CHAP 1 Elearn

BASIC PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY
(KIM3100)
1
3
2
BASIC PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
1. Pengetahuan
2. Pemahaman
3. Aplikasi
4. Analisis
Assessments
Test 1 (W6) 20 % 27 Oct 2017
Test 2 (W12) 20 % 8 Dec 2017
Quiz (Anytime) 10 %
Final Exam 40 %
Total 100 %
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Chap 1: Atomic Theory

Chap 2: Chemical Equilibrium
Chap 3: Gas, Liquid and Solid
Chap 4: Electrochemistry
Chap 5: Reaction Kinetics
Chap 6: Thermochemistry
ATOMIC THEORY
1. Atom and atomic theory

2. Atomic components
3. Introduction to periodic table
4. Molecule and ion
5. Stoichiometry
6. Atomic and molecular mass
7. Concept of mole
4
ATOMIC THEORY
Atom & Atomic Theory
Democritus (Greek philosopher):

atomas uncutable, indivisible
Matter consist of small, indivisible
particles
ATOMIC THEORY
John Dalton (English Scientist):

Daltons atomic theory
Matter is made up of indivisible atoms.
All atoms of an element are identical.
Atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
Atoms of different elements have different
weights and chemical properties.
Atoms of different elements combine in simple
whole numbers to form compounds
Atom: a basic unit of an element 10
5
ATOMIC THEORY
Various atoms
and molecules as
depicted in John
Dalton's A New
System of Chemical
Philosophy (1808)
11
ATOMIC THEORY
Joseph John Thompson (English physicist):

measured charge to mass ratio for a stream of
electrons (using a cathode ray tube apparatus)
same charge to mass ratio regardless of metal
used for cathode/anode or gas used to fill the tube.
cathode rays could be deflected: attracted by the
plate bearing positive charges and repelled by the
plate bearing negative charges, it must consist
negatively charged particles
Negatively charged particles known as electron.. 12
6
ATOMIC THEORY
Thomson's illustration of the Crookes tube by which he

observed the deflection of cathode rays by an electric
field (and later measured their mass to charge ratio).
Cathode rays were emitted from the cathode C, passed
through slits A (the anode) and B (grounded), then
through the electric field generated between plates D
and E, finally impacting the surface at the far end. 13
ATOMIC THEORY
Raisin/Plum Pudding Model
Matter is electrically neutral, there must be a
positively charged particle that balances the negative
charge
Electrons are very much lighter than
atoms, these positively charged particles
must carry the mass of the atom.
Thomson therefore suggested that atoms
are spheres of positive charge in which
light, negatively charged electrons are
embedded, much as raisins might be
embedded in the surface of a pudding. 14
7
ATOMIC THEORY
Ernst Rutherford
Studied the deflection of alpha particles as they
were targeted at thin gold foil sheets.
updated Thomson's Raisin Pudding Model of the
atom
Most of the alpha particles penetrated
straight through
Few were deflected at slight angles
Fewer (only about 1 in 20,000) were
deflected at angles over 90
15
ATOMIC THEORY
The positive charge and mass of an atom were

concentrated in the center and only made up a small
fraction of the total volume, named as nucleus (Latin for
little nut).
Positive charge (named as proton) on the atom was
approximately half of the atomic weight (estimated form
the charge of an atom by studying the deflection of alpha
particles)
16
8
ATOMIC THEORY
Niels Bohr (Danish physicist)
Bohr Model familiar as the planetary model
the electrons orbit the nucleus much like
planets orbiting the Sun
This similarity arises because the attractive
gravitational force in a solar system and the
attractive Coulomb (electrical) force
between the positively charged nucleus and
the negatively charged electrons in an atom
17
ATOMIC THEORY
Niels Bohr and Albert

Einstein debating
quantum theory. Picture
taken by Paul
Ehrenfest at his home in
Leiden (December 1925)
18
9
ATOMIC THEORY
James Chadwick (English physicist)
Later experiments showed that the rays are
actually consisted a third type of subatomic
particles
Named as neutron : electrically neutral particles
having a mass slightly greater than that of
protons
Neutrons made up approximately half the mass
of an atom
19
ATOMIC THEORY
The discovery of a
particle consistent with
Higgs
the
boson has been

announced by physicists
from the Large Hadron
Collider's CMS and
ATLAS detectors
20
10
ATOMIC THEORY
21
ATOMIC THEORY
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11
ATOMIC THEORY
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ATOMIC THEORY
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12
ATOMIC THEORY
25
ATOMIC THEORY

4. Molecule and ion
5. Stoichiometry
7. Concept of mole
26
13
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
The modern atom viewed by scientists today consists of three
main particles located in two regions.
i. Nucleus (central core of atom)

ii. Electron cloud
27
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
i. Nucleus (central core of atom): composed of positively
charged protons and neutrons with a neutral charge.
Neutrons are needed to hold the positively charged
protons together in the nucleus.
The force that holds these particles together is termed the
nuclear binding force.
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14
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
ii. Electron cloud: holds the third particle which is a
negatively charged electron.
Electrons are arranged in energy levels about the nucleus.
The electrons occupy these energy levels from lowest
(closest to nucleus) to highest energy.
Only certain numbers of electrons can be placed in each
energy level.
29
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
Conclusion: Atom consists of electron, neutron and proton
Summary of atomic components

Particle Symbol Charge Mass (amu)
Electron e- -1 0.0005486
Proton p+ +1 1.007276
Neutron no 0 1.008665
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15
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is termed as
atomic number
This number is distinctive (characteristics) for the atoms of

each element.
Atomic Number = no of protons
31
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
Number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is not
distinctive and may vary
Creates varieties of atoms called isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with

different numbers of neutrons
32
16
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
Atomic mass (mass number):

determined from the number of protons and neutrons
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Since atoms of an element always have the same number of

protons, isotopes are atoms of the same element with
different mass numbers.
33
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
The number of electrons in a neutral atom (no charge) is
equal to the number of protons (atomic number)
Atoms may either gain or lose electrons during chemical

interactions with other atoms.
If they gain electrons they become negatively charged, if they

lose electrons they become positively charged.
We term these charged atoms as ions.

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17
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
The following atomic symbols are often used to represent
atoms/ isotopes
A A = Mass Number
Z
X X = Element Symbol
Z = Atomic Number
Atoms/isotopes can also be represented using the name of

the element and the mass number.
Example:
Magnesium atom with a mass number of 25 would be
Magnesium - 25 35
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic components
Complete the following table.
Isotope Atomic Mass Number Number Charge Atomic

number of of symbol
neutrons electrons
Potassium-41 22 18
_
80
Bromine-80 35 -1 Br
35
Calcium-40 20 +2
Silver- 56 46
Zinc- 64 28
36
18
ATOMIC THEORY

4. Molecule and ion
5. Stoichiometry
7. Concept of mole
37
ATOMIC THEORY
Introduction to periodic table
Development of periodic table:
A. Lavoisier
J.W. Dobereiner
J. Newlands
D. Mendeleev
H.J.G. Moseley
38
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ATOMIC THEORY
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
Classified elements as metals and non-metals
39
ATOMIC THEORY
Johann Wolfgang Dbereiner
Law of Triads (a group of three elements)

grouped elements based on similarities
relative atomic mass of the middle element in each
triad close to the average of relative atomic masses of
the other two elements
Ca Sr Ba eg. for Sr: (40 + 137) 2
40 88 137 = 88
Li Na K Cl Br I
7 23 39 35 80 127
40
20
ATOMIC THEORY
John Newlands
arranged the 62 known elements in order of

increasing atomic weights
noted some recurring patterns, and the patterns

were such that if he broke up his list of elements into
groups of seven
starting a new row with the eighth element, the first

element in each of those groups were similar to one
another. So was the second element in each group
41
and the third and so on
ATOMIC THEORY
formulate the concept of periodicity in the properties
of the chemical elements
proposing the Law of Octaves: Elements exhibit

similar behavior to the eighth element following it in
the table:
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21
ATOMIC THEORY
Dimitri Mendeleev
Arranged 63 known elements in the increasing

order of atomic masses, in the form of a table
called the Periodic Table (PT)
The PT further classified the elements by

arranging the elements with similar properties
together and separating the elements with
dissimilar properties from one another
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ATOMIC THEORY
Law of chemical periodicity: "The physical and chemical
properties of elements are periodic functions of their
atomic mass."
PT contains eight vertical columns of elements called

'groups' and seven horizontal rows called 'periods'
The table contained gaps but Mendeleev predicted the

discovery of new elements.
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22
ATOMIC THEORY
Henry Moseley
subjected known elements to x-rays: able to

derive the relationship between x-ray frequency
and number of protons
arranged the elements according to increasing

atomic numbers and not atomic masses
The modern periodic table is based on Moseley's

Periodic Law (atomic numbers)
45
Periodic Table
46
23
ATOMIC THEORY
Modern Periodic Table
Elements are arranged by increasing atomic numbers

(number of protons)
Contains 18 groups, 7 periods, and 4 blocks
47
ATOMIC THEORY
Modern Periodic Table
vertical columns called groups (1 to 18). Elements in a

group have similar chemical and physical properties
because they have the same number of outer electrons
(same valence electron configuration).
Some of these groups have been given trivial

(unsystematic) names, such as the alkali metals (1),
alkaline earth metals (2), transition metals (3-12),
pnictogens (15), chalcogens (16), halogens (17) and noble
gases (18)
48
24
ATOMIC THEORY
Group 1
2
3 4
49
ATOMIC THEORY
Modern Periodic Table (cont.)
Seven horizontal rows is called a period ( 1 to 7)
along a period, a gradual change in physical and chemical

properties occurs from one element to another.
periods vary in length (eg. first period is very short and

contains only 2 elements, hydrogen and helium. The next
two periods contain eight elements each)
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25
ATOMIC THEORY
Period 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
51
ATOMIC THEORY
different regions of the periodic table are sometimes

referred to as periodic table blocks according to the
subshell in which the "last" electron resides
s: ns1 ns2
p: ns2p1 ns2np6
d: (n-1)d1ns2 (n-1)d10ns2
f: lanthanides (4f) & actinides (5f)
s d p
52
f
26
ATOMIC THEORY
Three categories of elements

Metals: good conductor of heat and electricity-88
Nonmetals: poor conductor of heat and electricity
Metalloids: properties that are intermediate between
those of metals and nonmetals
From left to right: physical and

chemical properties of the
elements change gradually from
metallic to nonmetallic
53
ATOMIC THEORY
Electron configuration & periodic table
Electron configuration is the distribution of electrons in

orbitals among the subshells and principal shells in an
atom.
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27
ATOMIC THEORY
Three types of notation of electron configuration are the

spdf notation, the noble-gas-core abbreviated notation, and
the orbital diagram.
55
ATOMIC THEORY
Electron Configurations: Periodic Relationships
group number corresponds to the number of valence

electrons
period number is the same as the principal quantum

number of the valence shell.
block assignment based on subshell of atom being filled by

electron
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ATOMIC THEORY
1s2 2s2
Example:
4Be
Valence shell: 2 = period 2
Valence subshell: s = block s
Number of valence electron: 2 = group 2
57
ATOMIC THEORY
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ATOMIC THEORY
Example:
9F 1s2 2s2 2p5
59
ATOMIC THEORY
Periodic Atomic Properties of the Elements
When the elements were arranged according to their atomic

number, the properties elements exhibited some periodicity/
trends which led to the discovery of the periodic law.
The periodic law describes the regular recurrence of certain

physical and chemical properties of atoms when they are
arranged by increasing atomic number.
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ATOMIC THEORY
The trends can be predicted using the periodic table and

can be explained and understood by analyzing the electron
configurations of the elements.
Elements tend to gain or lose valence electrons to achieve

stable octet formation. Stable octets are seen in the inert
gases, or noble gases, of Group 18 of the periodic table.
61
ATOMIC THEORY
Two important factors influencing the trends in chemical and

physical properties:
screening effect
effective nuclear charge
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31
ATOMIC THEORY
screening/ shielding effect
o electrons in an atom can shield each other from the

pull of the nucleus
o cause the decrease in attraction between an electron
and the nucleus in any atom with more than one
electron shell.
o The more electron shells there are, the greater the
shielding effect experienced by the outermost
electrons.
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ATOMIC THEORY
screening/ shielding effect
o moving down a column in the periodic table

o the outermost electrons become less tightly bound to
the nucleus because the number of filled principal
energy levels (which shield the outermost electrons
from attraction to the nucleus) increases downward
within each group
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ATOMIC THEORY
o symbolized as Zeff or Z* is the net positive charge

experienced by an electron in a multi-electron atom.
o The term "effective" is used because the shielding

effect of negatively charged electrons prevents
higher orbital electrons from experiencing the full
nuclear charge.
65
ATOMIC THEORY
o The effective nuclear charge on an electron is given

by: Zeff = Z - S
Z : number of protons in nucleus (atomic number)

S : number of electrons between nucleus and electron in
question (number of nonvalence electrons)
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33
ATOMIC THEORY
o moving from left to right across a period

o protons are added one at a time, electrons of the
outermost shell experience increasingly strong
nuclear attraction, so the electrons become closer to
the nucleus and more tightly bound to it
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ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic Radius
half of the distance between the
centers of two atoms of the
element that are just touching
each other.
generally, the atomic radius decreases across a period from

left to right and increases down a given group.
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ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic Radius (cont.)
Moving from left to right across a

period:
o electrons are added one at a
time to the outer energy shell.
o number of protons is also
increasing, the effective nuclear
charge increases across a
period.
o the atomic radius to decrease.
69
ATOMIC THEORY
Moving down a group in the periodic
table:
o number of electrons and filled
electron shells increases, but the
number of valence electrons
remains the same
o outermost electrons in a group are
exposed to the same effective
nuclear charge, but farther from
the nucleus as the number of filled
energy shells increases.
o atomic radii increase.
70
35
ATOMIC THEORY
Ionization Energy/ ionization potential
energy required to completely remove an electron from a

gaseous atom or ion
the closer and more tightly bound an electron is to the

nucleus, the more difficult it will be to remove, and the
higher its ionization energy will be
71
ATOMIC THEORY
Ionization Energy/ ionization potential (cont.)
first ionization energy is the energy required to remove one

electron from the parent atom.
X (g) X+ (g) + e
72
36
ATOMIC THEORY
second ionization energy is the energy required to remove a

second valence electron from the univalent ion to form the
divalent ion, and so on.
X+ (g) X2+ + e
73
ATOMIC THEORY
successive ionization energies increase. The second

ionization energy is always greater than the first ionization
energy.
ionization energies increase moving from left to right across

a period (decreasing atomic radius).
ionization energy decreases moving down a group

(increasing atomic radius)
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37
ATOMIC THEORY
Element First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh
496 4,560
Successive
738 1,450 7,730
molar
577 1,816 2,881 11,600 ionization
energies
786 1,577 3,228 4,354 16,100 in kJ/mol
(96.485 kJ/mol
1,060 1,890 2,905 4,950 6,270 21,200
= 1 eV/particle)
999.6 2,260 3,375 4,565 6,950 8,490 27,107
1,256 2,295 3,850 5,160 6,560 9,360 11,000
1,520 2,665 3,945 5,770 7,230 8,780 12,000

75
ATOMIC THEORY
Electron Affinity
reflects the ability of an atom to accept an electron
it is the energy change that occurs when an electron is

added to a gaseous atom
atoms with stronger effective nuclear charge have greater

electron affinity
76
38
ATOMIC THEORY
Electron Affinity (cont.)
some generalizations can be made about the electron affinities

of certain groups in the periodic table:
Group 2 : low electron affinity values because they have

filled s subshells (relatively stable)
Group 17 : high electron affinities because the addition of

an electron to an atom results in a completely filled shell.
77
ATOMIC THEORY
Electron Affinity (cont.)
Group 18 : electron affinities nearly zero, since each atom

possesses a stable octet and will not accept an electron
readily.
Elements of other groups have low electron affinities
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ATOMIC THEORY
Electronegativity
a measure of the attraction of an atom for the electrons in a

chemical bond.
higher the electronegativity of an atom, the greater its

attraction for bonding electrons
79
ATOMIC THEORY
Electronegativity (cont.)
electronegativity is related to ionization energy
electrons with low ionization energies have low

electronegativities because their nuclei do not exert a strong
attractive force on electrons
elements with high ionization energies have high

electronegativities due to the strong pull exerted on electrons
by the nucleus
80
40
ATOMIC THEORY
Electronegativity (cont.)
In a group: electronegativity decreases as atomic number

increases, as a result of increased distance between the
valence electron and nucleus (greater atomic radius)
In a period: electronegativity increases as atomic number

increases, as a result of decreased distance between the
valence electron and nucleus (smaller atomic radius)
81
ATOMIC THEORY
Summary of Periodic Table Trends

Moving Left to Right:
Atomic Radius Decreases
Ionization Energy Increases
Electronegativity Increases
Moving Top to Bottom:

Atomic Radius Increases
Ionization Energy Decreases
Electronegativity Decreases
82
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ATOMIC THEORY

4. Molecule and ion
5. Stoichiometry
7. Concept of mole
83
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Molecule
aggregate of at least two atoms in definite arrangement

held together by chemical bonds
H2 H2O NH3 CH4
84
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ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Molecule (cont.)
Diatomic
contains only two atoms
H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
Polyatomic
contains more than two atoms
O3, H2O, NH3, CH4

85
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Ion
The nucleus of an atom (containing protons and neutrons)

remains unchanged after ordinary chemical reactions, but
atoms can readily gain or lose electrons
If electrons are lost or gained by a neutral atom, then the

result is that a charged particle is formed - called an ion
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ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Ion (cont.)
atom/group of atoms with net +/- charge
Cation: net +ve charge formed when 1/more e- lost

from neutral atom
Anion: net -ve charged formed when 1/more e- gained
87
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Ion (cont.)
Example:
Na atom loses one electron to become a cation
Na
11 protons
Na+
11 electrons
Cl atom gains one electron to become an anion
Cl 17 protons
Cl-
17 electrons
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ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Ion (cont.)
Monatomic ion: ions containing only 1 atom

Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
Polyatomic ions: ions containing >1 atom
OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
89
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Ion (cont.)
number of electrons an atom loses is related to its position

on the periodic table.
metals tend to form cations whereas nonmetals tend to form
anions
90
45
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Molecule, Atom, or Ion?
i. C6H12O6
ii. N2
iii. CO32-
iv. Ag
v. Fe3+
vi. NH4+
91
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Chemical Formula
Express composition of molecules and ionic compounds in

terms of chemical symbols, includes elements and ratios in
which atoms are combined
Molecular formula
give the actual numbers and types of atoms in a molecule.
Examples: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, H2O2, O2, O3, and C2H4.
92
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ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Chemical Formula (cont.)
Empirical formula
give the relative numbers (lowest whole number ratio) and

types of atoms in a molecule
Examples:
EF for H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, H2O2 and C2H4
H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, HO, and CH2
93
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Compound Molecular Empirical

formula formula
Water H2O H2O
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 HO
Ethylene C2H4 CH2
Ethane C2H6 CH3
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O
Ozone O3 O
Diazene N2H2 NH
94
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ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Formula of ionic compounds
Ionic compound: compound formed from attraction

between cations/anions
formula is always the same as the empirical formula
sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula
unit must equal zero
95
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Formula of ionic compounds 1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6 Ca2+ Br-
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-
1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
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ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Chemical Nomenclature
Molecular compounds
nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids

element further left in periodic table is 1st
element closest to bottom of group is 1st
if more than one compound can be formed from the
same elements, use prefixes to indicate number of each
kind of atom
last element ends in ide
97
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Chemical Nomenclature (cont.)
HI hydrogen iodide
NF3 nitrogen trifluoride
SO2 sulfur dioxide
N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride
NO2 nitrogen dioxide TOXIC!
N2O dinitrogen monoxide

Laughing Gas
98
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ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Ionic Compounds
often a metal + nonmetal
nonmetal (anion), add ide to element name
BaCl2 barium chloride
K2O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
KNO3 potassium nitrate

99
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Transition metal ionic compounds

indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals
FeCl2 2 Cl- = -2; so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride
FeCl3 3 Cl- = -3; so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride
Cr2S3 3 S-2 =-6; so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide
100
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ATOMIC THEORY
Molecule and ion
Some Polyatomic Ions:
NH4+ ammonium SO42- sulfate

CO32- carbonate SO32- sulfite
HCO3- bicarbonate NO3- nitrate
ClO3- chlorate NO2- nitrite
Cr2O72- dichromate SCN- thiocyanate
CrO42- chromate OH -
hydroxide
101
ATOMIC THEORY

4. Molecule and ion
5. Stoichiometry
7. Concept of mole
102
51
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic & Molecular Mass
Atomic Mass
Sometimes called atomic weight: mass of the atom in

atomic mass unit (amu)
amu: a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one

C-12 atom
C-12: C isotope, has 6 protons and 6 neutrons
103
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic Mass (cont.)
Average atomic mass

Most natural occurring elements (including C) have more
than one isotope
When we measure atomic mass, must settle for the average

mass of all the present isotopes
Content of each isotope determined with an instrument

called mass spectrometer
104
52
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic Mass (cont.)
Average atomic mass

Example:
Natural abundance of C-12 and C-13 are 98.90% and

1.10%, respectively. The atomic mass of C-13 has been
determined to be 13.00335 amu. Calculate the average
atomic mass of carbon.
105
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic Mass (cont.)
Average atomic mass of C
98.90 1.10
=( 100 )(12.00000 amu) + ( 100 )(13.00335 amu)
= 12.01 amu
106
53
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic Mass (cont.)
Try This!
Copper, a metal known since ancient times, is used in
electrical cables and pennies. The atomic masses of its two
stable isotopes, 63Cu (69.09 percent) and 65Cu (30.91
percent), are 62.93 and 64.9278 amu, respectively.
Calculate the average atomic mass of copper. The relative
abundances are given in parentheses.
107
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecular Mass
Also called molecular weight
Sum of atomic masses (in amu) in the molecule
Example:
Molecular mass of water, H2O:

= 2 atomic mass of H + 1 atomic mass of O
= 2 (1.008 amu) + 1(16.00 amu)
= 18.02 amu
108
54
ATOMIC THEORY
Molecular Mass (cont.)
From molecular mass, we can determine the molar mass of

a molecule
Molar mass (in grams) is numerically equal to its molecular

mass (in amu)
Example:
Molecular mass of water = 18.02 amu
Molar mass of water = 18.02 g
109
ATOMIC THEORY

4. Molecule and ion
5. Stoichiometry
7. Concept of mole
110
55
ATOMIC THEORY
Concept of Mole
In real situation, we deal with macroscopic samples
containing enormous number of atoms/ molecules
Convenient to have a special unit to describe a very large

number of atoms/ molecules
Chemist measure atoms/ molecules in moles
Mole (mol): amount of a substance that contains as many

elementary entities (atoms, molecules or other particles) as
there are atoms in exactly 12 g of the C-12 isotope
111
ATOMIC THEORY
Concept of Mole (cont.)
Actual number of atoms in 12 g of C-12 is determined
experimentally and called Avogadros Number (NA)
NA = 6.0221415 x 1023
So 1 mole of C-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 g and

contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms (this mass called molar mass)
Molar Mass (M):

mass (in grams or kilograms) of 1 mole of units (such as
atoms or molecules) of a substance
Numerically equal to atomic/ molecular mass
112
56
ATOMIC THEORY
Relationships between mass (m, in grams), number of
moles (n) and number of atoms (N) in elements:
n NA

Mass of Number of Number of
element (m) moles of atoms of
element (n) elements (N)

nM
113
ATOMIC THEORY
Try this!
How many moles of helium atoms are in 6.46 g of helium?

(Molar mass of He: 4.003 gmol-1)
m/M
Mass of Number of n He = 6.46 g/ 4.003 gmol-1

element (m) moles of = 1.61 mol He
element (n)
114
57
ATOMIC THEORY
Try this!
How many moles of helium atoms are in 6.46 g of helium?

(Molar mass of He: 4.003 gmol-1)
Conversion factor: 4.003 g He 1 mol He

or
1 mol He 4.003 g He
6.46 g He x 1 mol He = 1.61 mol He

4.003 g He
115
ATOMIC THEORY

4. Molecule and ion
5. Stoichiometry
7. Concept of mole
116
58
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
What is stoichiometry?
stoichiometry (Greek: to measure the elements)
technically, stoichiometry is the measurement of chemical

quantities.
Quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical

reaction
central to an understanding of chemical reactions and

equilibrium
117
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
What is stoichiometry? (cont.)
use of a chemical equation to predict how much of some

substance is produced or reacted based on the amount of
some other substance that is involved in the reaction
based on two ideas:

chemical equation
concept of the mole
118
59
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Chemical Equation
When sodium chloride is mixed with sulfuric acid, there is a

chemical reaction and hydrogen chloride and sodium
hydrogen sulfate are formed
We can write an expression of the type:
compound 1 + compound 2 produce compound 3 + compound 4
represents what happens during the reaction.

119
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Chemical Equation (cont.)
NaCl + H2SO4 HCl + NaHSO4
called chemical equation
reaction at the atomic level:

hydrogen ion combines with the chloride ion to form HCl,
leaving the sodium ion and the hydrogen sulfate ion
hydrogen and sodium are exchanging places
120
60
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
NaCl + H2SO4 HCl + NaHSO4
In general, we can say that both sides of the equation must

contain the same numbers of atoms of each element
frequently called a "balanced" chemical equation
121
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
able to predict how much of some chemical will be

produced based on the starting amounts of the reactants.
able to calculate how many moles/grams/liters/ some other

units of reactants will be needed to produce a given amount
of some other chemical.
122
61
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Consider the chemical equation for the reaction of hydrogen

and oxygen below
Atom Left Right
H 2 2
H2 + O2 H2O
O 2 1
O
O
H H O O
H H
123
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Not accurate/ balance: number of atoms before the reaction

is not equal to the number of atoms after the reaction
Law of conservation of matter: Atoms can neither be

created nor destroyed during an ordinary chemical reaction
124
62
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
the reaction can only take place with the following ratio of
substances
Atom Left Right
H 4 4
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
O 2 2
O O
H H
O O
H H H H H H
125
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
coefficients in the equation:

tell us how many molecules or moles of each substance are
needed for the reaction to occur
NOT tell us the ratio of grams of each substance
to predict the amounts of substances: solve using moles as

our unit of matter
126
63
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Try this!
1. How many moles of water can be produced from 2.88

moles of O2 and excess H2?
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
2.88 mol ?
2.88 mol O2 x 2 mol H2O

1 mol O2
= 5.76 mol H2O
127
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Try this!

moles of H2 and excess O2?
128
64
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Try this!
3. How many moles of H2 are needed to produce 10.8 moles

of water (assuming excess O2)?
129
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Try this!

grams of O2 and excess H2?
130
65
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Try this!
5. How many grams of water can be produced from 2.88

moles of O2 and excess H2?
131
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Try this!
6. How many grams of oxygen are needed to produce 13.0 g

of water (assuming excess hydrogen)?
132
66
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Try this!
7. How many liters of H2 gas (at STP) are needed to

completely react with 5.00 mol of O2 gas?
133
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Try this!
8. How many liters of H2 gas (at STP) are needed to

completely react with 5.00 g of O2 gas?
134
67
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Limiting and Excess Reagents
Up until now: assumed that there is enough or even too

much (excess) of all of the reactants in order for the
reaction to take place.
Usually the reactants not present in exact stoichiometric

amounts (in the proportions indicated by the balanced
equation)
Some reactants will be left over, and some are finished at

the end of reaction.
135
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Limiting and Excess Reagents (cont.)
Limiting reagent: the reactant used up first in the reaction

Maximum amount of product formed depends on how
much of this reactant was originally present
When this reactant is used up, no more product can be
formed
Excess reagent: the reactant present in quantities greater

than necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting
reactant
136
68
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Limiting and Excess Reagents (cont.)
Example:
Consider the following chemical reaction between lead (II) nitrate and
sodium iodide.
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq)
If 2.00 mol of Pb(NO3)2 is reacted with 3.00 mol of NaI, determine

i. Which substance is the limiting reagent?
ii. Which is the excess reagent?
iii. How many moles of the PbI2 product are produced? How many grams?
iv. How many moles of the excess reagent remain after the reaction is
complete? 137
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Reaction Yield
Yield: generally, how much of a substance is made
two types of yields:
Theoretical yield: how much of a substance should be

produced in a chemical reaction
Actual yield: the amount of a substance that is actually

produced in a chemical reaction
138
69
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Reaction Yield (cont.)
% Yield = actual yield x 100 %

theoretical yield
to calculate the % yield of a reaction, take the amount that

you did produce in the reaction and divide by what you
should have produced in the reaction
If the reaction proceeds perfectly (which never happens),

you will produce the exact amount that is theoretically
possible, and you will get a 100% yield.
139
ATOMIC THEORY
Stoichiometry
Reaction Yield (cont.)
Example:
As an engineer, you have found that the % yield of the previous reaction is
92.0% under the particular conditions of your factory. You need to determine
how many mol of PbI2 can be produced from 6.00 moles of Pb(NO3)2 and
excess NaI.
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 NaI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq)
Calculate the following:

i. the theoretical yield of the reaction
ii. the actual yield of the reaction. 140
70

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BASIC PHYSICAL

BASIC PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Chap 1: Atomic Theory

1. Atom and atomic theory

Democritus (Greek philosopher):

John Dalton (English Scientist):

Joseph John Thompson (English physicist):

Thomson's illustration of the Crookes tube by which he

The positive charge and mass of an atom were

Niels Bohr and Albert

boson has been

1. Atom and atomic theory

i. Nucleus (central core of atom)

Summary of atomic components

This number is distinctive (characteristics) for the atoms of

Atomic Number = no of protons

Creates varieties of atoms called isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with

Atomic mass (mass number):

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Since atoms of an element always have the same number of

Atoms may either gain or lose electrons during chemical

If they gain electrons they become negatively charged, if they

We term these charged atoms as ions.

Atoms/isotopes can also be represented using the name of

Isotope Atomic Mass Number Number Charge Atomic

1. Atom and atomic theory

Classified elements as metals and non-metals

Law of Triads (a group of three elements)

arranged the 62 known elements in order of

noted some recurring patterns, and the patterns

starting a new row with the eighth element, the first

proposing the Law of Octaves: Elements exhibit

Arranged 63 known elements in the increasing

The PT further classified the elements by

PT contains eight vertical columns of elements called

The table contained gaps but Mendeleev predicted the

subjected known elements to x-rays: able to

arranged the elements according to increasing

The modern periodic table is based on Moseley's

Elements are arranged by increasing atomic numbers

vertical columns called groups (1 to 18). Elements in a

Some of these groups have been given trivial

Modern Periodic Table (cont.)

Seven horizontal rows is called a period ( 1 to 7)

along a period, a gradual change in physical and chemical

periods vary in length (eg. first period is very short and

different regions of the periodic table are sometimes

Three categories of elements

From left to right: physical and

Electron configuration is the distribution of electrons in

Three types of notation of electron configuration are the

Electron Configurations: Periodic Relationships

group number corresponds to the number of valence

period number is the same as the principal quantum

block assignment based on subshell of atom being filled by

Valence shell: 2 = period 2

Valence subshell: s = block s

Number of valence electron: 2 = group 2

When the elements were arranged according to their atomic

The periodic law describes the regular recurrence of certain

The trends can be predicted using the periodic table and

Elements tend to gain or lose valence electrons to achieve

Two important factors influencing the trends in chemical and