Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Mathematical Modelling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apm

Solution of 2D NavierStokes equation by coupled nite

difference-dual reciprocity boundary element method
Parviz Ghadimi , Abbas Dashtimanesh
Department of Marine Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Computation of viscous uid ow is an area of research where many authors have tried to
Received 2 June 2010 present different numerical methods for solution of the NavierStokes equations. Each of
Received in revised form 30 October 2010 these methods has its own advantages and weaknesses. In the meantime, many research-
Accepted 15 November 2010
ers have attempted to develop coupled numerical algorithms in order to save storage for
Available online 23 November 2010
computational purposes and to save computational time.
In this paper, a new coupled method is presented for the rst time by combining FDM
Keywords:
and DRBEM for solving the stream functionvorticity formulation of the NavierStokes
Vorticity transport equation
Poissons equation
equations. The vorticity transport equation is analyzed using a nite difference technique
FDM while the stream function Poissons equation is solved using a dual reciprocity boundary
DRBEM element method.
Stream functionvorticity formulation Finally, the robustness and accuracy of the coupled FDMDRBEM model is proved using
the benchmark problem of the ow in a driven square cavity.
2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Investigation of viscous uid ow is a particular area of research where many researchers have tried to develop and pres-
ent different numerical schemes for solution of the NavierStokes equations. Meanwhile, for the solution of incompressible
viscous ow problems, three formulations are well known in terms of primitive variables of pressurevelocity, velocity
vorticity and stream functionvorticity. Different numerical methods have been implemented to solve the resulting
equations. Most of the numerical algorithms employ only one type of numerical method like nite element (FEM) [1], nite
difference (FDM) [2] or boundary element method (BEM) [3]. These methods, along with their advantages, have some
deciencies and that has prompted many researchers to develop coupled numerical algorithms such as mixed BEMFEM
[46] and BEMFDM [7,8].
The stream functionvorticity form of NavierStokes equations has been established as an effective formulation for the
solution of incompressible viscous ow problems [912]. For the stream functionvorticity formulation of the NavierStokes
equations, the governing equations have been written as a system of parabolic-type and Poisson-type equations for the com-
ponents of vorticity and stream function, respectively. The main advantage of this type of formulation includes automatic
satisfaction of continuity equation and elimination of pressure as a solution variable.
The FDM is used for solving the vorticity transport equation in this paper. The computational drawback of using FDM
technique alone is that it fails to solve the Poissons equation in the ow domain. Enormous amount of computational effort
and time is required for the Poissons equation to converge during each time step of the FDM simulation [7]. Moreover, the

Corresponding author. Address: Faculty of Marine Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, Hafez Ave, No. 424, P.O. Box 15875-4413, Tehran,
Iran. Tel.: +98 21 64543117; fax: +98 21 66412495.
E-mail address: pghadimi@aut.ac.ir (P. Ghadimi).

0307-904X/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apm.2010.11.047
 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121 2111

FDM solution to this equation has been proved to be highly sensitive to the number of the computational points as well as
the incremental time step used in modeling the ow. Alternatively, DRBEM is used to solve the stream function Poissons
equation accurately [13]. DRBEM is really used to evaluate the domain integrals and avoids the internal discretization.
The DRBEM was introduced by Nardini and Brebbia [14]. It must be noted that BEM is not so stable in the solution of the
parabolic-type transport equations [15]. Main advantages of DRBEM include reduction in computational dimensions, easi-
ness in discretization as well as data preparation and direct solution of the ux term on the boundaries.
In this paper, a new coupled method is presented for the rst time by combining DRBEM and FDM for solving the stream
functionvorticity formulation of the NavierStokes equations. The vorticity transport equation which is analyzed by a nite
difference technique is coupled with the stream function Poissons equation which is solved using a dual reciprocity bound-
ary element method.
The robustness and accuracy of the coupled FDMDRBEM model is proved using the benchmark problem of ow in a dri-
ven square cavity. The cavity ow problem is of long-lasting interest because it suggests a relatively simple model on which
numerical techniques may be checked and veried with other numerical schemes. Using the coupled FDMDRBEM model,
even for a coarse mesh provides accurate results comparable with other models using ne meshes in literature. The sug-
gested numerical scheme is proved to work well for Reynolds number up to 10,000.
After describing the governing equations, the numerical formulation using FDM and DRBEM is explained. Then the com-
putational algorithm and results for 2D driven square cavity ow problems are presented and nalized by some conclusions.

2. Governing equation

In many problems of uid dynamics, the term viscosity and force due to viscosity (the viscous dissipation or the terms
associated to the viscous effects) cannot be ignored. Therefore, for suitable simulation of ow eld, the NavierStokes equa-
tions must be solved.
The two dimensional NavierStokes equations are explanatory of momentum conservation of Newtonian uid. The mass
and linear momentum transport for an incompressible Newtonian uid can be written as [16]
@V 1
V  rV  rp mr2 V; 1
@t q
@u @ v
0; 2
@x @y
where V = (u, v) is the two dimensional velocity vector, p is the pressure, m is the viscosity, q is the density and t is the time.
Eqs. (1) and (2) represent the two dimensional NavierStokes equations in the velocitypressure formulation.
The vorticity vector x can be expressed as
x r  V: 3
By taking the curl of both sides of Eq. (1) and using Eqs. (2) and (3), the vorticity transport equation is obtained as follows:
  !
@x @x @x @u @ v 1 @2x @2x
u v x 2 : 4
@t @x @y @x @y Re @x2 @y

By taking the curl of Eq. (3) and using Eq. (2), the vector form of Poissons equation for V may be written as

r2 V r  x: 5

Eq. (5) may be written as

@x
r2 u  ; 6
@y
@x
r2 v  ; 7
@x
and by using stream function denition
@w
u ; 8
@y
@w
v  : 9
@x
In two-dimensions, the stream function w equation can be written as an elliptic partial differential equation (PDE)

@2w @2w
x: 10
@x2 @y2
2112 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121

Eqs. (4) and (10) along with w and x as stream function and vorticity vectors are known as the stream functionvorticity
formulation of the NavierStokes equations. Eqs. (1) and (2) in which V and p are primitive variables may be replaced by
stream functionvorticity formulation.
For two dimensional problems, if (u, v) are velocity vectors V and x is the associated vorticity, then from Eq. (4), the vor-
ticity transport equation can be written as
!
@x @x @x 1 @2x @2x
u v 2 : 11
@t @x @y Re @x2 @y

The velocity divergence term in Eq. (4) does not appear in Eq. (11) since mass conservation is implicitly considered in the
stream functionvorticity formulation. Here, we seek a solution in computational domain which satises the initial
conditions
!
@ 2 w0 @ 2 w0
w w0 ; x at t 0 12
@x2 @y2

and the boundary conditions

!
@ 2 wB @ 2 wB
w wB ; x at t  0 13
@x2 @y2

on the boundary B of the computational domain.

The solution of the vorticity transport Eq. (11) in combination with the stream function Poissons equations (10) along
with the considered initial and boundary conditions, give the stream function and the vorticity distribution in the compu-
tational domain.

3. Numerical formulation

As mentioned earlier, the solution of NavierStokes equations is divided into two parts in this work. Initially, the vorticity
transport equation is solved by FDM then the Poissons equation is solved by DRBEM. The present method is validated by a
lid driven cavity ow in a square domain.

3.1. Solution of vorticity transport equation by FDM

The vorticity transport equation is analyzed by FDM. This equation may be written in differential form as
" !#n
@ x @w @ x @w @ x 1 @2x @2x
 2 14
@t @y @x @x @y Re @x2 @y
i;j

and the discrete form of the vorticity transport equation is as follows:

! !
xn1
i;j  xni;j wni;j1  wni;j1 xni1;j  xni1;j 
wni1;j  wni1;j xni;j1  xni;j1 

Dt 2 Dy 2 Dx 2 Dx 2 Dy
 n n n   n n n 
1 x i1;j  2 x i;j x i1;j x i;j1  2x i;j x i;j1
: 15
Re Dx2 Dy2
By solving the vorticity transport equation, the value of vorticity can be obtained in computational domain. The values of the
vorticity will then be introduced to the stream function Poissons equation.

3.2. Solution of Poissons equation by DRBEM

Consider the following Poissons equation which is regarded to be valid in a bounded two dimensional domain X and its
closed boundary curve C:

@2w @2w
x;
@x2 @y2
16
w wB on C1 ;
wn wnB on C2 ;

where wB and wnB are the prescribed boundary conditions on boundaries C1 and C2, respectively, with C C1 [ C2 . Here, n is
the outward unit normal vector. A particular scheme is adopted in which the vorticity from the previous time step is used to
compute its value at the current time step by solving the vorticity transport equation.
 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121 2113

w* = ln r is considered as the fundamental solution of the Laplace equation in two dimensions, by using Greens second
identity, the boundary integral equation for Eq. (16) may be written as
Z Z Z
Ciw wwn dC  wn w dC xw dX; 17
C C X

where Ci is the Greens constant and r is the distance from the source point to the eld point. DRBEM proposes the use of a
^ j instead of a single w.
series for particular solution w ^ The number of w
^ j used is equal to the total number of nodes in the prob-
lem. If there are N boundary nodes and L internal nodes, there will be N + L values of w ^ j . The following approximation of x is
then proposed
X
NL
x aj fj ; 18
j1

^ j and
where the aj is a set of initially unknown coefcients and the fj is an approximation function. The particular solution w
the approximating function fj are linked through the relation

r2 w
^ j fj : 19
The function fj is a geometrically dependent function. The generally used f function is

f 1 r r2    rm : 20
In this work, m is taken to be 3. The discretized form of boundary integral equation in DRM can be written for a source node i
as
!
N Z
X N Z
X X
NL N Z
X N Z
X
C i wi wwn d C 
wn w dC aj ^ ij
Ciw ^ j w dC 
w ^ 
wn w dC : 21
n
k1 C k1 C j1 k1 C k1 C

After introducing the interpolation functions and integrating over each boundary element, the above equation may be writ-
ten in terms of nodal values as follows:
!
X
N X
N X
NL X
N X
N
C i wi Hik wk  Gik wnk aj ^ ij
Ciw ^ kj 
Hik w ^
Gik wnkj : 22
k1 k1 j1 k1 k1

The index k is used for the boundary nodes which are the eld points. After assigning the boundary conditions to all bound-
ary nodes using a collocation technique, Eq. (22) can be expressed in matrix form as
X
NL
Hw  Gwn aj Hw^ j  Gw^ nj : 23
j1

^ j and w
Here, the Ci terms have been incorporated onto the diagonal element of H. If each of the vector w ^ n is considered to be
j

one column of the matrices U and Q, respectively, then Eq. (23) may be written as
Hw  Gwn HU  GQa: 24
The matrices H and G for discontinuous linear boundary element are as follows:
2 3 2 3
h11 jN h12 j2N h13 g 11 jN g 12
6 7 6          7
6               N 7 6 N 7
6 7 6 7
6
H 6 h21 jN h22 j2N h23 7 ; G6 g j g 7 25
7 6 21 N 22 7
6 7 6 7
4               2N 5 4         2N 5
h31 jN h32 j2N h33 MM
g 31 jN g 32 M2N

where hij and gij are dened using linear shape functions in discontinuous linear boundary element [17].
Eq. (24) is the basis for application of the dual reciprocity boundary element method and involves the discretization of
boundary only. Internal nodes may be dened in the number and location desired by the user. In this study, the internal
nodes in DRBEM must coincide with the nite difference internal points.

4. Computational algorithm

The computational algorithm adopted here is as follows:

(1) Computing H, G, U and Q matrices in DRBEM. It is enough to compute these matrices only one time.
(2) For Re = 100, the initial data was set at zero, whereas for larger Reynolds numbers, the known solutions from the pre-
vious cases of smaller Reynolds numbers are utilized. This leads to faster convergence of the solutions.
2114 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121

(3) Time loop, t = t + 1.

(4) Iteration loop, i = i + 1.
(5) Solution of the vorticity transport equations using the FDM.
 Solve for the unknown vorticity values throughout the domain using Eq. (15).
(6) Solution of the stream function Poissons equation using the DRBEM.
 Solve for the unknown boundary stream function or its ux values using Eq. (24).
 Calculate the stream function eld and its derivatives at all nodal points, calculate vorticity on the boundary points.
(7) Check for convergence of the vorticity components in the present iteration, for example
 i1 
x  xi 
t t
0:0001:
xit
(8) In the successive time step, use the stream function and vorticity components from the previous time step as initial
conditions and repeat the procedures 37. The procedure is repeated until the convergence criterion is satised.
5. Some remarks

As mentioned earlier, a step by step procedure must be used for the solution of the stream functionvorticity formulation
of NavierStokes equations. In most of the incompressible viscous ow problems solved using the NavierStokes equations;

Fig. 1. An example of the square computational domain.

Fig. 2. (a) Vorticity and (b) streamline distribution for Re = 100.

 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121 2115

the most natural boundary condition arises when the stream function is prescribed all over the boundaries of the problem. In
the absence of any vorticity boundary conditions, we have inevitably adopted Eqs. (26)(29) as vorticity boundary conditions
which have been determined based on forward or backward nite difference scheme. In the present model, the vorticity
transport equations are initially solved and then the vorticity elds on the internal points are obtained. However, at this
stage, the values of vorticities on the boundary points are still unknown. Therefore, for solution of stream function Poissons
equation, it is necessary to have an additional equation. This equation must describe the vorticity on the boundaries and is
related to the stream function value on the internal points and as such no unknown is added to the system of equations. For a
square domain, these equations may be written as follows:
2
xn;j wn;j  wn1;j side 1; 26
Dx2
2
x1;j w1;j  w2;j side 2; 27
Dx2
2 2U wall
xi;n wi;n  wi;n1 side 3; 28
Dy2 Dy

Fig. 3. (a) Vorticity and (b) streamline distribution for Re = 1000.

Fig. 4. Prole of u along the cavity vertical centerline of a square cavity for Re = 100.
2116 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121

2
xi;1 wi;1  wi;2 side 4; 29
Dy2
where i, j are counter of nodes in x and y coordinate, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1. By using these equations, the matrices in
DRM must be rearranged.
For having more accurate results on the boundary points, discontinuous linear elements are used. Since at the matching
points, the vorticity from the FDM must be applied to the DRBEM and the stream function computed from it must be applied
to the FDM formulation, for the intermediate boundary points of the DRBEM that do not match with the FDM points, the
stream function is assumed to be linearly varying between the matching points.

6. Numerical example

The validity of the coupled FDM-DRBEM model is veried by a benchmark problem. Flow in a rectangular one-sided lid-
driven cavity is an interesting research problem because many important ow phenomena such as corner vortices, longitu-

Fig. 5. Prole of v along the cavity horizontal centerline of a square cavity for Re = 100.

Fig. 6. Prole of u along the cavity vertical centerline of a square cavity for Re = 1000.
 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121 2117

dinal vortices and etc all occur in the same closed domain. It is assumed that the ow inside the cavity is initially at rest. No-
slip condition is enforced on all sides. The velocity at the upper wall is set equal to unity.
Four different analyses are presented here for Re = 100, 1000, 5000 and 10,000, respectively. Although the computations
were carried out in time, but only steady state solutions are proposed here. In all these cases, steady states are reached. Figs.
2 and 3 illustrate the contour lines of Vorticity and streamlines of ows at mentioned Reynolds numbers, with the grid res-
olution of 101  101. In order to get grid-independent numerical results, several different grid resolutions were employed in
this study ranging from 26  26 to 256  256. It was concluded that the grid resolution 101  101 is rather enough for the
range of Reynolds number between 1 and 2000. For higher Re, one must choose a ner grid resolution. For low Reynolds
number (Re < 1000), only three vortices appear in the cavity, a primary one near the center and a pair of secondary ones
in the lower corners of the cavity. The velocity components u and v along the vertical and horizontal center lines for low

Fig. 7. Prole of v along the cavity horizontal centerline of a square cavity for Re = 1000.

Fig. 8. (a) Vorticity and (b) streamline distribution for Re = 5000.

2118 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121

Reynolds numbers (Re < 1000) are shown in Figs. 47. The results show that the present simulation for low Reynolds num-
bers (Re < 1000) is in good agreement with the results of previous studies [18].
Further analysis is also performed for the case of Re = 5000. For this particular Reynolds number, the grid resolutions
ranging from 101  101 to 166  166 is adopted and the grid independence is achieved. The contour lines of the vorticity
and streamline of the ows at Re = 5000 and with grid resolution of 126  126 are shown in Fig. 8. Based on the presented
results, it may be concluded that the grid resolution 126  126 is enough for the Reynolds numbers up to 5000. However, it

Fig. 9. Prole of u along the cavity vertical centerline of a square cavity for Re = 5000.

Fig. 10. Prole of v along the cavity horizontal centerline of a square cavity for Re = 5000.
 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121 2119

seems that ner grid resolution is required for solution of higher Reynolds numbers. The velocity components u and v along
the vertical and horizontal center lines for Re = 5000 are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. In this case, four vortices appear in the
cavity; a primary one near the center, a pair of secondary ones in the lower corners of the cavity and new secondary vortex
in the upper left corner of the cavity.
Another Reynolds number which is examined in this study is Re = 10,000. The contour lines of vorticity and streamline of
ows at Re = 10,000 are demonstrated in Fig. 11. Due to the computational restrictions, only the mesh size 256  256 may be
adopted. The entire computations are carried out on a Pentium 4 (2.0G CPU). The velocity components u and v along the ver-
tical and horizontal center lines are shown in Figs. 12 and 13. The results in this case are also shown to be in good agreement
with the exiting high Reynolds number solutions [18]. Furthermore, the square cavity here is shown to consist of four vor-
tices; a primary one near the center, a pair of secondary ones in the lower corners of the cavity and new secondary vortex in
the upper left corner of the cavity.

Fig. 11. (a) Vorticity and (b) streamline distribution for Re = 10,000.

Fig. 12. Prole of u along the cavity vertical centerline of a square cavity for Re = 10,000.
2120 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121

Fig. 13. Prole of v along the cavity horizontal centerline of a square cavity for Re = 10,000.

As demonstrated, ner mesh size must be employed in the cases of higher Reynolds numbers. Consequently, the compu-
tational efciency including the computational time and number of iterations is affected by the grid resolution. In Table 1, a
comparative study is conducted between computational efciency of the present study and two available numerical solu-
tions reported in Refs. [12,19,20]. The authors in Ref. [19] used the primitive variable to solve NS equation and the authors
in Ref. [20] utilized the stream functionvorticity formulation of the NavierStokes equation. Based on the comparison pre-
sented, it may be concluded that the present solution is more efcient than the exiting solutions. This efciency may be
attributed to the fact that computational time in the present study is shown to be favorably lower than the previous studies
at least for the low Reynolds numbers.
As mentioned earlier, the size of time step is an important parameter that is affected by the grid resolution and inuences
the computational efciency. In the current study, the time step size considered for the ows at low Reynolds number is in
the order of 103 and 104, while for higher Reynolds number, it is considered to be between 103 and 105. The small size of
the time step increments may be due to the explicit nature of the utilized nite difference scheme.

Table 1
Comparisons of the computational efciency between different methods for the lid driven
square cavity ow.

Re Ref. [19] Ref. [20] Present

50
Iterations 2000 3700 4217
Time 743 468 357
400
Iterations 2000 4900 5793
Time 1215 608 585
1000
Iterations 2000 6300 8850
Time 1746 767 760
5000
Iterations 10,543
Time 1200
10,000
Iterations 62,391
Time 7294
 P. Ghadimi, A. Dashtimanesh / Applied Mathematical Modelling 35 (2011) 21102121 2121

7. Conclusion

An accurate coupled FDMDRBEM for solving the stream functionvorticity NavierStokes equations is proposed for the
rst time by the combination of the FDM and the DRBEM. The vorticity transport equation is solved using the FDM while the
stream function Poissons equation is solved using the DRBEM.
By combining the FDM and the DRBEM, the DRBEM is made easier to obtain the stream function and velocity eld. Here,
the results of two-dimensional NavierStokes problems with low, medium and relatively high Reynolds numbers in a typical
square cavity ow are presented. Vertical and horizontal velocity proles determined by the current model compared
against those of other numerical models demonstrate the validity of the present FDMDRBEM model. Furthermore, compar-
ison of the computational efciency between the present coupled numerical solution and two other methods indicates that
the computational time of the present model is less than those of earlier works. Another important advantage of the present
numerical method is the face that, by adopting the vorticitystream function formulation, it eliminates the pressure from the
computational process. Therefore, one may conclude that the present coupled solution is much effortless and fairly more
efcient than the primitive variables approach.
Generally, there are three major concerns in solution of a problem by a numerical method; accuracy, efciency, and sim-
plicity. The authors believe that the current coupled method is comparable with other numerical methods in simplicity, ef-
ciency and accuracy.
Although the present model is designed for two-dimensional ows, but the roadmap is quite clear for its extension to the
three-dimensional problems which will be considered in future studies.

References

[1] M.D. Gunzaburger, Finite element theory and application, in: D.L. Dwoyer, M.Y. Hussaini, R.G. Voigt (Eds.), Proceedings of the ICASE/NASA Langly
Workshop, Springer, New York, 1987.
[2] D.A. Anderson, J.C. Tannehill, R.H. Pletcher, Computational Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984.
[3] H. Power, L.C. Wrobel, Boundary Integral Methods in Fluid Mechanics, Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton, 1995.
[4] D.L. Young, J.L. Huang, T.I. Eldho, Simulation of laminar vortex shedding ow past cylinders using a coupled BEM and FEM model, Comput. Methods
Appl. Mech. Eng. 190 (2001) 59755998.
[5] D.L. Young, Y.H. Liu, T.I. Eldho, A combined BEMFEM model for the velocityvorticity formulation of the NavierStokes equations in three dimensions,
Eng. Anal. Bound. Elem. 24 (2000) 307316.
[6] Z. Zunic, L. Skerget, M. Hribersek, J. Ravnik, Boundary elementnite element method for velocityvorticity formulation of NavierStokes equations, in:
C.A. Brebbia, G.M. Carlomagno (Eds.), Computational Methods and Experimental Measurements XII, vol. 41, WIT Press, Southampton, Boston, 2005, pp.
793802.
[7] Okey U. Onyemelukwe, Biswadev Roy, Harold Bosch, Coupling of the nite-difference method and the boundary element-dual reciprocity method for
wind ow simulation, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 77/78 (1998) 631641.
[8] S.J. DeSilva, Cho Lik Chan, Coupled boundary element method and nite difference method for the heat conduction in laser processing, J. Appl. Math.
Model. 32 (2008) 24292458.
[9] M.D. Gunzburger, J.S. Peterson, On nite element approximations of the stream functionvorticity and velocityvorticity equations, Int. J. Numer.
Methods Fluids 8 (1988) 12291240.
[10] M. Ramsak, L. Skerget, M. Hribersek, Z. Zunic, A multidomain boundary element method for unsteady laminar ow using stream functionvorticity
equations, J. Eng. Anal. Bound. Elem. 29 (2005) 114.
[11] E. Sousa, I.J. Sobey, Numerical stability of unsteady stream-function vorticity calculations, J. Commun. Numer. Methods Eng. 19 (2003) 407419.
[12] S. Chen, J. Tolke, M. Krafczyk, A new method for the numerical solution of vorticitystream function formulations, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.
198 (2008) 367376.
[13] C.A. Brebbia, J.C.F. Telles, L.C. Wrobel, Boundary Element TechniquesTheory and Applications in Engineering, Springer, Berlin, 1984.
[14] D. Nardini, C.A. Brebbia, A new approach to free vibration analysis using boundary elements, boundary element methods in engineering,
Computational Mechanics Publications, Southampton, 1982. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
[15] M. Ikeuchi, Transient solution of convective diffusion problem by boundary element method, Trans. IECE Jpn. E68 (7) (1985) 435440.
[16] J.A. Liggett, Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.
[17] J.T. Katsikadelis, Boundary Elements: Theory and Applications, Elsevier, Athens, 2002.
[18] U. Ghia, K.N. Ghia, C.T. Shin, High-Re solutions for incompressible ow using the NavierStokes equations and a multigrid method, J. Comput. Phys. 48
(1982) 387411.
[19] C. Pozrikidis, Fluid Dynamics: Theory, Computation, and Numerical Simulation, Accompanied by the Software Library FDLIB, Kluwer (Springer),
Heidelberg, Berlin, New York, 2001.
[20] E. Erturk, T.C. Corke, C. Gokcol, Numerical solutions of 2-D steady incompressible driven cavity ow at high Reynolds numbers, Int. J. Numer. Methods
Fluids 48 (2005) 747774.