HARMONIC OSCILLATOR IN

QUANTUM MECHANICS
(SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF SCHRODINGER EQUATION )
 OUTLINE OF THE COURSE
THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR IN QUANTUM MECANICS

1. MOTIVATION: WAY IS SO IMPORTANT HO MODEL?

- from pedagogical point of view; wide applications in various branches of
physics; from a historical perspective.

2.THE RISING AND LOWERING OPERATORS; DIRAC METHOD

- CANONICAL TRANSFORMATION; THE RISING (CREATION) AND
LOWERING (ANIHILATION) OPERATORS; THE NUMBER OF QUANTA
OPERATOR AND THE HAMILTONIAN
- ENERGY EIGENVALUES; ENERGY EIGENSTATES AND THE
ASSOCIATED WAVE FUNCTIONS

3.THE POLYNOMIAL METHOD

- THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION FOR WAVE FUNCTION;
- THE CUTTING CONDITION AND ENERGY QUANTIZATION;
- THE WAVE FUNCTION AND HERMITE POLYNOMIALS
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL SCHRODINGER EQUATION
We are interested in the solutions of defined energies, i.e. stationary states:
i i
tE tE
E ( r , t ) r E (t ) e r E e E ( r )
The time-independent part verifies the Schroedinger equation :

2 2
E ( r ) V ( r ) E ( r ) E E ( r )
2m
In one-dimensional case it becomes:

2 d 2
( x ) V ( x) E ( x ) E E ( x)
2 E
2m dx
1 2
V ( x ) kx ; k m02
2
2
0 2
T
 RISING AND LOWERING OPERATORS
LET US CONSIDER THE QUANTUM DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE IN A
HO POTENTIAL:

Px2 m 2 2
H Qx ; [Qx , Px ] i
2m 2
Define the operators:
m iPx
a (Qx )
2 m
m iPx
a (Qx )
2 m
The commutation relation:
[a , a ] I
Proof :
m iP iP iP iP
[a, a ] aa a a ((Qx x )(Qx x ) (Qx x )(Qx x ))
2 m m m m
i
(Qx Px PxQx ) I q.e.d .

 THE NUMBER OPERATOR AND THE HAMILTONIAN
Introduce the following Hermitian operator:

N a a Then number operator

1
Then : H ( N )
2
Proof :
m iPx iPx 1 Px2 m 2 2
N a a (Qx )(Qx ) ( Qx )
2 m m 2m 2 2

In conclusion, the Hamiltonian is just proportional to the operator N. Then these

two operators admit a common system of eigenvectors:

N
1 1
H ( N ) ( ) E
2 2
1
E ( )
2
 THE EIGENVALUES OF THE OPERATOR
NUMBER OF PARTICLES

THE EIGENVALUES OF THE OPERATOR N ARE POSITIVE INTEGER NUMBERS:

N n nn
The energy eigenvalue s are then given by :
1
E (n )
2
 AN OUTLINE OF THE PROOF:
Proof : Step 1
[ N , a ] [a a, a ] a [a, a ] [a , a ]a [a, a ]a a
[ N , a ] [a a, a ] a [a, a ] [a , a ]a a
Step 2 : observe that
Na ( Na a N a N ) (a a N ) a a N
( 1)a a 1
Na ( Na aN aN ) (a aN ) a aN
( 1)a a 1
Step 3 : prove that is a non - negative integer
a c 1 ; 1; 1 1 1
N

0
2
c
N a a c c 1 1
*

Take c a 1 a 2 a (a ) ( 1) 2
a k ( 1)....(( k 1) k
 CONCLUSION

IF THE LOWERING OPERATOR IS APPLIED FOR k TIMES WITH k GREATER THEN

THE EIGENVALUE OF THE NUMBER OPERATOR IT IS ARRIVED AT A STATE WHICH
CAN HAVE A NEGATIVE EIGENVALUE OF N:

N k ( k ) k
FOR CONSISTENCY WE SHOULD ASSUME THE FOR A GIVEN INTEGER m:

a m 0 m 0 is a non - negative integer

IT IS ALSO OBSERVED THAT:

a 1 a n n n 1
THE GROUND STATE OF HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

The state 0 with the property

a0 0
The ground state 0 has the lowest energy :
1
E0
2
 THE EXCITED STATES OF HO
We start from the observation:

a n n 1 n 1
Applying successively the creation operator can be constructed other states of the
system, eigenvectors of the number operator:

a 0 1
a (a )2
a 1 22 2 1 0
2 2
a ( a )3
a 2 33 3 2 0
3 1 2 3
M athematical induction :
(a )n
n 0
n!
The corresponding energies are :
1
En ( n )
2
 THE MATRIX ELEMENTS OF VARIOUS
OPERATORS
IN THE BASIS CONSTRUCTED FROM THE EIGENVECTORS OF NUMBER
OPERATOR THE HAMILTONIAN IS DIAGONAL. WE HAVE:

0 0 0........

0 1 0........
0 0 2........
N
...........................
0...................n....

...................

 THE POSITION REPRESENTATION OF THE HO ENERGY
EIGENSTATES: GROUND STATE
WE START FROM THE DEFINITION OF GROUND STATE:

a 0 0 x a 0 0
but
m iP m m i
xa0 x (Qx x ) 0 x Qx 0 x Px 0
2 m 2 2 m
m m i d m m d
x x0 x0 x 0 ( x ) 0 ( x)
2 2 m i dx 2 2 m dx
i.e. the ground state wave function 0 ( x ) satisfy the equation :
d
x02 0 ( x ) x 0 ( x ) 0 ; x02 define the characteri stic
dx m
length scale for HO
x m
Introduce the dimensionl ess variable x
x0
 THE GROUND-STATE WAVE FUNCTION
WITH THIS CHANGE OF VARIABLES IT IS ARRIVED AT THE FOLLOWING EQ.:
2
d
0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 0 ( ) Ce 2
d
d 0 1 2 0 2
Proof : d d ln 0 d ln
0 2 C 2
The constant C is obtained from the normalization condition :

1 0 0 dx 0 x x 0 dx 0* ( x) 0 ( x)


1


1 C x0 C x0 C C
2 2 2 2 2
d x e d e 1

4
x0
We arrive at the final expression :
x 2
1 ( )
0 ( x) 1
e x0

4
x0
 THE FIRST EXCITED STATE

LET US INVESTIGATE NOW THE MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN THE FIRST EXCITED

STATE OF THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR:

m iPx
1 ( x) x 1 x a 0 x

(Qx )0
2 m
m m i 1 d
x Qx 0 x Px 0 ( x Qx 0 x0)
2 2 m 2
2 x0 m dx
1 d 1 2 d
( x 0 ( x) x
2
0 0 ( x)) ( x x0 ) 0 ( x)
2
2 x0 dx 2 x0 dx

x m
or in terms of the dimensionless variable x
x0
2 1 x
( )2
1 d 1 ( ) 1 x
1 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) 2e 2
2 e 2 x0

2 d 1 1
x0
2 4
x0 2 4
x0
 A RECCURENCE FORMULA

LET US OBSERVE THAT:

m iPx m m i
xa x

(Qx ) x Qx x Px
2 m 2 2 m
1 d 1 2 d
( x Qx x ) ( x ( x) x0 ( x))
2
2 x0 m dx 2
2 x0 dx
1 2 d
( x x0 ) ( x)
2 x0 dx
Then :
(a ) n 1 1 1 d
n ( x) x 0 x a n 1 ( x x02 ) n 1 ( x)
n! n n 2 x0 dx
1 1 2 d (a ) n 1 1 1 2 d
( x x0 ) x 0 ( x x0 ) x a n 2
n 2 x0 dx (n 1)! n(n 1) 2 x0 dx
 CONTINUATION

THIS PROCEDURE, ITERATION BY ITERATION ,LEADS US TO:

1 1 2 2 d 2
( ) ( x x0 ) n 2 ( x ) ...............................
n( n 1) 2 x0 dx
1 x
1 1 n ( ) 2
2 d n 1 1 1 n 2 d n
( ) ( x x0 ) 0 ( x ) 1
( ) ( x x0 ) e 2 x0
n! 2 x0 dx n! 2 x0 dx
4
x0
x m
or in terms of the dimensionl ess variable x
x0
2
1 1 1 d
n ( ) ( ) e n 2
1
n! 2n d
4
x0
 THE SECOND EXCITED STATE

FOR n=2 IS OBTAINED:

2 n 2
1 1 1 d n
n ( ) ( ) e 2

1
n! 2 n d
4
x0
2 2 2
1 1 1 d 1 1 d
2 ( ) ( )2 e 2
( )(e 2
e 2
)
1
2! 22 d 1
2 2! d
4
x0 4
x0
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
1
(2 e 2 2
2e 2
2 ( )e 2
) 1
(4 2 2)e 2
2 2! 2 2!
4
x0 4
x0
 THE POLYNOMIAL METHOD
LET US CONSIDER NOW THE TIME-INDEPENDENT SCHRODINGER EQUATION
FOR THE MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN A HARMONIC OSCILLATOR POTENTIAL:

1 2
V ( x ) kx ; k m 2
2 d 2 2
( x ) V ( x) E ( x ) E E ( x)
2 E 2
2m dx 2 ; x0
2

T m
x m
x
x0
2 d 2 m 2
2
( x) ( x ) E ( x )
2m dx 2
d 2E 2
2
( ) 0
d 2

 DISCUSSION
d 2 E
( 2 2
) 0
d 2

Asymptoticbehavior : in the limit neglect th e term 2 ( )
2
d2

2
0 j
e 2
d 2
The behavior around origin : in the limit 0 neglect th e term 2 ( )
d 2
2 0 A cos B sin
d 2

and since we dropped the term quadratic in the consistency requires to

perform the same approximation for sin and cos functions i.e. :
0
a c
2
-
So can be inferred that has the form : ( ) v ( )e 2
 THE ODD AND EVEN WAVE FUNCTIONS
2
-
WITH THE ANSATZ ( ) v( )e 2

d v( )
2
d v( )
2 (2 1) v( ) 0 2 1 2
d 2
d
OBS 1: ODD AND EVEN WAVES FUNCTIONS
Since the harmonic oscillator potential is an even function V(x)=V(-x), as well as
the second order derivation operation, then:
if ( x) is solution (- x) is also solution
of the same equation, i.e. the Schrodinger equation is invariant under reflection.
Since any linear combination of solutions is also a solution we can construct
solutions with definite transformation properties at reflection:

1
even ( x ) ( ( x ) (- x ))
2
1
odd ( x ) ( ( x ) (- x ))
2
 THE POWER SERIES EXPANSION
WE DISTINGUISH THE TWO LINEAR INDEPENDENT SOLUTIONS OF THE SECOND
ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION BY THE BEHAVIOR AT REFLECTIONS.
WE CHOOSE:

v1 even function : v1 (0) 1; v1' (0) 0

v1 ( ) 1 a2 a4 .... a2 k 2 k
2 4

k 0

v 2 odd function : v 2 (0) 0; v '2 (0) 1

v 2 ( ) a1 a3 3 .... a2 k 1 2 k 1
k 0
 THE EVEN FUNCTION CASE: RECURRENCE RELATIONS
LET US OBSERVE THAT WITH OUR CHOICE FOR THE EVEN FUNCTION WE HAVE:

dv1 d

d d
2k
a
k 0
2k
2k
2 ka 2 k 1

k 0

d 2 v1 d dv1

d 2 d d
( )
k 0
2 k ( 2 k 1) a 2k 2 k 2

INSERTING THESE EXPANSIONS INTO THE EQUATION:

d 2 v( ) d v( )
2 2v( ) 0
d 2
d

2
k 0
k ( 2 k 1) a 2k 2 k 2
- 2
k 0
2k
2 ka 2 k 1
2 2k 0
a
k 0
2k

k k 1 in the first term

(2k 1)(2k 2)a2k 2

k 0
2k
- 2 2ka2 k
k 0
2k
2 a 2 k 2 k 0
k 0

The coefficien ts of each power should be identicall y zero :

 THE EVEN FUNCTION

FINALLY IS OBTAINED:

2( 2 k )
a2 k 2 a2 k
(2k 1)( 2k 2)
By induction :
2 k
( 2)( 4)....( 2(k 1))
a2 k ( 1) k
a0
( 2k )!
2 2 22 ( 2) 4 23 ( 2)( 4) 6
v1 1 ...
2! 4! 6!
 THE ODD FUNCTION

2( (2k 1))
a2 k 3 a2 k 1
(2k 2)( 2k 3)
By induction :
2 k
( 1)( 3)....( (2k 1))
a2 k 1 ( 1) k
a1
( 2k 1)!
2( 1) 3 22 ( 1)( 3) 5 2k ( 1)..( (2k 1)) 2 k 1
v2 ..
3! 5! (2k 1)!
 THE ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOR
LET US INVESTIGATE THE BEHAVIOR OF THE FUNCTIONS v1 AND v2 FOR LARGE
VALUES OF THE ARGUMENT. WE SHALL SEE THAT UNLESS THE VALUE OF THE
IS AN INTEGER BOTH SERIES ARE DIVERGING TO + AR INFINITY.
INDEED LET US FIRST REMARK THAT FOR A FIXED ALL COEFFICIENTS
FROM A CERTAIN ORDER ON UP HAVE THE SAME SIGN:

2( 2 k ) 2(( 2k 1) )
a2 k 2 a2 k ; a2 k 3 a2 k 1
(2k 1)( 2k 2) ( 2k 2)( 2k 3)
Let us observe that :
a2 k 2(2(k 1) ) 2(2k 2 ) 1

a2 k 2 (2k 1)2k 2k (2k 1) k
and also:

1 2 k bk 1
e ( ) bk
2 2k

k 0 k! k 0 bk 1 k
SUMMARIZING WE OBTAIN:
2
v1 even function : v1 ( ) e for
2
v 2 odd function : v 2 ( ) e for
The general solution of the Schrodinge r equation :
2

( ) (Av1 ( ) Bv 2 ( ))e 2

AND THERE IS NO CONCEIVABLE CHOICE OF THE COEFFICIENTS A AND B

WHICH WOULD PREVENT THE WAVE FUNCTION FROM DIVERGING AS AN
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION EITHER FOR POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE LARGE VALUES
OF THE ARGUMENT, OR EVEN FOR BOTH.THEREFORE THE ONLY WAY TO AVOID
THIS BEHAVIOUR IS TO CONSIDER FOR LAMBDA ONLY INTEGER POSITIVE
VALUES n. IN THIS CASE ONE OF THE TWO SERIES TERMINATES AND BECOMES
A POLYNOMIAL OF DEGREE n. IN THE SAME TIME THE COEFFICIENT OF THE
OTHER FUNCTION IS SET EQUAL TO ZERO AND AS A CONSEQUENCE IS
OBTAINED A PHYSICALLY MEANINGFULL SOLUTION FOR A QUANTUM STATE
WITH THE ENERGY:
2E
2n 1 En n
2
 THE HERMITE POLYNOMIALS
LET US OBSERVE THAT FOR AN INTEGER VALUE OF THE EQUATION
FOR v() BECOMES:
d 2 v( ) d v( )
2 2nv( ) 0
d 2
d
THE FINITE POLYNOMIAL SOLUTION WHICH IS CONSTRUCTED IS KNOWN
AS HERMITE POLINOMIAL OF DEGREE n AND THEN THE EIGENFUCTIONS
FOR THE WAVE FUNCTION ARE: 2

n ( ) Cn H n ( )e 2

n
n!
For n even : H n ( ) ( 1) 2
v1 ( )
(n / 2)!
n 1
2(n! )
For n odd : H n ( ) ( 1) 2
v 2 ( )
(( n 1) / 2)!
H 0 1 ; H1 2 ; H 2 ( ) 4 2 2 ; H 3 ( ) 8 3 12
H 4 ( ) 16 4 48 2 12 ; H 5 ( ) 32 5 160 3 120
 THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR WAVE
FUNCTION

THE CONSTANT Cn IS DETERMINED FROM THE NORMALIZATION CONDITION:

x m
x and we employ (H n ( )) e d 2n n! .
2 2

x0 -

Then :

1
- n ( x) dx 1 | Cn | 2n n! and so :
2 2

1 x
1 1 1 x ( )2
n ( x) 1
H n ( )e 2 x0

n! 2 n x0
4
x0
n 10
ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN
QUANTUM MECHANICS
 OUTLINE OF THE COURSE
THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN QUANTUM MECANICS

1. MOTIVATION: FROM ORBITAL TO GENERAL ANGULAR

MOMENTUM?
- from pedagogical point of view; wide applications in various branches
of physics; from a historical perspective.

2.THE METHOD OF RISING AND LOWERING OPERATORS

- LADDER OPERATORS; ALGEBRAIC RELATIONS; BASIC
PROPERTIES
- SYSTEM OF COMPATIBLE OBSERVABLES; CORRESPONDING
EIGENVECTORS
- QUANTIZATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

3.THE ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM, THE SPIN SPACE;

ROTATIONS; ADDITION OF ANGULAR MOMENTA IN
QUANTUM MECHANICS (NEXT YEAR)
 FROM ORBITAL TO GENERAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM
LET US CONSIDER THE OBSERVABLE ASSOCIATED TO ORBITAL ANGULAR
MOMENTUM IN QUANTUM MECHANICS

l r p ei ijk x j pk

xi Qi ; pi Pi l L Q P ei ijkQ j Pk
[Qi , Pj ] i ij [ Li , L j ] i ijk LK
Proof:

[ Li , L j ] ilm jkn [Ql Pm , Qk Pn ] ilm jkn (Ql [ Pm , Qk Pn ] [Ql , Qk Pn ]Pm )

ilm jkn (QlQk [ Pm , Pn ] Ql [ Pm , Qk ]Pn Qk [Ql , Pn ]Pm [Ql , Qk ]Pn Pm )
i ilm jkn (Qk Pm nl Ql Pn mk ) i ilm jkl Qk Pm i ilm jmnQl Pn
i iml jkl Qk Pm i ilm jnmQl Pn i( ij mk ik mj )Qk Pm i( ij nl in lj )Ql Pn
i ij mk Qk Pm i ik mjQk Pm i ij nlQl Pn i in ljQl Pn
i ik mjQk Pm i in ljQl Pn i( ik mj im kj )Qk Pm i ijl kml Qk Pm i ijk Lk q.e.d.
FORMAL (BLIND) INTRODUCTION OF GENERAL ANGULAR
MOMENTUM

Definition :

any vector operator J (J x , J y , J z ) ( J i ) whose components J i are
observables (i.e. hermitian operators), not necessary depending on
coordinates and linear momentum operators, and verify the following
commutation relations :
J x J y J y J x [ J x , J y ] iJ z
J y J z J z J y [ J y , J z ] iJ x
J z J x J x J z [ J z , J x ] iJ y
is an angular momentum operator.
[ J i , J j ] i ijk J k
represent the fundamental commutation relations of angular momentum
DIRECT CONSEQUENCES:

Some properties of angular momentum follows directly from commutation relations.

1. There exists the operator
2
J J x2 J y2 J z2 J i J i
that commutes with every one of J k
Obs : since the three components of angular momentum do not commute
we can choose only one of them to be the observable to be diagonaliz ed simultaneo usly
2
with J .Usually J z is choosen for this purpose.
2. Introduction of new operators : ladder operators
J J x iJ y and J J x iJ y
Observe that (J ) J and (J ) J . M oreover :
2
[ J z , J ] J ; [ J z , J ] J ; [ J , J ] 2J z ; [ J , J ] 0
2 1
J ( J J J J ) J z2
2
PROOFS:
Some properties of angular momentum follows directly from commutation relations.
1. There exists the operator
2
J J x2 J y2 J z2 J i J i
that commutes with every one of J k
Obs : since the three components of angular momentum do not commute
we can choose only one of them to be the observable to be diagonaliz ed simultaneo usly
2
with J .Usually J z is choosen for this purpose.
2. Introduction of new operators : ladder operators
J J x iJ y and J J x iJ y
Observe that (J ) J and (J ) J . M oreover :
2
[ J z , J ] J ; [ J z , J ] J ; [ J , J ] 2J z ; [ J , J ] 0
2 1
J ( J J J J ) J z2
2
 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
2 2
Since J and J z commutes, i.e. [ J , J z ] 0, they forma systemof compatible observable s
and have simultaneo us eigenkets :
2
J a, b a a, b
J z a, b b a, b
We shall employ theladder operators, defined previously, to determine the allowed
values of the eigenvalue s a and b. Our procedure will consist in several steps:
Step 1 : the effect of J and J on a, b . Let us observe that :
J z ( J a, b ) J z J a, b ([ J z , J ] J J z ) a, b ( J bJ ) a, b (b )( J a, b )
Conclusion : if J (J ) is applied to a J z eigenket, the resulting ket vector is still a J z
eigenket w ith the corresponding eigenvalue of J z increased (decreased ) by one unit of .
2 2 2
Also let us note that : J ( J a, b ) J J a, b J J a, b a ( J a, b )
2 2
Conclusion : J applied to a J eigenket does not change the eigenvalue of J
2
Summary : J a, b are simultaneo us eigenstate s of J and J z withe the eigenvalue s
" a" and " b " :
J a, b c a, b
 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Step 2 : obtain the upper limit for the value of b in a, b a b2
2 1
Proof : Let us denote J a, b 1 and J a, b 2 . Since J J z ( J J J J )
2

2
we can present in two different ways the following property:
1 1
( a, b J J a, b a, b J J a, b ) ( 1 1 2 2 ) 0
2 2
2
a, b ( J J z2 ) a, b ( a b2 ) a, b a, b (a b2 )
Comparing the two results we deduce that a b2 0 i.e. a b2 and a 0
Step 3 : the upper limit for b : b min and b max
Since applyingsuccesivel y J the eigenvalue " b" is raised in steps of one unit (fixed " a" )
it is expected that after a number of steps the eigenvalue of J z will overpass the value
of " a" unless there exists an eigenvalue of J z , b max , such that J a, bmax 0.
Since applyingsuccesivel y J the eigenvalue " b" is lowered, it can, in absolute value,
overpass " a" so again must exist an eigenvalue of J z , b min , such that J a, bmin 0
 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
n n
Step 4 : Prove that the values of b min - and b max
2 2
Proof :
2
Let us observe that J a, bmax 0 J J a, bmax 0. Since J J J J z2 J z
2
( J J z2 J z ) a, bmax 0 ( a bmax
2
bmax ) 0
2
Analogousl y J a, bmin 0 J J a, bmin 0. Since J J J J z2 J
2
( J J z2 J z ) a, bmin 0 (a bmin
2
bmin ) 0
Summarizin g, we should have simultameo usly :
a bmax (bmax ) and a bmin (bmin )
2
bmax bmin
2
(bmax bmin ) 0 (bmax bmin )(bmax bmin ) 0
bmax bmin and the allowed values for b lie within the interval :
- bmax b bmax
Since a, bmax is reached by applying the rising operator J on a, bmin a finite integer
number of times is concluded that : bmax bmin n
n
2bmax n bmax bmin
2
 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Conclusions : bmax and bmin can be integer of half - integer multiplies of . It is customary
n
the notation j .Therefore bmax j while bmin j while
2
a bmax (bmax ) j ( j 1) 2
The eigenvalue s of J z are denonted as b m and from previous propertyof
b, namely - bmax b bmax , we conclude that the allowed values of m for given j are :
m -j,-j 1,.........., j - 1, j
There are 2j 1 possible values. The eigenvalue s and eigenvecto rs equations are now :
2
J jm j ( j 1) 2 jm
J z jm m jm
with j either an integer or half - integer number and m taking one of the 2j 1 allowed
values between - j and j.