Report submitted in the fulfilment of the requirements of

SUMMER INTENSHIP UNDER ISHAN VIKAS PROGRAMME-

2017
Sponsored by

The Ministry of HRD, GOVT. Of India

In
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SURATHKAL, MANGALORE 575025

SUBMITTED BY

BINAY KUMAR SINGH

JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE
JORHAT ASSAM-785007
 CERTIFICATE

This is certify that Mr. BINAY KUMAR SINGH has successfully completed his summer
internship the topic ANSYS (APDL)-16, Filament Extrusion, 3-D Printing, Material
Characterization And Corrosion Test. Under the able guidance of Dr. SRIKANTH BONTHA
during the period 5th June 20th July, 2017. The project report has been approved as it satisfies the
requirement for completion of internship in the Department of Mechanical Engineering.

Signature

------------------------------- ------------------------------------
Mentor Dr.Srikanth Bontha
Assistant professor
Dr.Srikanth
Dept. of Mechanical Bontha
Engineering De. of Mechanical Engg.
Dr. Narendranath S
Assistant professor
Head of the Department,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
------------------------------ Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Mentor

-------------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Dr. Prasad Krishna
Dr. Appu kuttan K.K
Dean ( AA & IR )
Professor
Dept. Of Mech. Engg.

-------------------- ---------------------- ------------------------

supervisor Supervisor Supervisor

Rakesh malikarjune Nirmal Chandra Bhoi
Reasearch Scholar Research Scholar M.Tech
Dept. Of mechanical engg . Dept. Of Mechanical Engg. Dept. Of Mechanical Engg.

.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere and deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Prasad Krishna, Dean AA & IR
NITK, Surathkal for valuable suggestions, ideas and critical reviews that He has given me
throughout the period

I am also thankful to Dr. Narendranath S, Head of the Department, Mechanical Engineering, for
providing me support and excellent facilities in his department.

I take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude towards my guides, Dr. Srikanth bontha.
It is their invaluable advice that propelled me towards completing this Internship.

I would like to thank Dr. Appu Kuttan K.K ,Professor, Dept. Of Mech. Engg. NITK Surathkal for
their continuous support and motivation thoughout the internship.

I am very thankful to our Programme co-ordinators Dr. Priyankoo Sarmah ,(Deparment of

Humanities and Social Sciences Indian Insitute of Technology Guwahati ), Dr. R.P choudhary (
Assistant professor, Dept. Of Mining engineering And Sabikur Rahman (Professor,JEC).

I am highly indebted to Rakesh K Ranjan, Mallikaejuna, Research Scholar,and Nirmal Chandra

Bhoi, M.Tech for being my Supervisor during the entire internship period. Without his presence, I
would have been unable to complete this task.

I would also like to thank all the research scholars in the department with whom I had insightful
conversations, and all the laboratory staff for accommodating me during this internship period.
Finally, I would thank my family who were very encouraging and showed great patience.
 EXPOSURE AT NITK

1. ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
a) Working principal of 3-D printer
b) Filament Extrusion
c) Filament recycling
2. ANSYS APDL-16.0
a) Stress analysis of two possible wrench design.
b) Steady-state heat conduction analysis of a chimney, which is composed of two layers of
material.
c) To create the finite element model of bracket and obtain the static solution
d)Transient thermo- mechanical analysis of a welding joint.
e) Thermo mechanical analysis, considering an electronic device containing a silicon die (chip),
epoxy die-attach substance, and a molding compound.
f) Analysis of an Axisysmmetric Shell with Internal Pressure
3. TEM (TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY) SAMPLE PREPARATION
4.SEM (SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY) STUDY
5. CORROSION SAMPLE PREPARATION AND IMMERSION CORROSION TEST
6. SHORT-TERM LABORATORY TRAINING
a) Metrology Laboratory
b) Material Characterization Laboratory
c) Solve Lab
d) Next Gen 3-D Lab
e) Combustion Lab
f) CAD-CAM Lab
g) Automobile workshop
6. WORKSHOP ON VIRTUAL LABS
7. LEARNING TO USE 3-D SLICER SOFTWARE
Additive Manufacturing

It is a process of joining materials to make objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as
opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodology.

Three Dimensions (3D) printing:-3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of

making hree dimensional solid objects from a digital file.The creation of a 3D printed object is
achieved using additive processes. In an additive process an object is created by laying down
successive layers of material until the object is created. Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly
sliced horizontal cross-section of the eventual object.

How does 3D printing work

It all starts with making a virtual design of the object you want to create. This virtual design is for
instance a CAD (Computer Aided Design) file. This CAD file is created using a 3D modeling
application or with a 3D scanner (to copy an existing object). A 3D scanner can make a 3D digital
copy of an object.

From 3D model to 3D printer

We will have to prepare a 3D model before it is ready to be 3D printed. This is what they call
slicing. Slicing is dividing a 3D model into hundreds or thousands of horizontal layers and needs to
be done with software.Sometimes a 3D model can be sliced from within a 3D modeling software
application. It is also possible that we are forced to use a certain slicing tool for a certain 3D printer.
When the 3D model is sliced, we are ready to feed it to your 3D printer. This can be done via USB,
SD or wifi. It really depends on what brand and type 3D Printer we have .When a file is uploaded in
a 3D printer, the object is ready to be 3D printed layer by layer. The 3D printer reads every slice
(2D image) and creates a three dimensional object.

Different types of 3D Printing technologies and Processes

Not all 3D printers use the same technology. There are several ways to print and all those available
are additive, differing mainly in the way layers are build to create the final object. Some methods
use melting or softening material to produce the layers. Selective Laser Sintering(SLS) and Fused
Deposition Modeling (FDM) are the most common technologies using this way of 3D
printing. Another method is when we talk about curing a photo-reactive resin with a UV laser or
another similar power source one layer at a time. The most common technology using this method
is called Stereo- lithography.

Additive Manufacturing processes classify into 7 categories according to Standard Terminology for
Additive Manufacturing Technologies. These seven processes are:

1. Vat Photopolymerisation
1. Stereolithography (SLA)
2. Digital Light Processing (DLP)
3. Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP)
2. Material Jetting
3. Binder Jetting
4. Material Extrusion
1. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
2. Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)
5. Powder Bed Fusion
1. Selective laser sintering (SLS)
6. Sheet Lamination
7. Directed Energy Deposition
A short explanation of FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING processes for 3D
printing:

The FDM technology works using a plastic filament or metal wire which is unwound from a coil
and supplying material to an extrusion nozzle which can turn the flow on and off. The nozzle is
heated to melt the material and can be moved in both horizontal and vertical directions by a
numerically controlled mechanism, directly controlled by a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
software pack age. The object is produced by extruding melted material to form layers as the
material hardens immediately after extrusion from the nozzle. This technology is most widely used
with two plastic filament material types: ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene)
and PLA (Polylactic acid). Though many other materials are available ranging in properties from
wood fill to flexible and even conductive materials.
 Filament Extrusion with a Single Screw Extruder
Working Principles
The Illustration below gives you a simple overview on the common working principles of a
standard desktop-type filament extruder

An filament extruders main parts and working principles

The main part of the extruder is a barrel containing a screw (also sometimes referred to as an
auger or a drill), which is connected to a heater (or heat chamber or heat element) towards its
far end. On the other end, the screw is connected to an electric motor which will, via mechanical
action, transport the so-called resin pellets (cf. Photo 9 below) through the barrel towards the heater.
Pellets are gravity-fed continuously from a hopper (a kind of feeding funnel). As the motor is
continuously driving the auger, the resin pellets are pushed into the heater.

The thermoplastic pellets will soften and melt because of the heat and are then pushed
mechanically through a die. Pushing the soft thermoplastics through the die will cause it to form a
continuous filament strand with the diameter of the die. This process is called extrusion, hence the
term extruder.
 1-Barrel Heater 1
2-Barrel Heater 2
3-Barrel Heater 3
4-Die Heater
5-Hopper
5

4 3 2 1

Thermocouples

Die Filament

Setup Filament Extruder for 3D printing

 Setup for Recycle the Fillament for 3D Printing

But there also are a lot of differences between extruders. Some use bigger motors in conjunction of
a gear drive system, others use stepper motors driving the auger directly. Most extruder types
permit the interchanging of dies between the two standard sizes for 3D filament, either 1,75mm or
3mm. Some have Water cooling mechanism, an air-fan cool-down mechanism. Regarding
electronics, some permit a very detailed temperature setting, others are just very basic.
EX :1
PROBLEM: STRESS ANALYSIS OF TWO POSSIBLE WRENCH DESIGN

DETAILS OF THE PROBLEM :

DISIPLINE :STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS TYPE :STATIC
ELEMENTS USED :2 D PLANE 183

Plane 183 is a higher order 2-D, 8-node or 6-node element like in Fig.1.
Plane183 has quadratic displacement behaviour and is well suited to modelling irregular meshes.

This element is defined by 8 nodes or 6-nodes, having two degrees of

freedom at each node: translations in the nodal x and y directions. The element may be used as a
plane element (plane stress, plane strain and generalized plane strain) or as an axisymmetric
element. This element has plasticity, hyperelasticity, creep, stress stiffening, large deflection and
large strain capabilities. It also has mixed formulation capability for simulating deformations of
nearly incompressible elastoplastic materials and fully incompressible hyperelastic materials. Initial
stress import is supported.

Figure1 : PLANE183 Geometry

PROBLEM STATEMENT :

The purpose of this laboratory assignment is to conduct a rigorous stress analysis of two possible
wrench designs.The first design( fig.1) has a sharp interior corner at keypoint 4, while the second
design (fig.2) replace the sharp corner with a small fillet. Convergence of the Von Mises stress in
the vicinity of the corner/fillet will be investigated

ELEMENTS USED:

2 D PLANE 183(plane stress with thickness)

REAL CONSTANTS :
Thickness of wrench :0.5 inch

MATERIAL PROPERTIES :

Material :AISI 1040

YoungS modulus : 30E+6 psi
Poissons ratio : 0.3

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS :

Fixed displacements (Ux=Uy=0) at locations shown.

LOADS :

100 lb concentrated load applied at the end of the handle (fig. 1 , and fig.2)

REQUIRED MODELS :

Coarse, Medium and Fine mesh for both designs:

1. Wrench without fillet (fig. 1)
2. Wrench with fillet (Fig.2)

Relevant keypoint coordinates and fillet radii needed for model construction are included in the
attached handouts. Also included are the required number of element divisions in the vicinity of the
notch/fillet root for each mesh resolution.
Fig. 1 (Wrench without fillet)

Fig. 2 (Wrench with fillet)

RESULTS:
1. For each model (fig.1 and fig.2 ), we obtain the Von Mises at the notch/fillet root for the coarse,
medium and fine meshes and construct the following convergence table:

MESH VON MISES STRESS AT NOTCH % CHANGE

ROOT

WITHOUT WITH FILLET WITHOUT WITH

FILLET FILLET FILLET

Coarse
(C) 476.05 ------------
2791.74 ----------

Medium
(M) 2959.15 352.266 -26.00
5.9966

Fine
(F) 2993.5 294.66
1.2304 -12.10

Rigorous convergence of finite results requires that the % change decreases with each subsequent
mesh refinement where the element size is decreased by a factor of two in each direction. An
increase in % change indicates divergence of the numerical results.
1. AREAS OF THE WRENCH

Fig. 3 (Area of the wrench without fillet)

Fig. 4 (Area of the wrench with fillet)

2. VON MISES CONTOUR PLOTS (DEFORMATION AND
UNDERFORMED EDGE)

WITHOUT FILLET

Fig.5 (wrench without fillet of course mesh)

Fig.6 (wrench without fillet of Medium mesh)

 Fig.7( wrench without fillet of fine mesh )

WITH FILLET

Fig.8 (Wrench with fillet of coarse (C) MESH )

Fig.9 (Wrench with fillet of MediumMESH )

Fig.10( Wrench with fillet of Fine MESH )

NODAL PLOT

WITHOUT FILLET

Fig.11 (wrench without fillet of course mesh)

Fig.12 (wrench without fillet of Medium mesh)

 Fig.13 ( wrench without fillet of fine mesh )

WITH FILLET

Fig.14 (Wrench with fillet of coarse MESH )

Fig.15 (Wrench with fillet of Medium MESH )

Fig.16 ( Wrench with fillet of Fine MESH )

DISCUSSION:
1. Wrench without fillet have very high van Mises stress value than the wrench having fillet at point
4. At same condition

2. The value of von Mises stress for the wrench with fillet at the fillet (notch) root indicates
convergence of the model

3. The value of von Mises stress for the wrench without fillet at the fillet root indicates divergence
of the model

4. From above study we conclude that, it is better to replace the shared corner of a model with a
small fillet
EX : 2
PROBLEM: STEADY-STATE HEATE CONDUCTION ANALYSIS OF A CHIMENEY.

DETAILS OF THE PROBLEM :

DISIPLINE :THERMAL

ANALYSIS TYPE :STEADY-STATE

ELEMENTS USED :PLANE 55

PLANE55: 2-D Thermal Solid ( PLANE55 Element Description ) PLANE55 can be used as a
plane element or as an axisymmetric ring element with a 2-D thermal conduction capability. The
element has four nodes with a single degree of freedom, temperature, at each node.
The element is applicable to a 2-D, steady-state or transient thermal analysis. The element can also
compensate for mass transport heat flow from a constant velocity field. If the model containing the
temperature element is also to be analyzed structurally, the element should be replaced by an
equivalent structural element (such as plane 42)

Figure 1: PLANE55 Geometry

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

The purpose of this lab is to perform a steady-state heat conduction analysis of a chimney, which is
composed of two layers of material. The inner layer is made of concrete, with thermal conductivity
k=0.07 Btu/(hr in +F ) . The outer layer is composed of brick, with a thermal conductivity k=0.04
Btu/(hr in F ). The chimney is subjected to convection boundary condition at its inner and outer
surfaces. The ambient temperature inside the chimney is 140 F, with a convection coefficient of
h=0.037 Btu/hr in2 F ). The ambient temperature of the outside air is 10 F, with a convection
coefficient of h=0.012 Btu/ ( hr in^2 F ).

ELEMENTS USED :

PLANE 55: Four-node bi-linear quadrilateral thermal-solid element, with one degree of freedom at
each node (temperature ).

MATERIAL PROPERTIES:

Thermal conductivity (concrete ) : 0.07

Thermal conductivity (brick) : 0.04

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
Thermal convection loads on inner and outer surface.

REQUIRED MODELS :
Using a quarter model defined bysymmetry lines A-A and B-B below, develop coarse, and medium
and fine meshes according to the following global element edge size:

COARSE: 1.0
MEDIUM: 0.5
FINE: : 0.25
 A

BRICKS

CONCRETE

B
B Fig.2 model

RESULTS: For medium mesh

A)COUNTER PLOT OF NODAL TEMPERATURES

Fig.3 counter plot of nodal temperatures

B) VECTOR PLOT OF THERMAL FLUX (HEAT FLOW VECTORS)

Fig.4 vector Plot of thermal flux (heat flow vectors)

C)PATH PLOT OF TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS( DT/DX AND DT/DY )

ALONG LINES A-A

Fig. 5 path plot of temperature gradients( dT/dx and dT/dy ) along linesA-A
D)path plot of temperature gradients( dT/dx and dT/dy ) along lines B-B

Fig.6 path plot of temperature gradients(dT/dx and dT/dy ) along lines B-B

2.Investigated the convergence of my finite element solution by constructing the following two
tables. (convergence requires a successive decrease in the % change between meshes:

Temperature at intersection of
MESH concrete/brick interface and path B-B % Change
Coarse (C) 116.776 ------------------
Medium (M) 116.737 -0.0334

Fine (F) 116.3 -0.006

MESH Maximum magnitude of temperature gradient dT/dx %Change

along path B-B
Coarse (C) -12.963 ----------
Medium (M) -13.171 1.6
Fine (F) -13.355 1.42
EX :3

PROBLEM: TO CREATE THE FINITE ELEMENTMODEL OF BRACKET AND OBTAIN

THE STATIC SOLUTION.

DETAILS OF THE PROBLEM :

DISIPLINE : STRUCTURAL

ANALYSIS TYPE :STATIC

ELEMENTS USED :PLANE 181

SHELL181 Element Description (4-Node Structural Shell)

SHELL181 is suitable for analyzing thin to moderately-thick shell structures. It is a four-node

element with six degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the x, y, and z directions, and
rotations about the x, y, and z-axes. (If the membrane option is used, the element has translational
degrees of freedom only). The degenerate triangular option should only be used as filler elements in
mesh generation.

SHELL181 is well-suited for linear, large rotation, and/or large strain nonlinear applications.
Change in shell thickness is accounted for in nonlinear analyses. In the element domain, both full
and reduced integration schemes are supported.SHELL181accountsforfollower(load stiffness)
effects of distributed pressures. SHELL181 can be used for layered applications for modeling
composite shells or sandwich construction. The accuracy in modeling composite shells is governed
by the first-order shear-deformation theory. The element formulation is based on logarithmic strain
and true stress measures. The element kinematics allow for finite membrane strains (stretching).
The following figure shows the geometry node locations, system for this element. The element is
defined by shell section information and by four nodes (I, J, K, and L).
 Fig. 1: SHELL181 Geometry
Single-Layer Definition :To define the thickness (and other information) use section definition, as
follows:
SECTYPE,,SHELL
SECDATA,THICKNESS, ...

Multilayer Definition: The shell section commands allow for layered shell definition. Options are
available for specifying the thickness, material, orientation, and number of integration points
through the thickness of the layers.we can designate the number of integration points (1, 3, 5, 7, or
9) located through the thickness of each layer when using section input. When only one, the point is
always located midway between the top and bottom surfaces. If three or more points, two points are
located on the top and bottom surfaces respectively and the remaining points are distributed equal
distance between the two points. The default number of integration points for each layer isthree;
however, when a single layer isdefined and plasticity is present, the number of integration points is
changed to a minimum of five during solution.The following additional capabilities are available
when defining shell layers:SHELL181 accepts the reintegrated shell section type
(SECTYPE,,GENS).

When the element is associated with the GENS section type, thickness or material definitions are
not required.We can use the function tool to define thickness as a function of global/local
coordinates or node numbers (SECFUNCTION).we can specify offsets (SECOFFSET).

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

The bracket shown in fig.2 is clamped at the two top and is subjected to static vertical loading at
the bottom two holes. Due to the symmetry in geometry, only one quarter of the structure is
modelled at first. Once the top-left quarter is modelled and meshed, two symmetric reflection
operations are utilized to create the rest of the bracket. The goal is to create the finite element model
and obtain the static solution.

ELEMENTS USED :
4 node 181 shell

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS :
Constrain displacement and rotational degree of freedom along the top-left and top-rightholes.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES:
YoungS modulus : 30E+6 psi
Poissons ratio : 0.3
Density : 0.00073 lb-sec^2/in^4

SHELL THICKNESS :
Thickness of material :0.5 inch

LOADS:
P =6lb
REQUIRED MODELS :

Fig. 1 model of top left quarter of bracket

Fig.2Geometry of the bracket

Fig.3 Bracket after meshing

Fig.4 constrain left and top-right holes. displacement and rotation degree of freedom along
the top-

Fig.5 loading on bracket

RESULTS:

Fig. 6 VonMises contour plots (deformation and underformed shape)

Fig .7 counter plot of nodal Stress

EX: 4

PROBLEM: TRANSIENT THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF A WELDING JOINT

DETAILS OF THE PROBLEM :

DISIPLINE :THERMAL

ANALYSIS TYPE : steady-state fluid flow

ELEMENTS USED :Plane 70 (SOLID PLANE 70 3-D Thermal Solid)

SOLID70 has a three-dimensional thermal conduction capability. The element has eight nodes with
a single degree of freedom, temperature, at each node. The element is applicable to a three-
dimensional, steady-state or transient thermal analysis. The element also can compensate for mass
transport heat flow from a constant velocity field. If the model containing the conducting solid
element is also to be analyzed structurally, the element should be replaced by an equivalent
structural element (such as SOLID45). An option exists that allows the element to model nonlinear
steady-state fluid flow through a porous medium. With this option, the thermal parameters are
interpreted as analogous fluid flow parameters. For example, the temperature degree of freedom
becomes equivalent to a pressure degree of freedom.

Figure 1. SOLID70 3-D Thermal Solid

PROBLEM STATEMENT:
Obtain a time-dependence thermal solution and Thermo mechanical solution. Which provides
displacement and stress field at different times.

ELEMENTS USED :
plane 70 (solid plane 70 3-D Thermal solid): Brick 8 node 70
MATERIAL PROPERTIES :
Ambient temperature T =229.82K
Density =7850 kg/m^3
Specific heat C= 500 J/(kgK )
The initial temperature for the weld pool is 1852.94 K.
Elastic modulus, E= 0.3
Coefficient of thermal expansion, = 60 10^-6 ppm/K
Table: 1 Temperature-dependence properties
SI. Temp(K) Thermal conductivity[w/(m_K)] Film coefficient [W/(m^2 K)]
NO.
Top Bottom Side surface
surface surface
1 433.15 30.158 9.08 4.99 8.18
2 593.15 30.385 11.69 6.05 9.89
3 753.15 30.611 13.57 6.79 10.96

4 913.15 30.838 14.96 7.28 11.86

5 1073.15 31.064 16.19 7.69 12.51
6 1233.15 31.290 17.25 8.09 13.16
7 1393.15 31.517 18.15 8.42 13.66
8 1533.15 31.743 18.97 8.67 14.15
9 1713.15 31.969 19.79 8.99 14.55
10 1873.15 25.338 20.52 9.24 14.96
 TABLE: 2 REQUIRED MODELS
Volume X1 X2 Y1 Y2 Z1 Z2
NO.(cm)
1 0 10X10^-2 0 2X10^-2 0 3X10^-2
2 0 10X10^-2 0 2X10^-2 3X10^-2 8X10^-2
3 0 10X10^-2 0 2X10^-2 8X10^-2 12X10^-2
4 0 10X10^-2 0 2X10^-2 12X10^-2 12.5X10^-2

Fig. 2 volumes of the model

Fig. 3 Contour plot of temperature at substep 5 (time= 69.3851)

Fig. 4 contour plot of temperature at substep 22 (time=3600s)

 Fig. 5 Contour plot of the stress in z-direction due to thermal loading step1 substep 5

Fig.6 Contoure plot of the stress in z-direction due to thermal loading at load step 1. Substep
22.
EX : 5
PROBLEM: thermomechanical analysis with ANSYS, consideran electronics device

DETAILS OF THE PROBLEM:

DISIPLINE :THERMOMECHANICAL

ANALYSIS TYPE :STATIC

ELEMENT USED :PLANE 182 ( Quad 4 Node 182 )

PLANE182 is used for 2-D modeling of solid structures. The element can be used either as a plane
element (plane stress or plane strain) or as an axisymmetric element. The element is defined by four
nodes having two degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the nodal x and y directions. The
element has plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities.

Figure.1 PLANE182 2-D Structural Solid

PROBLEM STATEMENT :
Thermal strains and stresses constitute animportance of design consideration for many practical
engineering problems. They become especially critical when materials with different coefficients of
thermal expansion from interfaces. As an example of a thermomechanical analysis with ANSYS,
consideran electronics device containing a silicon die (chip), epoxy die-attach substrate, and a
molding compound, as shown in Fig.2. A common cause of failure in electronic devices is the
thermal stresses at elevated temperatures caused by a coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch. In
the ANSYS solution, plane strain idealization is utilized. The device is subjected to a uniform
temperature increase of 30C. Material properties of the constituent material are in table 1. The goal
is to obtain displacement and stress fields.

Molding compound
Die-
attach die

substrate

Fig. 2( Geometry of the electronic package )

MATERIAL PROPERTIES :
Table . 1. Properties of the constituent materials in the electronic package
a(10^-6/C)
(GPa) N Material reference number

Substrate 22 0.39 18 1

Die-attach 7.4 0.4 52 2

Silicon 163 0.278 2.6 3

Molding 15 0.25 16 4
component

di
e
REQUIRED MODELS

A8 A9
A 6A 7
A4 A5
A1 A2 A3

FIG.3 geometry of the electronic package

Table2: Coordinates defining the area and the corresponding material reference number
AREA X1 X2 Y1 Y2 Material
NUMBER (mm) reference
number

1 0 5 0 2 1

2 5 7.5 0 2 1

3 7.5 10 0 2 1

4 0 5 2 2.1 2

5 5 7.5 2 2.1 4
 6 0 5 2.1 3.1 3

7 5 7.5 2.1 3.1 4

8 0 5 3.1 4.1 4

9 5 7.5 3.1 4.1 4

RESULTS :

Fig. 4 Deformed shape of the electronic package under thermal load

Fig. 5 Contour plot of the normal stress ( syy ) in the Y direction: in the entire package

Fig. 6 Contour plot of the normal stress ( syy ) in the Y direction: in the vicinity of the die/die-
attach interface
 Fig. 7 Contour plot of the shear stress (sxy ): in the entire package.

Fig.8
Contour plot of the shear stress (sxy ): in the vicinity of the die/die-attach interface
LINE PLOT:
Review variation of stresses along paths by means of line plots. Two paths are defined, both of
which are vertical. First path passes through the vertical cross section where the die and die-attach
terminate and form an interface with the molding compound. The second path is located
approximately in the middle of the die die-attach. Both paths are plotted in Fig. 9 And Fig. 10

V V1
2
Fig. 9 Element plot with V1 and V2 identified

Fig. 10 Element plot ( element edge removed ) with path V1 and V2 fied
 Fig.11 Line plot of syy and sxy along path V1

Fig.12 Line plot of syy, sxy andseqv along path V1

s
Fig. Line plot of syy and sxy along path V2

Fig. 13 Line plot of syy, sxy andseqv along path V2

 TEM SAMPLE PREPARATION
Sample preparation is an important part of TEM analysis. There are twomain criteria for TEM
sample preparation
The sample should beelectron transparent.If not the whole sampleat least the ROI should be thin.
Typical thickness values for metallicsamples should be 30 - 50 nm. Usually, 100 nm is a upper limit
for thesample thickness.

the sample should be mechanically robustfor handling.Usually, the sample to be investigated is

directly prepared from the under-lying specimen. Sometimes for bulk specimens replica samples are
prepared .This is mainly for studying surface topographies and precipitates. TEM samples are either
self-supported or mounted on a grid for analysis. Copper gridsare the most commonly used, though
for high temperature work Mo grids are used. For nanoparticles and thin films a-C film is used as
support. a-Chas low contrast in the TEM and will not obscure the contrast arising fromthe
specimen.
The TEM preparation technique depends on the type of sample and also on the property of interest.
Mechanical damage during sample preparation might be of an issue for studying dislocation
densities in a specimen. Similarly cross sectional TEM preparation might be necessary for some
samples,which can be a time consuming process. For most samples we need to pre-thin the sample
to an initial thickness of 100 200 m. Cut a 3 mm disk from the sample (for bulk specimens).
Thin the central disk to a few m and
then thin further (by different techniques) till sample is electron transparent.Sample sizes in the
different stages of TEM preparation are shown in figure
 CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES

1. Microscopes
Microscope: micro - from Greek meaning small scope from Greek meaning to look or see by
definition a microscope is:
1.An optical instrument consisting of a lens or combination of lenses for making enlarged images of
minute objects.
2.A non-optical instrument (as one using radiation or using vibrations) for making enlarged images
of minute objects.
3.An instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen easily by the naked eye.

TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
MICROSCOPE

Optical (light) microscope Electron microscope

1. Bright-field microscope
a) Simple microscope
b) Compound microscope
2. Dark-field microscope
3.Fluorescence microscope
4. Phase-contract microscope
1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
3. X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
4. Scanning and transmission electron microscope
(STEM)

1. Optical microscopy
Introduction :- The optical microscope, often referred to as the "light microscope", is a type of
microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples.
Optical microscopes are the oldest and simplest of the microscopes. Digital microscopes are now
available which use a CCD camera to examine a sample, and the image is shown directly on a
computer screen without the need for optics such as eye-pieces. Other microscopic methods which
do not use visible light includescanning electron microscopy and
transmission electron microscopy.

Optical configurations :-There are two basic configurations of the conventional optical
microscope in use, the simple (one lens) and compound (many lenses). Digital microscopes are
based on an entirely different system of collectingthe reflected light from a sample.
 Light microscope
A simple microscope is a microscope that uses only one lens for magnification, and is the original
lightmicroscope.Van Leeuwenhoek's microscopes consisted of a small, single converging lens
mounted on a brass plate, with a screw mechanism to hold the sample or specimen to be examined.
Demonstrations by British microscopist have images from such basic instruments. Though now
considered primitive, the use of a single, convex lens for viewing is still found in simple
magnification devices, such as the magnifying glass, and the loupe. Light microscopes are able to
view specimens in color, an important advantage when compared with electron microscopes,
especially for forensic analysis, where blood traces may be important, for example.

Components

Applications in material Evaluation :-

The use of "Optical Microscopes" in "Materials Evaluation" is very popular since it enables the
researcher to observe the "internal structure" of materials. This information can then be used to
improve material processing and properties which form the foundation of materials science and
engineering (MSE). The microstructure generally ranges from the atomic scale (0.1nm) to 1mm
(1000m) with the most widely used scale of 1-1000 m. Practically the optical microscopes can be
used up to 2000x at which the resolution becomes so poor that objects smaller than 1 m cannot be
distinguished. But since most materials have grain sizes in the range 1-100m optical microscope
(OM) is a perfect low cost tool. Typical microstructural features are grains (single crystal),
precipitates, inclusions, pores, whiskers, defects, twin boundaries, etc. Most of the manufacturers
use OMs for process control and R&D. There are mainly two types of optical microscopes
(OM):Reflected Light (RL) and Transmitted Light (TL). In the former the light is reflected from the
surface of the specimen while in the latter the sample is so thin (20-50m) that light passes through
it. A third but less important type may be the stereo microscopes that do not require any sample
prep and are generally used to observe fracture surfaces, electronic curcuit boards, etc.
Reflected Light OpticalMicroscopes are the most widely used machines in materials science.
Because they involve light reflection the specimen surface must be very well polished to a "mirror
finish". In order to have a mirror finish the sample goes through a number of "sample preparation
treatments":

(1) Cutting: Specimen should be cut to

<1.25inch with a hacksaw or disc saw.
Care must be taken not to heat the Sample
during cutting.

(2) Mounting: Hot mounting in a press w/phenolic resin or cold mount inpolyester. The former
is faster and more generally used for metals while the latter is favoured for ceramic samples.

(3) Grinding: Successively sized SiC grinding papers (180-320-600-1200 Grit) are rotated on a
wheel (~50-250 rpm) and the sample is pushed face down while watercooling. Small SiC particles
are glued to the grinding paper so these are also sometimes called fixed abrasives. These particles
slowly remove chips from specimen surface.

(4) Polishing: Same as grinding except the abrasive particles are loose and no watercooling is
performed. Diamond or alumina suspension having particles 0.05 - 30m diameter are used.

(5) Etching: Selective removal of certain microstructural features to reveal the internal structure.
Use a hood and do not inhale acid vapor. Wash the specimen thoroughly to avoid damage on
objective lenses. Because OM examination of any material is actually a sampling operation from a
larger material, care must be taken not to change the microstructure during sample preparation. It is
important that the sample must be representative. The sample is examined in OM in two main
modes:

(1) Bright Field (BF): The polished surface appears bright and the surface irregularities such as
grain boundaries appear dark.The reason why grain boundaries appear dark can beclearly seen in
the figure. Light reflected from the grain boundaries do not go back to the objective. The same thing
is true for precipitates that also appear dark. BF mode is more commonly used than DF.

(2) Dark Field (DF): The incident light is fed from an angle therefore polished smooth surface
appears dark and surface irregularities appear bright. DF is less commonly used. Applications
aregenerally in grain size measurements and in judging the quality of polishing.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL MICROSCOPE

Advantages:
Direct imaging with no need of sample pre-treatment, the only microscopy for real colour imaging.
Fast, and adaptable to all kinds of sample systems, from gas, to liquid, and to solid sample systems,
in any shapes or geometries.
Easy to be integrated with digital camera systems for data storage and analysis.

Disadvantages:
Low resolution, usually down to only sub-micron or a few hundreds of nanometres, mainly due to
the light diffraction limit.

Alternatives
In order to overcome the limitations set by the diffraction limit of visible light other microscopes
have been designed
Which use other waves.
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Scanning Ion-Conductance Microscope (SICM)
Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM)
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
X-ray microscope
 ELECTRON MICROSCOP
Introduction and History
A light microscope, even one with perfect lenses and perfect illumination, simply cannot beused to
distinguish objects that are smaller than half the wavelength of light. To see tinyparticles under a
microscope, scientists must bypass light altogether and use a different sortof "illumination," one
with a shorter wavelength.In the early 1900s a significant alternative to light microscopy was
developed by Ernst Ruskaand Max Knoll, using a beam of electrons to illuminate the specimen and
produce amagnified image. (The invention and patent belong to Leo Szilard who declined to
constructit)electrons are speeded up in a vacuum until their wavelength is extremely short, only
onehundred-thousandth that of white light and can achieve better than 50 pmresolution and
magnifications of up to about 10,000,000 times. The electron microscopeuses electrostatic and
electromagnetic "lenses" (lenses are analogous to, glass lenses ofan optical microscope) to control
the electron beam and focus it to form an image.
How electron microscopes work
we are used an ordinary microscope, we know the basic idea is simple. There's a light at the bottom
that shines upward through a thin slice of the specimen. we look through an eyepiece and a
powerful lens to see a considerably magnified image of the specimen (typically 10200 times
bigger). So there are essentially.
Four important parts to an ordinary microscope:
The source of light.
The specimen.
The lenses that makes the specimen seem bigger.
The magnified image of the specimen that we see.

In an electron microscope, these four things are slightly different.

1.The light source is replaced by a beam of very fast moving electrons.

2. The specimen usually has to be specially prepared and held inside a vacuum chamber from which
the air has been pumped out (because electrons do not travel very far in air).
3. The lenses are replaced by a series of coil-shaped electromagnets through which the electron
beam travels. In an ordinary microscope, the glass lenses bend (or refract) the light beams passing
through them to produce magnification. In an electron microscope, the coils bend the electron
beams the same way.
4. The image is formed as a photograph (called an electron micrograph) or as an image on a TV
screen. That's the basic, general idea of an electron microscope. But there are actually quite a few
different types of electron microscopes and they all work in different ways.The three most familiar
types are called transmission electron microscopes (TEMs), scanning electron microscopes (SEMs),
and scanning tunnelling microscopes (STMs)

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPES (TEM)

A TEM has a lot in common with an ordinary optical microscope. we have to prepare a thin slice of
the specimen quite carefully (it's a fairly laborious process) and sit it in a vacuum chamber in the
middle of the machine. When we done that, we fire an electron beam down through the specimen
from a giant electron gun at the top. The gun uses electromagnetic coils and high voltages (typically
from 50,000 to several million volts) to accelerate the electrons to very high speeds. Thanks to our
old friend wave-particle duality, electrons (which we normally think of as particles) can behave like
waves (just as waves of light can behave like particles). The faster they travel, the smaller the waves
they form and the more detailed the images they show up. Having reached top speed, the electrons
zoom through the specimen and out the other side, where more coils focus them to form an image
on screen (for immediate viewing) or on a photographic plate (for making a permanent record of the
image). TEMs are the most powerful electron microscopes: we can use them to see things just 1
nanometre in size, so they effectively magnify by a million times or more.
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

The probable interaction between an electron and a specimen is given as below.

 CONSTRUCTION

Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM)

1) ELECTRON SOURCE (GUN) :- The first and basic part of the transmission electron
microscope is the source of electrons. It is usually a V shaped filament made of LaB6 or W
(tungsten) that is wreathed with Wehnelt electrode (Wehnelt Cap). Due to negative potential of the
electrode, the electrons are emitted from a small area of the filament (point source). A point source
is important because it emits monochromatic electrons (with similar energy). In this, a positive
electrical potential is applied to the anode, and the filament (cathode) is heated until a stream of
electrons is produced. The electrons are accelerated by the positive potential down the column, and
because of the negative potential of cap, all electrons are repelled toward the optic axis. A collection
of electrons occurs in the space between the Filament tip and Cap , which is called a space charge.
Those electrons at the bottom of the space charge (nearest to the anode) can exit the gun area
through the small (<1 mm) hole in the Wehnelt Cap and then move down the column to be later
used in imaging.

Fig. Electron Source (Gun)

2)CONDENSER LENS :- The stream of the electron from the electron gun is then focused to
a small, thin, coherent beam by the use of condenser lenses .The first lens determines the spot
size; the general size range of the final spot that strikes the sample .The second lens actually
changes the size of the spot on the sample.

3) CONDENSER APERTURE:- A condenser aperture is a thin disk or strip of metal with a

small circular through-hole. It is used to restrict the electron beams and filter out unwanted scattered
electrons before image formation.

4) SAMPLE:- The beam from the condenser aperture strikes the sample and the electron-sample
interaction takes place in three different ways. One is unscattered electrons (transmitted beam),
elastically scattered electrons (diffracted beam) and inelastically scattered electrons.

5)OBJECTIVE LENS:- The main function of the objective lens is to focuses the transmitted
electron from the sample into an image.

6) OBJECTIVE APERTURE:- Objective aperture enhances the contrast by blocking out

high-angle diffracted electrons.

7) SELECTED APERTURE:- It enables the user to examine the periodic diffraction of

electron by ordered arrangements of atoms in the sample.

8) PROJECTOR LENS:- The projector lens are used to expand the beam onto the phosphor
screen.
9) SCREEN:- Imaging systems in a TEM consists of a phosphor screen, which may be made of
fine (10-100 micro meter) particulate zinc sulphide, for direct observation by the operator.

10) IMAGE PATTERN:- The image strikes the phosphor screen and light is generated,
allowing the users to see the image . The darker areas of the image represent those areas of the
sample that fewer electrons are transmitted.
The lighter areas of the image represent those areas of the sample that more electrons were
transmitted.

How a transmission electron microscope (TEM) works

A transmission electron microscope fires a beam of electrons through a specimen to produce a

magnified image of an object.
1. A high-voltage electricity supply powers the cathode.
2. The cathode is a heated filament, a bit like the electron gun in an old-fashioned cathode-ray tube
(CRT) TV. It generates a beam of electrons that works in an analogous way to the beam of light in
an optical microscope.
3. An electromagnetic coil (the first lens) concentrates the electrons into a more powerful beam.
4. Another electromagnetic coil (the second lens) focuses the beam onto a certain part of the
specimen.
5. The specimen sits on a copper grid in the middle of the main microscope tube. The beam passes
through the specimen and "picks up" an image of it.
6. The projector lens (the third lens) magnifies the image.
7. The image becomes visible when the electron beam hits a fluorescent screen at the base of the
machine.
This is analogous to the phosphor screen at the front of an old-fashioned TV.
8. The image can be viewed directly (through a viewing portal), through binoculars at the side, or
on a TV monitor attached to an image intensifier (which makes weak images easier to see).

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TEM

Advantages:
High resolution, as small as 0.2 nm.
Direct imaging of crystalline lattice.
Delineate the defects inside the sample.
No metallic stain-coating needed, thus convenient for structural imaging of organic materials,
Electron diffraction technique: phase identification, structure and symmetry determination, lattice
parameter measurement, disorder and defect identification
Disadvantages:
Some cons of electron microscopes include:
TEMs are large and very expensive
Laborious sample preparation
Potential artifacts from sample preparation
Operation and analysis requires special training
Samples are limited to those that are electron transparent, able to tolerate the vacuum
chamber and small enough to fit in the chamber
TEMs require special housing and maintenance
Images are black and white
Electron microscopes are sensitive to vibration and electromagnetic fields and must be housed in an
area that isolates them from possible exposure.
A Transmission Electron Microscope requires constant upkeep including maintaining voltage,
currents to the electromagnetic coils and cooling water.

Conclusion
TEM has been used for several purposes in several fields and offers many distinct advantages in
comparison to SEM and older optical methods as has been discussed earlier. However there are
many disadvantages and scope of improvement in TEM. Many materials require extensive sample
preparation to produce a sample thin enough to be electron transparent, which makes TEM analysis
a relatively time consuming process with a low throughput of samples. The structure of the sample
may also be changed during the preparation process. Also the field of view is relatively small,
raising the possibility that the region analysed may not be characteristic of the whole sample. There
is potential that the sample may be damaged by the electron beam, particularly in the case of
biological materials. TEM is however a significant achievement of quantum mechanical
understanding of electron. It was a major step in magnification studies and obtaining better
resolution than optical microscopes and hence is a very important building block in study of
application of quantum mechanics. Moreover it is very commonly used in studies of material
structures and properties and for other experimental purposes.

Scanning electron microscopes (SEM)

Most of the funky electron microscope images we see in booksthings like wasps holding
microchips in their mouthsare not made by TEMs but by scanning electron microscopes (SEMs),
which are designed to make images of the surfaces of tiny objects. Just as in a TEM, the top of a
SEM is a powerful electron gun that shoots an electron beam down at the specimen. A series of
electromagnetic coils pull the beam back and forth, scanning it slowly and systematically across the
specimen's surface. Instead of traveling through the specimen, the electron beam effectively
bounces straight off it. The electrons that are reflected off the specimen (known as secondary
electrons) are directed at a screen, similar to a cathode-ray TV screen, where they create a TV-like
picture. SEMs are generally about 10 times less powerful than TEMs (so we can use them to see
things about 10 nanometres in size). On the plus side, they produce very sharp, 3D images
(compared to the flat images produced by TEMs) and their specimens need less preparation.

Construction
The SEM requires an electron optical system to produce an electron probe, a specimen stage to
place the specimen, a secondary-electron detector to collect secondary electrons, an image display
unit, and an operation system to perform various operations . The electron optical system consists of
an electron gun, a condenser lens and an objective lens to produce an electron probe, a scanning coil
to scan the electron probe, and other components .The electron optical system (inside of the
microscope column) and a space surrounding the specimen are kept at vacuum .
Two main parts of the SEM are the electronic console (operation unit) and the electron optical
column. The console provides the switches and knobs for adjusting the focus, magnification and
image intensity on viewing and photography screens. The column is where the beam is generated,
focused on to a small spot, and scanned across the specimen to create signals that control the
intensity of the image on the viewing screen.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

scanning electron microscope (SEM) works

A scanning electron microscope scans a beam of electrons over a specimen to produce a
magnified image of an object. That's completely different from a TEM, where the beam of electrons
goes right through the specimen.
1. Electrons are fired into the machine.
2. The main part of the machine (where the object is scanned) is contained within a sealed vacuum
chamber because precise electron beams can't travel effectively through air
3. A positively charged electrode (anode) attracts the electrons and accelerates them into an
energetic beam.
4. An electromagnetic coil brings the electron beam to a very precise focus, much like a lens.
5. Another coil, lower down, steers the electron beam from side to side.
6. The beam systematically scans across the object being viewed.
7. Electrons from the beam hit the surface of the object and bounce off it.
8. A detector registers these scattered electrons and turns them into apicture.
9. A hugely magnified image of the object is displayed on a TV screen.
CONSTRUCTION

Electron Gun:- The source of electrons in located at the top of the column whereelectrons are
emitted from a hot tungsten filament and accelerated down an evacuatedcolumn. The three gun
components are the filament, the wehnelt, which controls thenumber of electrons leaving the gun,
and the adode, which accelerates the electrons to aselectable voltage between 1 30 kV. A vacuum
is necessary because electrons cantravel only short distances in air.
Electron Lenses:-Three electron lenses are used to demagnify the electron beamto a small spot
about 1m in diameter. The condenser lens is located closest to theelectron gun and the final or
objective lens is located closest to the specimen. Theobjective lens moves the smallest spot formed
by the beam up and down in space(working distance, WD) to meet the specimen surface, which is a
focused condition.
Scanning System:- The image is formed by pushing the beam across thespecimen surface in a
regular manner in synchronism with a beam scanning within thecomputer monitor on the console.
Scan coils, used to push or deflect the beam, arelocated within the objective lens.
Objective Aperture:- A foil with a small hole (~100 m), located above theobjective (final)
lens. Its function is to limit the angular width of the electron beam toreduce aberrations and to
improve depth-of-field in the image.
Correction Coil:- Corrects for astigmatism a beam aberration caused by slightimperfections in
the lenses or by the electric field associated with specks of dirt, causingelongated foci to form at
slightly different focal lengths.
Specimen Chamber:- This large evacuated space below the objective lenscontains the
specimen stage along with electron signal detectors and a line to the vacuumpumping system.
Electron Detector:- Backscattered electrons are energetic enough to directlyexcite the detector,
which is mounted on the bottom of the objective lens. Secondaryelectrons are drawn to the
secondary electron detector by a positive charge placed in frontof the detector. They are accelerated
towards a scintillator screen where they producelight which is amplified to produce an electronic
signal then sent to the computer to bedisplayed on the monitor.
Vacuum System:- Vacuum is produced by an oil diffusion pump backed by amechanical pump.
In the diffusion pump a stream of hot oil vapor strikes and pushes airmolecules toward a mechanical
pump that expels them from the system. A mechanicalpump and valve system are used to
preevacuate the system because a diffusion pumponly operates after a vacuum is created.
SEM Advantages
Advantages of a Scanning Electron Microscope include its wide-array of applications, the detailed
three-dimensional and topographical imaging and the versatile information garnered from different
detectors.
SEMs are also easy to operate with the proper training and advances in computer technology and
associated software make operation user-friendly. This instrument works fast, often completing SEI,
BSE and EDS analyses in less than five minutes. In addition, the technological advances in modern
SEMs allow for the generation of data in digital form.Although all samples must be prepared before
placed in the vacuum chamber, most SEM samplesrequire minimal preparation actions.

SEM Disadvantages
The disadvantages of a Scanning Electron Microscope start with the size and cost.
SEMs are expensive, large and must be housed in an area free of any possible electric, magnetic or
vibration interference.
Maintenance involves keeping a steady voltage, currents to electromagnetic coils and circulation of
cool water.
Special training is required to operate an SEM as well as prepare samples.
The preparation of samples can result in artifacts. The negative impact can be minimized with
knowledgeable experience researchers being able to identify artifacts from actual data as well as
preparation skill. There is no absolute way to eliminate or identify all potential artifacts.
In addition, SEMs are limited to solid, inorganic samples small enough to fit inside the vacuum
chamber that can handle moderate vacuum pressure.
Finally, SEMs carry a small risk of radiation exposure associated with the electrons that scatter
from beneath the sample surface.
The sample chamber is designed to prevent any electrical and magnetic interference, which should
eliminate the chance of radiation escaping the chamber. Even though the risk is minimal, SEM
operators and researchers are advised to observe safety precautions.
 CORROSION SAMPLE PREPARATION AND IMMERSION TESTING

CORROSION TEST

Corrosion testing is one of a corrosion engineer's most important responsibilities. In fact,

without corrosion assessment, mitigating or eliminating corrosion in any industry is almost
impossible.

There are several reasons for corrosion examination. Sometimes, in a materials selection process for
an industrial application, an evaluation of different kinds of materials in a specific environment is
required. The assessment of a new type of alloy in different types of environments to compare with
conventional commercial alloys; an estimation of an inhibitors' efficiency in reducing the corrosion
rate of metals; and understanding the mechanism of corrosion are the other reasons.

Corrosion tests are usually divided into two main categories: laboratory tests and field tests, each of
which has its merits and demerits. For example, the environmental conditions present in real-world
applications are different to those in laboratory situations. Therefore, it is difficult to extrapolate the
results of laboratory tests to industry settings. On the other hand, in laboratory tests, it is possible to
accelerate the corrosivity of the environment to obtain results more rapidly, something that is
impossible in field testing.

Here we'll take a look at the two key corrosion tests that corrosion engineers use to help learn about
and mitigate corrosion problems in the field.

LABORATORY CORROSION TESTS

Immersion Testing

One of the most common and simplest methods in laboratory tests is the immersion test. In this kind
of test, whose procedure is clarified by ASTM and NACE, the weights of dried test specimens are
measured by an analytical balance before and after being exposed to a corrosive environment for a
specific period of time. Before and after samples are weighed, specific preparation should be carried
out to remove any corrosion product or organic contaminants. The corrosion resistance of the
samples is generally calculated as the corrosion rate in terms of weight loss or thickness loss in mils
(0.001 inch) per year (mpy) or millimeters per year (mm/yr). The results depend on the type of
metal (specific weight) being tested, the exposed surface area, and test duration factors.
Definition - What does Immersion Test mean?

Immersion tests measure the progress of corrosion damage obtained from the immersion length
within a corrosive environment, as well as other factors that can accelerate the corrosion process.

These tests can involve alternative drying or immersions, such as in cases of cyclical tests.
Moreover, test instrumentations may be included throughout immersion like electrochemical
instrumentation connections in order to facilitate the measurements.

Immersion tests are capable of generating uniform data for alloy corrosion and are utilized in
industries subjected to immersion conditions.

Corrosionpedia explains Immersion Test

Environmental conditions that should be created and the acceleration degree needed usually identify
which laboratory tests should be used. Proper acceleration is obtained by the following:

Prolonging the exposure to vital conditions which are believed to lead to corrosion damage. For
instance, if a certain vessel is to undergo batch processing with a chemical for 24 hours, the
corrosion exposure in the laboratory should be 240 hours.

Making the conditions more intense in order to boost corrosion rates. This can be achieved by
increasing one or more of the following: pressure, salt concentration, temperature or solution
acidity.

When the conditions for the environment have been identified and the test has been created, this
should be conducted again several times to verify whether this test meets the acceptable
reproducibility standard.

Generally, immersion tests can be separated into these categories:

Alternate immersion test - This immersion test involves a cyclic procedure that involves a
specimen being immersed for a certain period of time. Then, the specimen is removed and
undergoes drying prior to re-submerging to the cycle. Typically, about a hundred cycles are
completed throughout the test.
Simple immersion test - In this test, small batches of the material are subjected to the medium
under testing, while loss of weight is being gaged for a particular period.

The immersion test remains the most reliable method in terms of screening. It also serves as the
most simple and economical way to determine the most suitable material to protect against
corrosion in certain environments.

ELECTROCHEMICAL TESTING

Electrochemical tests are the other category of laboratory tests that can provide valuable
information about corrosion electrochemical reactions and the mechanisms behind them.
A potentiostat instrument is usually used to perform this sort of test. A three-electrode setup,
including working electrode, reference electrode, and counter (auxiliary) electrode, are usually
used. Potential, current, and time are three important parameters in electrochemical tests. In these
tests, an applied potential generally scans in a certain range and the current is measured.

There are various types of electrochemical corrosion tests. Each type is used for a particular
purpose.

Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR): The simplest electrochemical corrosion test is linear
polarization resistance, in which current is measured when the applied potential scans in a narrow
range (~20 mV) from lower to higher than corrosion potential (Ecorr). The slope of the current
versus the potential curve shows the polarization resistance, which is inversely related to the
corrosion rate. This test is very fast and straightforward, and is usually accepted as a kind of non-
destructive test. Moreover, this method is very useful to measure extremely low corrosion rates.
This is important in some industrial systems such as food processing, nuclear, and pharmaceutical
equipment.
This image shows the LPR curve. The slope of the line shows polarization resistance (Rp).

Potentiodynamic Polarization Tests: The passivation behavior of active-passive metals,

like stainless steels, can be evaluated by potentiodynamic polarization tests. In this method,
the potential scans in a wide range. Critical current density, passive potential, and passive
current density can be extracted from this test.
Cyclic Polarization Method: This is the other kind of test that is used to determine the
tendency of active-passive metals to localized crevice or pitting corrosion. In this test, the
sweeping direction of applied potential is reversed at some potential in the transpassive
region. The intersection between forward and backward scans shows the tendency and
intensity of localized corrosion.
 This image shows the cyclic polarization curve, which is used to evaluate pitting corrosion.
Less ER and a bigger metastable pitting loop shows more susceptibility to pitting
corrosion.

The Electrochemical Potentiodynamic Reactivation (EPR) Test: This is the other test
that has been suggested to predict the tendency of stainless steels to sensitization or
intergranular corrosion. Electrochemical potentiodynamic reactivation is very simple and
fast in comparison to other conventional intergranular corrosion tests that are suggested by
ASTM A-262, such as Huey or Streicher.

The abovementioned electrochemical tests are conducted under DC conditions. However,

understanding the Helmholtz double layer (which can act as a capacitance) or adsorption of
inhibitors on the metallic surface (which can act as an inductance) requires alternative currents. This
type of test is called Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), and can reveal valuable
information about corrosion mechanisms. Moreover, this technique is very useful when the overall
electrical resistance in the electrochemical system is very high, such as when a sample is covered by
thick organic coatings or is immersed in organic solutions.