD145 80 165 <192.5 196 2.62 3.2
62535FOTD180 100 137.5 <162.1 165 2.24 3.2
62535FOTD215 120 116.5 <137.4 137.5 1.58 3.2
62535FOTD255 140 98 <114.9 116.5 1.28 3.2
62535FOTD280 170 82.5 <94.4 98 1.10 3.2
62535FOTD330 200 69 <81.3 82.5 0.64 3.2

193
19.12.3 VSM 300

VSM 300 Light Weight XF

Part Number API # Small < D100 Large Conductance Non-Blanked

end of end of Kd/MM Open Area ft
Range Range

62535FXTD70 60 231 <261.4 275 2.95 3.6

62535FXTD84 70 196 <229.2 231 2.05 3.6
62535FXTD110 80 165 <187.5 196 1.75 3.6
62535FXTD120 100 137.5 <139.1 165 1.32 3.6
62535FXTD140 120 116 <136.6 137.5 1.35 3.6
62535FXTD175 140 98 <113.7 116.5 1.15 3.6
62535FXTD210 140 98 <110.4 116.5 1.00 3.6
62535FXTD230 170 82.5 <92.7 98 0.75 3.6
62535FXTD250 200 69 <80.3 82.5 0.71 3.6
62535FXTD270 230 58 <68.6 69 0.55 3.6
62535FXTD300 270 49 <49.5 58 0.52 3.6
62535FXTD325 325 41.5 <48.0 49 0.57 3.6
62535FXTD425 425 35 <40.2 41.5 0.21 3.6
VSM 300 Light Weight RHD

Part Number API # Small < D100 Large Conductance Non-Blanked

end of end of Kd/MM Open Area ft
Range Range

62735FOTD089 50 275 <323.0 327.5 4.17 3.6

62735FOTD115 60 231 <254.9 275 3.3 3.6
62735FOTD125 70 196 <216.4 231 3.63 3.6
62735FOTD145 80 165 <192.5 196 2.62 3.6
62735FOTD180 100 137.5 <162.1 165 2.24 3.6
62735FOTD215 120 116.5 <137.4 137.5 1.58 3.6
62735FOTD255 140 98 <114.9 116.5 1.28 3.6
62735FOTD280 170 82.5 <94.4 98 1.10 3.6
62735FOTD330 200 69 <81.6 82.5 0.64 3.6

194
19.12.4 Venom Series

Venom Screens XF

Part Number API # Small < D100 Large Conductance Non-Blanked

end of end of Kd/MM Open Area ft
Range Range

6VNM070XF 60 231 <266.8 275 4.181 0.5

6VNM084XF 70 196 <227.3 231 3.161 0.5
6VNM110XF 80 165 <185.7 196 2.584 0.5
6VNM140XF 100 137.5 <153.1 165 1.974 0.5
6VNM175XF 120 116 <127.5 137.5 2.045 0.5
6VNM210XF 140 98 <106.6 116.5 1.451 0.5
6VNM230XF 170 82.5 <90.7 98 1.140 0.5
6VNM250XF 200 69 <81.9 82.5 1.227 0.5
6VNM270XF 230 58 <66.4 69 0.726 0.5
6VNM300XF 270 49 <55.9 58 0.587 0.5
6VNM325XF 270 49 <54.9 58 0.585 0.5
6VNM425XF 400 35 <39.2 41.5 0.343 0.5
Venom Screens RHD

Part Number API # Small < D100 Large Conductance Non-Blanked

end of end of Kd/MM Open Area ft
Range Range

6VNM075RHD 45 327.5 <334.2 390 4.940 3.6

6VNM089RHD 50 275 <280.1 327.5 4.170 3.6
6VNM105RHD 60 231 <254.7 275 3.900 3.6
6VNM115RHD 70 196 <230.0 231 3.320 3.6
6VNM145RHD 80 165 <192.4 196 2.854 3.6
6VNM180RHD 100 137.5 <164.4 165 2.464 3.6
6VNM215RHD 100 137.5 <151.5 165 2.033 3.6
6VNM255RHD 120 116.5 <117.3 137.5 1.700 3.6
6VNM280RHD 140 98 <115.1 116.5 1.580 3.6
6VNM300RHD 170 82.5 <91.6 98 1.326 3.6
6VNM330RHD 200 69 <69.9 82.5 1.006 3.6

195
19.13 Appendix M - Sieve Comparison Table

Two Types of sieves are used to classify particle sizes; the US Sieve Series and
the Tyler Equivalent, sometimes called the Tyler Mesh Size or Tyler Standard
Sieve Series. The mesh opening sizes for these sieves are given in the Table
below.

Sieve Mesh Openings

US Sieve # Tyler Equivalent, mesh mm microns inches
- 2.5 8 8000 0.312
- 3 6.73 6730 0.265
3.5 3.5 5.66 5660 0.23
4 4 4.76 4760 0.187
5 5 4 4000 0.157
6 6 3.36 3360 0.132
7 7 2.83 2830 0.111
8 8 2.38 2380 0.0937
10 9 2 2000 0.0787
12 10 1.68 1680 0.0661
14 12 1.41 1410 0.0555
16 14 1.19 1190 0.0469
18 16 1 1000 0.0394
20 20 0.841 841 0.0331
25 24 0.707 707 0.0278
30 28 0.595 595 0.0234
35 32 0.5 500 0.0197
40 35 0.42 420 0.0165
45 42 0.354 354 0.0139
50 48 0.297 297 0.0117
60 60 0.25 250 0.0098
70 65 0.21 210 0.0083
80 80 0.177 177 0.007
100 100 0.149 149 0.0059
120 115 0.125 125 0.0049
140 150 0.105 105 0.0041
170 170 0.088 88 0.0035
200 200 0.074 74 0.0029
230 250 0.063 63 0.0025
270 270 0.053 53 0.0021
325 325 0.044 44 0.0017
400 400 0.037 37 0.0015

196
 19.14 Appendix N - Mud Weight Conversion Table

lb/gal psi/ft lb/ft3 Sp Kg/m3 lb/gal psi/ft lb/ft3 Sp Kg/m3

gr gr
8.3 0.434 62.4 1.00 999.1 14.1 0.733 105.5 1.70 1689.2
8.5 0.442 63.6 1.02 1018.3 14.3 0.744 107.0 1.72 1713.1
8.7 0.452 65.1 1.05 1042.3 14.5 0.754 108.5 1.75 1737.1
8.9 0.463 66.6 1.07 1066.2 14.7 0.764 110.0 1.77 1761.1
9.1 0.473 68.1 1.10 1090.2 14.9 0.775 111.5 1.80 1785.0
9.3 0.484 69.6 1.12 1114.1 15.1 0.785 112.9 1.82 1809.0
9.5 0.494 71.1 1.14 1138.1 15.3 0.796 114.4 1.84 1832.9
9.7 0.504 72.6 1.17 1162.1 15.5 0.806 115.9 1.87 1856.9
9.9 0.515 74.1 1.19 1186.0 15.7 0.816 117.4 1.89 1880.9
10.1 0.525 75.5 1.22 1210.0 15.9 0.827 118.9 1.92 1904.8
10.3 0.536 77.0 1.24 1233.9 16.1 0.837 120.4 1.94 1928.8
10.5 0.546 78.5 1.27 1257.9 16.3 0.848 121.9 1.96 1952.7
10.7 0.556 80.0 1.29 1281.9 16.5 0.858 123.4 1.99 1976.7
10.9 0.567 81.5 1.31 1305.8 16.7 0.868 124.9 2.01 2000.7
11.1 0.577 83.0 1.34 1329.8 16.9 0.879 126.4 2.04 2024.6
11.3 0.588 84.5 1.36 1353.7 17.1 0.889 127.9 2.06 2048.6
11.5 0.598 86.0 1.39 1377.7 17.3 0.900 129.4 2.08 2072.5
11.7 0.608 87.5 1.41 1401.7 17.5 0.910 130.9 2.11 2096.5
11.9 0.619 89.0 1.43 1425.6 17.7 0.920 132.4 2.13 2120.5
12.1 0.629 90.5 1.46 1449.6 17.9 0.931 133.9 2.16 2144.4
12.3 0.640 92.0 1.48 1473.5 18.1 0.941 135.4 2.18 2168.4
12.5 0.650 93.5 1.51 1497.5 18.3 0.952 136.9 2.20 2192.3
12.7 0.660 95.0 1.53 1521.5 18.5 0.962 138.4 2.23 2216.3
12.9 0.671 96.5 1.55 1545.4 18.7 0.972 139.9 2.25 2240.3
13.1 0.681 98.0 1.58 1569.4 18.9 0.983 141.4 2.28 2264.2
13.3 0.692 99.5 1.60 1593.3 19.1 0.993 142.9 2.30 2288.2
13.5 0.702 101.0 1.63 1617.3 19.3 1.004 144.4 2.33 2312.1
13.7 0.712 102.5 1.65 1641.3 19.5 1.014 145.9 2.35 2336.1
13.9 0.723 104.0 1.67 1665.2 19.7 1.024 147.4 2.37 2360.1
14.1 0.733 105.5 1.70 1689.2 19.9 1.035 148.9 2.40 2384.0

197
19.15 Appendix O - Glossary
Legend
+ API Bulletin 13C
- API Bulletin D11
* IADC Mud Equipment Manual

U A
ADSORBED LIQUID
The liquid film that adheres to the surfaces of solid particles which
cannot be removed.
AERATION*
The mechanical incorporation and dispersion of air into a liquid. It can
be very troublesome in drilling fluids.
AIR CUTTING
See Preferred Term: AERATION
AIR LOCK
A condition causing a centrifugal pump to stop pumping due to the
presence of air (or gas) in the impeller center that will not let liquid enter
(usually caused by aeration).
AMPLITUDE +
The distance from the mean position to the point of maximum
displacement. In the case of a vibrating screen with circular motion,
amplitude would be the radius of the circle. In the case of straight-line
motion or elliptical motion, amplitude would be one-half of the total
movement of the major axis of the ellipse; thus one-half stroke. See
related term: STROKE.
ANTIFOAM
A substance used to prevent foam by greatly increasing the surface
tension. Compare: DEFOAMER.
APERTURE
An opening in a screen surface; the clear opening between wires. See
related term: MESH.
APEX
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW OPENING.
APEX VALVE
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW OPENING.
API SAND
Solids particles in a drilling fluid that are too large to pass through a U.S.
Standard 200 Mesh Screen (74 micron openings). See related term:
SAND CONTENT.
198
APPARENT VISCOSITY
The viscosity a fluid appears to have on a given instrument at a stated
rate of shear. It is a function of the plastic viscosity and the yield point.
See also: VISCOSITY, PLASTIC VISCOSITY, and YIELD POINT.
AXIAL FLOW*
Flow from a mechanical agitator in which the fluid first moves along the
axis of the impeller shaft (usually down toward the bottom of a tank) and
them away from the impeller.

B
U

BACKPRESSURE
The pressure opposing flow from a solids separation device. See
related term: DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE.
BALANCE (as a Hydrocyclone)*
To adjust a balanced design hydrocyclone so that it discharges only a
slight drop of water at the underflow opening.
BALANCED DESIGN (Hydrocyclone)
A hydrocyclone designed so it can be operated to discharge solids
when there are solids to separate, but will automatically minimize liquid
discharge when there are no separable solids.
BALANCE POINT (of a Hydrocyclone)
That adjustment at which no liquid will be discharged at the underflow
opening and at which any increase in size of the opening would result in
some liquid discharge.
BARITE, BARYTES
Natural barium sulfate, used for increasing the density of drilling fluids.
The barite mineral occurs in many colors from white through grays,
greens, and reds to black, depending upon the impurities it contains.
API standards require a minimum of 4.2 average specific gravity.
BARREL (API)
A unit of volume used in the petroleum industry, 42 U.S. gallons.
BASKET
That portion of a shale shaker containing the deck upon which the
screen(s) is mounted; it is supported by vibration isolation members
connected to the bed.
BEACH
Area between the liquid pool and the solids discharge ports in a
decanting centrifuge or hydrocyclone.
BED
Shale shaker support member consisting of mounting skid, or frame
with or without bottom flow diverters to direct screen underflow to either
side of the skid and mountings for vibration isolation members.
199
BENTONITE
A hydratable colloidal clay, largely made up of the mineral sodium
montmorillonite, used in drilling fluids to reduce the filtration rate of a
mud and to create viscosity. See related term: GEL.
BLADE
See Preferred Term: FLUTE.
BLINDING
A reduction of open area in a screening surface caused by coating or
plugging. See related terms: COATING, PLUGGING.
BLOWOUT
An uncontrolled escape of drilling fluid, gas, oil, or water from the well
caused by the formation pressure being greater than the hydrostatic
head of the fluid in the hole.
BOTTOM (Cyclone)
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW OPENING.
BOTTOM FLOODING
The operational condition in which whole mud, rather than separated
solids, is discharged by a hydrocyclone.
BOUND LIQUID
See Preferred Term: ADSORBED LIQUID.
BOWL
The outer rotating chamber of a decanting centrifuge.

C
U

CAKE THICKNESS
The measurement of the thickness of the filter cake deposited by a
drilling fluid against a porous medium most often following the standard
API filtration test. Cake thickness is usually reported in 32nds of an inch.
See related term: WALL CAKE.
CAPACITY
The maximum volume rate at which a solids control device is designed
to operate without detriment to separation. See related terms: FEED
CAPACITY, SOLIDS DISCHARGE CAPACITY.
CASCADE
Fluid movement across a deck, then travelling to the front part of
another parallel deck just below the first deck.
CAVING
Caving is a severe degree of sloughing. See related term:
SLOUGHING.
200
CENTIPOISE (cp)
A unit of viscosity equal to 1 gram per centimeter-second. The viscosity
of water at 20C is 1.005 cp.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
That force which tends to impel matter outward from the center of
rotation. See related term: G-FORCE.
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR
A general term applicable to any device using centrifugal force to
shorten and/or to control the settling time required to separate a heavier
mass from a lighter mass.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
A device for moving fluid by means of a rotating impeller which spins the
fluid and creates centrifugal force.
CENTRIFUGE
A mechanical separator, utilizing the accelerated sedimentation created
by a rapidly rotating bowl to separate heavy solids and light solids from
a feed slurry. The particles with the greater mass are separated from
the lighter solids and leave the machine, as damp solids, via the
underflow ports. The lighter solids, both barite and low gravity solids,
remain in the liquid and are discharged with the overflow.
CERAMICS
A general term for heat-hardened clay products which resist abrasion:
used to extend the useful life of wear parts in pumps and cyclones.
CHOKE
An opening, aperture, or orifice used to restrict a rate of flow or
discharge.
CIRCULATION
The movement of drilling fluid from the suction pit through pump, drill
pipe, bit, annular space in the hole, and back again to the suction pit.
The time involved is usually referred to as circulation time.
CIRCULATION RATE
The volume flow rate of the circulation drilling fluid, usually expressed in
gallons or barrels per minute.
CLAY-SIZE, CLAY (Particles)
Particles less than 2 microns in diameter are classified as clay-sized
particles.
COARSE (Solids)
Solids larger than 2000 microns in diameter.
COATING
A condition wherein undersize particles cover the openings of a
screening surface by virtue their stickiness. See related term:
BLINDING.
201
COLLOIDAL (Solids)
Commonly used as a synonym for clay. Particles that are so small
(less than 2 ) that they do not settle.
CONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
CONTAMINATION
The presence of any foreign material that has an adverse effect upon
the desired properties of the drilling fluid.
CONTINUOUS PHASE
The fluid phase of a drilling mud, either water or oil.
CONVEYOR
A mechanical device for moving material from one place to another. In a
decanting centrifuge, a hollow hub with flutes designed to move the
coarse solids out of the bowl.
CROWN
The curvature of a screen deck or the difference in elevation between its
high and low points.
CUT POINT
A general term for the effectiveness of a liquid-solids separation device
expressed as the particle size that is removed from the feed stream at a
given percentage under specified operating conditions. See related
term: MEDIAN CUT.
CUTTINGS
Small pieces of formation that are the result of the chipping and
crushing action of the bit. Field practice is to call all solids removed by
the shaker screen cuttings, in spite of the fact that such solids may
include sloughed materials.
CYCLONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.

D
U

DECANTING CENTRIFUGE
A centrifuge is used to process a slurry, as well as separate heavy
solids from light solids. SEE OBSERVATION UNDER CENTRIFUGE
DECK
The shaker deck is the frame used to mount the screens on the shale
shaker basket.
DEFLOCCULATION
The break-up of flocs of gel structures by use of a chemical thinner or
dispersant.
202
DEFOAMER
Any substance used to reduce or eliminate foam by reducing the
surface tension. Compare: ANTIFOAM.
DEGASSER
A device that removes entrained gas from a drilling fluid.
DENSITY
Matter measured as mass per unit of volume expressed in pounds per
gallon (lbs/gal), grams per liter (g/l), and specific gravity. Density is
commonly referred to as weight.
DESAND
Desanding refers to the removal of API sand sized particles from a
drilling fluid.
DESANDER
A hydrocyclone capable of removing API sand sized particles from a
drilling fluid. API sand sized particles are those particles greater than
74 microns.
DESILT
Desilting refers to the removal of API silt sized particles from mud. Silt
sized particles are those between 2-73 microns.
DESILTER
A hydrocyclone that is capable of removing particles between 2-73
microns from a drilling fluid. SEE ABOVE
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (Hydrocyclone)
The difference between the inlet and outlet pressures measured near
the inlet and outlet openings of a hydrocyclone.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (Wall) STICKING
Sticking which occurs because part of the drill string (usually the drill
collars) becomes embedded in the filter cake, resulting in a non-uniform
distribution of pressure around the circumference of the pipe. The
conditions essential for differential sticking require a permeable
formation and a pressure differential across the filter cake and drill
string.
DILUENT
Liquid added to dilute or thin a drilling fluid.
DILUTION
Increasing the liquid content of a drilling fluid by addition of water or oil.
DILUTION RATIO
Ratio of volume of dilution liquid to the volume of raw mud in the feed to
a liquid-solids separator.
DILUTION WATER
Water used for dilution of water-base drilling mud.
203
DIRECT-INDICATING VISCOMETER
See VISCOMETER, DIRECT INDICATING.

DISCHARGE SPOUT OR LIP

Extension at the discharge area of a screen. It may be vibrating or
stationary.

DISPERSANT
Any chemical which promotes dispersion of particles in a fluid.

DISPERSE
To separate in minute parts. Bentonite disperses into many smaller
particles when hydrated.

DISPERSION (of Aggregates)

Disintegration of aggregates. Dispersion increases the specific surface
area of solids resulting in an increase in viscosity and gel strength.

DIVIDED DECK
A deck having a screening surface longitudinally divided by partition(s).

DOUBLE FLUTE
The flutes or leads advancing simultaneously at the same angle and
180 apart. Flutes are contained in centrifuges.

DRILLED SOLIDS
Formation particles drilled up by the bit. See related term: LOW
SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS.

DRILLING IN
Drilling into the producing formation.

DRILLING MUD OR FLUID

A circulating fluid used in rotary drilling to carry cuttings out of the hole
and perform other functions required in the drilling operation. See
related term: MUD.

DRILLING OUT
The operation during the drilling procedure when cement is drilled out of
the casing before further hole is made or completion attempted.

DRILLING RATE
The rate at which hole depth progresses, expressed in linear units per
unit of time (including connections) as feet/minute or feet/hour. See
related term: PENETRATION RATE.

DRY BOTTOM
Referring to a hydrocyclone adjusted in a manner that makes the
underflow opening very small and this can causes a dry beach, usually
resulting in severe plugging.
204
DRY PLUG
The plugging of the underflow opening of a hydrocyclone caused by
operating the cone with the opening closed causing the cone to operate
in a dry bottom state.

DYNAMIC
The state of being active or in motion opposed to static.

E
U

EDUCTOR
An eductor is a device that uses a high velocity jet to create a vacuum.
This vacuum draws in liquid or dry material into the fluid (water or
drilling mud) for blending.

EFFECTIVE SCREENING AREA

The portion of a screen surface available for solids separation.

EFFLUENT
See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW.

ELASTOMER
Any rubber or rubber-like material (such as polyurethane).

ELEVATION HEAD
The pressure created by a given height of fluid. See related term:
HEAD.

EMULSIFIER or EMULSIFYING AGENT

A substance used to produce an emulsion of two liquids which ordinarily
would not mix.

EMULSION
A substantially permanent mixture of two or more liquids which do not
normally dissolve in each other. They may be oil-in-water or water-in-oil.

EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL DIAMETER (ESD)

The theoretical dimension usually referred to when the sizes of
irregularly shaped small particles are discussed. These dimensions can
be determined by several methods, such as: settling velocity, electrical
resistance, and light reflection. See related term: PARTICLE SIZE.

F
U

FEED, or FEED SLURRY

A mixture of solids and liquid entering a liquid-solids separation device,
including dilution liquid if used.
205
FEED CAPACITY
The maximum feed rate that a solids separation device can effectively
handle, dependent upon particle size, particle concentration, viscosity,
and other variables. See related terms: CAPACITY, SOLIDS
DISCHARGE CAPACITY.
FEED CHAMBER
The part of a device which receives the mixture of diluents, mud and
solids to be separated.
FEED HEAD
The pressure (expressed in feet of head) exerted by the drilling fluid in a
header. See related term: HEAD.
FEED HEADER
A pipe, tube, or conduit to which two or more hydrocyclones are
connected and from which they receive their feed slurry.
FEED OPENING
See Preferred Term: INLET.
FEED PRESSURE
The actual gauge pressure measured as near as possible to, and
upstream of, the inlet of a device.
FILTER CAKE
Solids that are deposited on a porous media while under pressure. A
typical example would be the cake produced in the standard API fluid
loss test. It may also refer to the solids deposited on the wall of the
wellbore. See related term: WALL CAKE.
FILTER CAKE THICKNESS
A measurement of the solids deposited on filter paper during the
standard 3minute API filter test. Measured and reported in 32nds of
an inch.
FILTER PRESS
A device used to determine the fluid loss of a drilling fluid.
FILTRATION
The process of separating suspended solids from their liquid by forcing
the latter through a porous medium. Two types of fluid filtration occur in
a well: dynamic filtration while circulating, and static filtration while the
fluid is at rest.
FILTRATION RATE
See FLUID LOSS.
FINE (Solids)
Solids 44-74 microns in diameter or sieve size 352-200 square mesh,
according to API RP 13C.
206
FINE SCREEN SHAKER
A vibrating screening device designed for screening drilling fluids
through screen cloth finer than 40 mesh.
FISHING
Operations on the rig for the purpose of retrieving sections of pipe,
collars, junk, or other obstructive items which are in the hole and would
interfere with further drilling activities.
FLIGHT
On a decanting centrifuge, one full turn of a spiral helix, such as a flute
or blade of a screw-type conveyor.
FLOCCULATING AGENT
A substance, such as most electrolytes and certain polymers, that
causes flocculation.
FLOCCULATION
Loose association of particles in lightly bonded groups. In drilling fluids,
flocculation results in thickening gelation. Chemical flocculants added
to a mud will tend to cause solids to bond together into larger groups for
easier removal from the mud.
FLOODING
The effect created when a screen or centrifuge is fed beyond its
capacity. Flooding may also occur on a screen as a result of blinding.
FLUID LOSS
Measure of the relative amount of fluid (filtrate) forced under pressure
through a permeable membrane. For standard API filtration-test
procedure, see API RP 13B.
FLUTE
The curved metal blade wrapped around a shaft as on a screw
conveyor in a centrifuge.
FOAM
A light frothy mass of fine bubbles formed in or on the surface of a
liquid; usually caused by entrained air or gas.
FORMATION DAMAGE
The mud particles or mud filtrate that invades a formation reducing the
formations permeability, thus reducing hydrocarbon production.
FREE LIQUID
The layer of liquid that surrounds each separate particle in the
underflow of a hydrocyclone. The thickness of this film depends upon
the cyclone and the viscosity of the fluid.
FUNNEL VISCOSITY
The funnel viscosity of a mud relates to the time, in seconds, for a quart
of drilling mud to flow out the bottom of a Marsh Funnel. Used in the
field as a rough measure of mud viscosity. See related terms: MARSH
FUNNEL, APPARENT VISCOSITY.
207
G
U

GAS-CUT (Mud)
Drilling fluid containing entrained air or gas.
GEAR RATIO
On a decanting centrifuge, the ratio of the outer bowl speed to the
difference in speed between the outer bowl and the screw conveyor,
normally expressed as the number of revolutions of the outer bowl for a
given difference of one complete revolution between the outer bowl and
the screw conveyor.
GEAR UNIT
On a centrifuge, a reduction device connected to the rotating bowl and
driving the conveyor at a slightly different rate.
GEL
A term used to designate high colloidal, high-yielding, viscosity-building
commercial clays, such as bentonite and attapulgite clays.
GEL STRENGTH
The ability or the measure of the ability of a colloid to form gels. Gel
strength is a pressure unit usually reported in lbs/100 sq. ft. It is a
measure of the same inter-particle forces of a fluid as determined by the
yield point under dynamic conditions.
GEL STRENGTH, INITIAL
The measured initial gel strength of a fluid is the maximum reading
(deflection) taken from a direct-reading viscometer after the fluid has
been allowed to sit for 10 seconds.
G-FORCE
The acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec/sec, 9.8 m/sec/sec). Increased
acceleration due to centrifugal force is usually expressed as multiple of
gravitational acceleration:1G, 2G, 3G, 11,000G, etc.
GUMBO
Any sticky shale formation encountered while drilling.
GUNNING THE PITS
Agitation of the drilling fluid by means of mud guns.

H
U

HEAD
Head refers to the height (in feet) of a column of fluid necessary to
develop a specific pressure. Feet of head is commonly used to refer to
the pressure put out by a centrifugal pump.
208
HIGH SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS
Those solids having a specific gravity greater than 2.6. Barite is the
most common, but others such as iron oxide (hematite) or galena (lead
sulfide) are also used. See related Term: LOW SPECIFIC GRAVITY
SOLIDS.
HOOK STRIPS
The hooks on the edges of a screen section which accept the tension
member.
HOPPER
See MUD HOPPER.
HORSEPOWER
A measure of the rate at which work is done. Motor nameplate
horsepower is the maximum steady load that the motor can pull without
damage.
HYDRATION
The absorption and/or adsorption of water by a substance. In clays it
usually results in swelling, dispersion and disintegration into colloidal
particles.
HYDROCYCLONE
A liquid-solids separation device which utilizes centrifugal force to speed
up settling. Drilling fluid is pumped tangentially into a cone and the
rotation of the fluid provides centrifugal force to separate particles by
mass - the heavier solids being separated from the light solids and
liquid.
HYDROCYCLONE SIZE
The maximum inside working diameter of the conical section of a
hydrocyclone.

I
U

INERTIA
That force which makes a moving particle tend to maintain its position or
motion.
INHIBITED MUD
A drilling fluid having an aqueous phase with a chemical composition
that tends to retard and even prevent (inhibit) appreciable hydration
(swelling) or dispersion of formation clays and shales through chemical
and/or physical means is referred to as being an inhibited mud. See
INHIBITOR (mud).
INHIBITOR (mud)
Substances generally regarded as drilling mud contaminants, such as
salt and calcium sulfate, are called inhibitors when purposely added to
mud so that the filtrate from the drilling fluid will prevent or retard the
hydration of formation clays and shales.
209
INLET
The opening through which the feed mud enters a solids control device.

INVERT OIL-EMULSION MUD

An invert emulsion is a water-in-oil emulsion in which fresh or salt water
is the dispersed phase and diesel, crude, or some other oil is the
continuous phase. Water increases the viscosity while oil reduces it.

L
U

LEAD
In a decanting centrifuge, the slurry conducting channel formed by the
adjacent walls of the flutes or blades of the screw conveyor.

LIGNOSULFONATES
Organic drilling fluid additives derived from by-products of the sulfite
paper manufacturing process ultilizing coniferous woods. Commonly
used as dispersants and anti-flocculants. In high concentrations they
may be used for fluid-loss control and shale inhibition.

LIQUID *
Fluid that will flow freely, takes the shape of its container.

LIQUID-CLAY PHASE
See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW

LIQUID DISCHARGE
See Preferred Terms: OVERFLOW (Hydrocyclones); UNDERFLOW
(screens).

LIQUID FILM
The liquid surrounding each particle discharging from the solids
discharge of cyclones and screens. See related term: FREE LIQUID.

LOST CIRCULATION
The result of whole mud escaping into a formation, usually in
cavernous, fractured, or coarsely permeable beds. Evidenced by the
complete or partial failure of the mud to return to the surface while
circulating.

LOST CIRCULATION MATERIALS (LCM)

Materials added to drilling fluid to control mud loss by bridging or
plugging the lost circulation zone.

LOW SILT MUD

An unweighted mud that has all the sand and high proportion of the silts
removed and has a substantial content of bentonite or other water-loss-
reducing clays.
210
LOW SOLIDS MUDS
Low solids muds are unweighted water-base muds containing less than
10% drilled solids (1-4% is a normal range). They are used whenever it
is desirable to increase penetration rate. In general, the lower solids
content in a mud, the greater the penetration rate.
LOW SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS
Drilled solids of various sizes, commercial colloids, salts, lost circulation
materials, i.e., all solids in drilling fluid, except barite or other
commercial weighting materials. Typical S.G. is 2.6.

M
U

MANIFOLD (Cyclone)
A piping arrangement through which liquids, solids or slurries from one
or more sources can be fed to or discharged from a solids separation
device.
MARSH FUNNEL
An instrument used in the field to determine funnel viscosity of a drilling
fluid. See related term: FUNNEL VISCOSITY.
MASS
The effective weight of a particle; the mass of a particle is dependent on
its specific gravity and size.
MECHANICAL AGITATOR
A device used to mix, blend, or stir fluids by means of a rotating impeller
blade.
MEDIAN CUT
In separating solids particles from a specific liquid-solids slurry under
specified conditions, the effectiveness of the separation device
expressed as the particle size that reports 50% to the overflow and 50%
to the underflow.
MEDIUM (solids)
Particles whose diameter is between 74-250 microns.
MESH
The number openings per linear inch in a screen. For example, a 200
mesh screen has 200 openings per linear inch.
MESH COUNT
The count is the term most often used to describe a square or
rectangular mesh screen cloth. A mesh count such as 30 x 30 (or often
30 mesh) indicates a square mesh, while a designation such as 70 x 30
mesh indicates a rectangular mesh. Shale shaker screens used in the
industry are no longer defined by mesh because mesh doesnt describe
the screen as well as the new API RP 13C nomenclature does.
211
MESH EQUIVALENT
As used in oilfield drilling applications, the U.S. Sieve number which has
the same size opening as the minimum opening of the screen in use.
MICRON ()
A micron is equal to one thousandth of a millimeter; used as a measure
of particle size.
MUD
Mud is the name most commonly used for drilling fluids. Drilling mud
circulates cuttings from the hole, provides the pressure required to
prevent the flow of formation fluids and performs other vital functions.
MUD ADDITIVE
Any material added to a drilling fluid to achieve a particular purpose.
MUD BALANCE
A beam-type balance used to determine mud density. It consists of a
base, graduated beam with constant-volume cup, lid, rider, knife edge
and counterweight.
MUD BOX
The feed compartment on a shale shaker into which the mud flow line
discharges, and from which the mud is either fed to the screens or is
bypassed. Also called the Backtank or Possum Belly.
MUD CLEANER
A solids separation device which combines hydrocyclones and a fine
mesh vibrating screen. Used to recover valuable mud additives and
liquids while removing undesirable solids from the fluid.
MUD CONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
MUD ENGINEER
A technician versed in drilling fluids whose duties are to manage,
implement, and maintain the various types of oil well mud programs.
MUD FEED
Drilling fluid, with or without dilution, for introduction into a liquid-solids
separator.
MUD GUNS
A system of pumps and piping in which drilling mud is pumped through
nozzles at a high velocity. Used for mixing, blending and stirring the
mud pits.
MUD HOPPER
A device used for mixing mud chemicals and other products into a fluid
stream. It usually consists of a mud jet, an open top hopper, and
downstream venturi.
MUD HOUSE
A structure at the rig used to store and shelter drilling fluid additives.
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MUD MIXING DEVICES
The most common device for adding solids to the mud is the mud
hopper. Some other devices for mixing are: eductors, mechanical
agitators, electric stirrers, mud guns, and chemical barrels.
MUD PIT
Earthen or steel storage facilities for the surface mud system. Mud pits
which vary in volume and number are of two types: circulating and
reserve. Mud testing and conditioning is normally done in the circulating
pit system.
MUD PUMPS
See RIG PUMPS.
MUD SCALES
See MUD BALANCE.
MUD STILL
See RETORT.

N
U

NEAR SIZE
The material very nearly the size of a screen opening, generally
considered as plus or minus 25% of the opening.

O
U

OBLONG (Mesh)
Screen cloth having more wires per inch in one direction than in
another. For example, 70 x 30 mesh has 70 wires per inch in one
direction and 30 wires per inch in the other direction. (Also called
rectangular mesh.)
OIL-BASE MUD
A drilling fluid containing oil as its liquid phase, usually including 1-5%
emulsified water.
OPEN AREA
See PERCENT OPEN AREA.
OVERFLOW
The discharge stream from a centrifugal separation device that contains
a higher percentage of liquids than does the feed.
OVERFLOW HEADER
In hydrocyclone operation, a pipe into which two or more hydrocyclones
discharge their overflow.
OVERLOAD
To feed separable solids to a separating device at a rate greater than its
solids discharge capacity.
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OVERSIZE (Solids)
Particles, in a given situation, that can be separated from the liquid
phase by centrifugal force or which will not pass through the openings of
the screen in use.

P
U

PARTICLE
In drilling mud work, a piece of solid material.

PARTICLE SIZE
Particle diameter, usually expressed in microns. See related term:
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL DIAMETER.

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The fraction or percentage of particles of various sizes or size ranges.
See related term: SIEVE ANALYSIS.

PARTICLE SURFACE AREA

See SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA.

PENETRATION RATE
The rate at which the drill bit penetrates the formation, expressed in
linear units, i.e., feet/minute or feet/hour. See related term: DRILLING
RATE.

PERCENT OPEN AREA

Ratio of the area of the screen openings to the total area of the screen
surface.

PERFORATED CYLINDER
A mechanical centrifugal separator in which the rotating element is a
perforated cylinder (the rotor) inside of and concentric with an outer
stationary cylindrical case.

PERFORATED ROTOR
The rotating inner cylinder of the perforated cylinder centrifuge.

PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a formation to allow passage
of a fluid.

PLASTICITY
The property possessed by some solids, particularly clays and clay
slurries, of changing shape or flowing under applied stress without
developing shear planes or fractures; that is, the ability to deform
without breaking.
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PLASTIC VISCOSITY
Plastic viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance to fluid flow
attributable to the amount, type, and size of solids present in a given
fluid and the resistance to flow (viscosity) of the liquid itself. When using
a direct-indicating viscometer, plastic viscosity is found by subtracting
the 300-rpm reading from the 600-rpm reading.
PLUGGING (Screen Surface)
The wedging or jamming of openings in a screening surface by
particles, preventing passage of undersize material. See related term:
BLINDING.
POLYMER
A synthetic mud additive used to maintain viscosity, control fluid loss
and maintain other desirable mud properties.
POLYURETHANE
A high performance elastomer polymer used in the manufacture of
hydrocyclones. It offers a unique combination of physical properties,
especially abrasion, toughness and resiliency.
POOL
The reservoir or pond of fluid, or slurry, formed inside the wall of
hydrocyclones and centrifuges and in which classification or separation
of solids occurs due to the accelerated sedimentation produced by
centrifugal force.
PORTS
The openings in a centrifuge for entry or exit of materials. Usually
applied in connection with a descriptive term, i.e., feed ports, overflow
ports, etc.
PRESSURE HEAD
Pressure within a system equal to the pressure exerted by an equivalent
height of fluid (expressed in feet). See related term: HEAD.

R
U

RADIAL FLOW
Flow from a mechanical agitator in which fluid moves away from the
axis of the impeller shaft (usually horizontally toward a mud tank wall).
RATE OF PENETRATION
See PENETRATION RATE.
RAW MUD
Mud, before dilution, that is to be processed by solids removal
equipment.
RECTANGULAR OPENING (Screen Cloth)
See OBLONG MESH.
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RETENTION TIME (Screen)
The time any given particle of material is actually on a screening
surface.

RETENTION TIME (Centrifugal Separators)

The time the liquid phase is actually in the separating device.

RETORT
An instrument used to distill oil, water, and other volatile material in a
mud to determine oil, water, and total solids content in volume-percent.
Also called mud still.

RHEOLOGY
The science that deals with deformation and flow of matter.

RIG PUMPS (or Mud Pumps)

The reciprocating, positive displacement, high pressure pumps used to
circulate drilling fluid through the hole.

RIG SHAKER
A general term for a shale shaker using coarse mesh screen.

ROPE DISCHARGE
The characteristic underflow of a hydrocyclone operating inefficiently
and so overloaded with separable solids that not all the separated solids
can crowd out the underflow opening, causing those that can exit to
form a slow-moving, heavy, rope-like stream. (Also referred to as rope
or rope underflow.)

ROTARY DRILLING
The method of drilling wells that depends on the rotation of a drill bit
which is attached to a column of drill pipe. A fluid is circulated through
the drill pipe to flush out cuttings and perform other functions.

RPM *
Revolutions per minute.

S
U

SALT-WATER MUDS
A drilling fluid containing dissolved salt (brackish to saturated). These
fluids may also include native solids, oil, and/or such commercial
additives as clays, starch, etc.

SAMPLES
Cuttings obtained for geological information from the drilling fluid as it
emerges from the hole. They are washed, dried, and labelled to identify
the depth at which they were taken.
216
SAND CONTENT
The sand content of a drilling fluid is the insoluble solids content
retained on a 200-mesh screen. It is usually expressed as the
percentage bulk volume of sand in a drilling fluid. This test is an
elementary type in that the retained solids are not necessarily silica and
may not be altogether abrasive.
SAND TRAP
The first compartment and the only unstirred compartment in a well-
designed mud system; intended as a settling compartment to catch
large solids which may get past the shale shaker.
SCREEN CLOTH
A type of screening surface, woven in square or rectangular openings.
See related term: WIRE CLOTH.
SCREENING
A mechanical process which accomplishes a separation of particles on
the basis of size, through their acceptance or rejection by a screening
surface.
SCREENING SURFACE
The medium containing the openings for passage of undersize material.
SCROLL
See Preferred Term: FLUTE.
SETTLING VELOCITY
The velocity a particle achieves in a given fluid when gravity forces
equal the friction forces of the moving particle.
SHALE
Stone of widely varying hardness, color, and compaction that is formed
of clay-sized grains.
SHALE SHAKER
A general term for devices which use a vibrating screen to remove
cuttings and other large solids from drilling mud.
SHEAR (Shearing Stress)
An action, resulting from applied forces, which causes or tends to cause
two contiguous parts of a body to slide relatively to each other in a
direction parallel to their plane of contact - as in particles within a mud.
SIEVE
See Preferred Term: TESTING SIEVE.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
A measurement of particle size and percentage of the amount of
material in various particle size groupings. See related term: PARTICLE
SIZE DISTRIBUTION.
SILT
Materials whose particle size generally falls between 2-74 microns.
217
SIZE DISTRIBUTION
See Preferred Term: PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION.
SLOUGHING
A situation in which portions of a formation fall away from the walls of a
hole, as a result of incompetent unconsolidated formations, high angle
of repose, wetting along internal bedding planes, or swelling of
formations caused by fluid loss. See related term: CAVING.
SLURRY
A mixture or suspension of solid particles in liquids.
SOLIDS
All particles of matter in the drilling fluid, i.e., drilled formation cuttings,
barite, etc.
SOLIDS CONTENT
The total amount of solids in a drilling fluid as determined by distillation,
including both the dissolved and the suspended (or undissolved) solids.
The suspended-solids content may be a combination of high and low
specific gravity solids and native or commercial solids. Examples of
dissolved solids are the soluble salts of sodium, calcium, and
magnesium. The total suspended and dissolved solids content is
commonly expressed in percent by volume.
SOLIDS DISCHARGE
That stream from a liquid-solids separator containing a higher
percentage of solids than the feed does.
SOLIDS DISCHARGE CAPACITY
The maximum rate at which a liquid-solids separation device can
discharge solids without overloading.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The weight of a particular volume of any substance compared to the
weight of an equal volume of water at a reference temperature.
SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA
The effective surface area per unit of weight of some sample or
grouping of particles of matter, usually expressed in units of area per
units of weight such as square feet per pound, or acres per pound,
square meters per gram, etc. It provides a valuable indication of the
amount of liquid particles can attract and retain on their surface.
SPEED
The frequency at which a vibrating screen operates, usually expressed
in RPM or CPM; the bowl rpm of a decanting centrifuge; the rotor rpm of
a perforated cylinder centrifuge.
SPRAY DISCHARGE
The underflow of hydrocyclones when not overloaded with separable
solids.
218
SPUDDING IN
The starting of the drilling operation of a new hole.

SPUD MUD
The fluid used when drilling starts at the surface, often a thick bentonite
lime slurry.

SPURT LOSS
The flux of fluids and solids which occurs in the initial stages of any
filtration before pore openings are bridged and a filter cake is formed.

STROKE
The distance between the extremities of motion; viz., the diameter of a
circular motion. See related term: AMPLITUDE.

STUCK
A condition whereby the drill pipe, casing, or other devices inadvertently
become lodged in the hole.

SUMP
A pit or tank into which a fluid drains before recirculation or in which
wastes gather before disposal.

SURGE LOSS
See Preferred Term: SPURT LOSS.

SWABBING
The pressure reduction resulting from the withdrawal of pipe from a hole
filled with viscous mud or a balled bit.

T
U

TENSIONING
The stretching of the screening surface within the vibrating shaker
frame.

TENSION RING
A rigid hoop surrounding a stretched screen cloth used for maintaining
screen tension and mounting the screen to a shaker frame.

TEST SIEVE
A cylindrical or tray-like container with a screening surface bottom of
standard aperture.

THINNER
Any various organic agents (tannins, lignins, lignosulfonates, etc.) and
inorganic agents (pyrophosphates, tetraphosphates, etc.) that are
added to a drilling fluid to reduce its viscosity and/or thixotropic
properties.
219
THIXOTROPY
The ability of a fluid to develop gel strength with time. That property of a
fluid which causes it to build up a rigid or semi-rigid gel structure if
allowed to stand at rest, yet return to a fluid state when agitated.
THRUST
The force that pushes on the mud as on a shale shaker screen.
TOTAL DEPTH (or TD)
The greatest depth reached by the drill bit.
TOTAL HEAD
The sum of all head within a system (Total Head = velocity head +
pressure head + elevation head.)

U
U

ULTRA-FINE (Solids)
Particles whose diameter is between 2-44 microns.
UNDERFLOW (Hydrocyclone)
The discharge stream from centrifugal separators that contains a higher
percentage of solids than does the feed. See general term: SOLIDS
DISCHARGE.
UNDERFLOW (Screen)
The discharge stream from a screening device which contains a greater
percentage of liquids than does the feed.
UNDERFLOW HEADER
A pipe, tube, or conduit into which two or more hydrocyclones discharge
their underflow.
UNDERSIZE (Solids)
Particles that will, in a given situation, remain with the liquid phase when
subjected to centrifugal force, or will pass through the openings of the
screen in use.
UNWEIGHTED (Mud)
A drilling fluid which has not had significant amounts of high gravity
solids added and whose density is generally less than 10 pounds per
gallon.

V
U

VELOCITY HEAD
Head (relating to pressure when multiplied by the density of the fluid)
created by the movement of a fluid, equal to an equivalent height of
static fluid.
220
VENTURI
Streamlining up to a given pipe size following a restriction (as in a jet in
a mud hopper) to minimize turbulence and pressure drop.
V.G. METER
See VISCOMETER, DIRECT-INDICATING.
VIBRATING SCREEN
A screen with motion induced as an aid to solids separation.
VISCOMETER, DIRECT-INDICATING
Commonly called a V-G meter. The instrument is a rotational-type
device powered by means of an electric motor or handcrank, and is
used to determine the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point,
and gel strengths of drilling fluids. The usual speeds are 600 and 300
rpm. See API RP 13B for operational procedures.
VISCOSITY
The internal resistance offered by a fluid to flow. This phenomenon is
attributable to the attractions between molecules of a liquid, and is a
measure of the combined effects of adhesion and cohesion to the
effects of suspended particles, and to the liquid environment. The
greater this resistance, the greater the viscosity. See related terms:
APPARENT VISCOSITY, PLASTIC VISCOSITY.
VORTEX
A cylindrical or conical shaped core of air or vapor lying along the
central axis of the rotating slurry inside a hydrocyclone.
VORTEX FINDER
A hollow cylinder extending axially into the barrel of a hydrocyclone.
The overflow exits from the separating chamber through the vortex
finder, and the vortex is centered in the hydrocyclone by the hole in the
vortex finder, hence the name.

W
U

WALL CAKE
The solid material deposited along the wall of the hole resulting from
filtration of the fluid part of the mud into the formation. See related
terms: CAKE THICKNESS, FILTER CAKE.
WALL STICKING
See Preferred Term: DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING.
WATER-BASE MUD
The conventional drilling fluid containing water as the continuous phase.
WATER FEED
Water added for dilution of the mud feed into a centrifugal separator.
See related term: DILUTION WATER.
221
WEIGHT (Mud Weight)

In mud work, weight refers to the density of a drilling fluid. This is

normally expressed in lbs/gal or specific gravity. See related term:
DENSITY.

WEIGHT MATERIAL

Any of the heavy solids (specific gravity of 4.2 or more) used to increase
the density of drilling fluids. This material is most commonly barite but
can be galena, hematite, etc In special applications, calcium
carbonate is also called a weight material (even though its specific
gravity is 2.6).

WEIGHTED (Mud)

A drilling fluid to which heavy solids have been added to increase its
density.

WEIGHT UP *

To increase the weight of a drilling mud, usually by the addition of

weight material.

WETTING

The adhesion of a liquid to the surface of a solid.

WIRE CLOTH

Screen cloth of woven wire.

WORKOVER FLUID

Any type of fluid used in the workover operation of a well.

222
Y
U

YIELD
As applied to drilling mud, a term used to define the quality of a clay by
describing the number of barrels of slurry of a given viscosity that can
be made from a ton of the clay.

YIELD POINT
The resistance to initial flow, representing the stress required to start
fluid movement. This resistance is due to electrical charges on or near
the surfaces of the particles. The values of the yield point and
thixotropy, respectively, are measurements of the same fluid properties
under dynamic and static states. The Bingham yield value, reported in
lbs/100 sq. ft, is determined by the direct-indicating viscometer by
subtracting the plastic viscosity from the 300-rpm reading.

223
19.16 Appendix P - Well Site Services

Company Profile
Well Site Services is made up of three groups, NOV FluidControl, Brandt
Product Sales and NOV Portable Power.
NOV FluidControl is made up of the Drilling Fluids, Mining and Minerals and
Solids Control/Waste Management groups. This group provides well site mud
and solids control services along with project quotes and well summaries. The
Mining and Mineral group located in Nevada produces barite for increasing mud
weight. The barite is 4.10 specific gravity and is used in the Rocky Mountain
region.
Brandt Product Sales manages capital equipment sales. One of the Well Site
Services manufacturing facilities is located in Conroe, Texas and provides solids
control equipment and other ancillary products e.g. mud pits, variable frequency
drives (VFD), etc.
NOV Portable Power provides power systems, air conditioners, heaters and
chillers. These units can be powered by diesel or natural gas. Other auxiliary
items include diesel fuel tanks, electrical distribution panels, lighting, pumps,
transfer switches and transformers.
Business Relationships:
We believe in long term partnerships with clients and vendors, and place a
demanding emphasis on providing cost effective products and services to meet
the needs of our clients, our employees, and the community. Emphasis on
quality and innovative solutions has established Well Site Services as a
performance oriented company with a strong bottom line focus.
Certifications:
Quality products and services are our priority. Through its parent company,
Well Site Services maintains several corporate certifications including ISO 9001,
API, ASME, DNV, Gos-Standard and Gosgor- technadzor.
Personnel Resources:
The divisions and products of Well Site Services have established a reputation
for professional, consistent, safe and innovative solutions to our client needs.
Our professionals are experienced in solid/liquid separations, site remediation,
design engineering, petroleum geology, chemical processing, environmental
law, and finance. This expertise provides the ability to offer a wide variety of
products and services, a positive working environment, and the financial
capabilities to develop long term relationships with clients, suppliers, and sub-
contractors.
Well Site Services and its affiliated companies have over 1400 operations and
technical support personnel strategically located in local service centers
throughout the world. Many personnel hold industry certifications in
HAZWOPER, Process Safety, Offshore Operations, H2S, and CPR. NOV also
maintains a wide network of technical experts through participation in industry
organizations such as the American Petroleum Institute, Society of Petroleum
Engineers, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, American Association of
Drilling Engineers, International Association of Drilling Contractors, National
Utility Contractors Association, and others.
224