ENZYME AND CELL RESPIRATION

SECTION C QUESTION 7 2016: The enzyme performance will be influenced by the activity of
cofactor and inhibitor. Discuss the types of cofactors and inhibitors (17 marks).

SECTION E QUESTION 11 PART A 2015: What is enzyme inhibition? With a suitable diagram,
discuss feedback mechanism (9 marks).

SECTION D QUESTION 9 PART B 2014: Define enzyme. Discuss the difference(s) between
enzyme cofactor and inhibitor (8 marks).

SECTION C QUESTION 8 2013: Define and list the properties of enzyme (8 marks) and What is a
cofactor? Describe the types of cofactor and give an appropriate example for each type (9
marks).

SECTION E QUESTION 11 2013: Describe 3 type of enzyme inhibition (9 marks).

SECTION E QUESTION 12 PART A 2012: What is cofactor? (2 marks) and Give the types of
cofactors and their functions (6 marks).

SECTION E QUESTION 11 PART A 2011: What is an inhibitor? Compare competitive and non-
competitive inhibition of enzymes. (9 marks)

SECTION B QUESTION 5 PART B 2010: Discuss competitive inhibition (5 marks).

o Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the rate of biochemical reaction by
lowering its activation energy.
o Properties of enzymes:
Biological catalysts Lowers activation energy
Highly specific Reversible
Are globular proteins Affected by factors
Required in small amounts Can be used repeatedly

o Factors affecting enzyme activity:

Enzyme concentration
Substrate concentration
pH
Temperature

o Some enzymes contain non-protein part, called cofactor which binds to the protein
part called apoenzyme to form an enzyme-cofactor complex called holoenzyme.
o Enzyme activity within the cell is regulated by inhibitors.
o Cofactors assist enzymes by activating enzyme or participating in a chemical
reaction while inhibitors reduce the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction.
o There are 3 types of cofactors:
o Inorganic ions (eg. Mg2+)
Bind temporarily to enzyme to change the shape of active site for reaction.
o Prosthetic Group (eg. FAD)
Bind tightly and permanently to assist in catalytic function of enzyme.
o Coenzymes (eg. NAD)
Bind loosely and temporarily to help transfer chemical groups, atoms,
electrons to other enzymes.

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o There are 3 types of inhibitors:
o Competitive Reversible Inhibitors
Inhibitors structure is like the substrates and therefore they compete for the
active site.
When inhibitors bind to the active site temporarily, rate of reaction decreases.
o Non-Competitive Reversible Inhibitors (Allosteric Inhibitor) (eg. ATP)
Inhibitors structure is unlike the substrates.
When inhibitors bind to the allosteric site temporarily and alters the enzyme
structure, the rate of reaction decreases.

o Non-Competitive Irreversible Inhibitors

Inhibitors form covalent bonds permanently to enzyme and change enzyme
structure.
This may cause enzyme precipitation.

KA 2017
SECTION C QUESTION 7 PART A 2015: With the aid of suitable diagrams, discuss the
mechanism of enzyme action (8 marks).

SECTION E QUESTION 11 PART A 2012: With the aid of suitable diagrams, explain the
hypotheses of mechanism of enzyme action (9 marks).

1. LOCK AND KEY HYPOTHESIS

o Substrate and active site are exactly complementary.

o Substrate fit into rigid active site and form enzyme-substrate complex.
o Reaction occurs and products formed are released.

2. INDUCED FIT HYPOTHESIS

o Substrate and enzyme does not fit exactly.

o Substrate collide with flexible active site, induce slight change and becomes
complementary to form enzyme-substrate complex.
o Reaction occurs and products formed are released.
o More widely accepted because close fit causes stress and distortion of substrate
chemical bonds, which breaks it to form new bonds and therefore new products.

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MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
SECTION D QUESTION 10 PART B 2011: Explain the events in the stages of first meiotic cell
division (10 marks).

SECTION E QUESTION 11 PART A 2014: Describe the events that occur during Meiosis I (9
marks).

o First phase of meiosis I is Prophase I.

o Prophase I is the longest phase of Meiosis I.
o There are 5 substages in Prophase I:

Leptotene
Chromosomes start to condense in this substage.

Zygotene
Synapsis happens and bivalents form.

Pachytene
Crossover occurs. Chromatids may break and reattach to different
chromosome.

Diplotene
Homologous chromosome still held at chiasma but starts to repel.

Diakinesis
Maximum condensation of chromosomes and are totally separated.
Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappears.
Spindle fibres assembled.

o Second phase is Metaphase I

o Spindle fibres attach to the kinetochores.
o Bivalents are arranged at the metaphase plate.

o Third phase is Anaphase I

o Spindle fibres pull a chromosome to opposite poles.
o Bivalents separate but centromere still attached.

o Last phase is Telophase I

o Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear.
o Spindle fibres disappear.

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SECTION E QUESTION 12 PART A 2016: Mitosis maintains genetic stability whereas meiosis
increases genetic variation. Discuss (9 marks).

SECTION D QUESTION 9 PART B 2015: With the aid of suitable diagram, describe mitosis. Next,
explain how mitosis maintains genetic stability (8 marks).

SECTION E QUESTION 12 PART A 2014: Discuss the significance of mitosis in maintaining

genetic stability and meiosis in increasing genetic variation (9 marks).

SECTION D QUESTION 10 PART C 2013: Explain the importance of meiosis in (i) sexual
reproduction and (ii) promote genetic variation (4 marks).

SECTION D QUESTION 10 PART B 2012: Explain how meiosis lead to genetic variation (9 marks).

SECTION E QUESTION 12 PART B (I) 2010: Give the significance of mitotic cell divisions for
organisms (4 marks).

1. MEIOSIS INCREASES GENETIC VARIATION

o Crossing Over
o Happens in Prophase I.
o Formation of chiasmata allows crossing over between chromatids of
homologous chromosomes.
o Segments of chromatids are exchanged.
o Independent Assortment
o Happens in Metaphase I.
o Bivalents arrange themselves randomly on metaphase plate.
o When homologous chromosomes separate, different unique
orientations of chromosomes form.

2. MEIOSIS ENABLES SEXUAL REPORDUCTION

o Meiosis maintains the diploid chromosomes of organisms between
generations.
o Meiosis reduces by half the chromosome number to form haploid gametes.
o Combination of egg and sperm during fertilisation restore the diploid
chromosome number for offspring.

3. MITOSIS MAINTAIN GENETIC STABILITY

o Mitosis produce genetically identical daughter cells with same genetic
material.
o Genetic information is maintained due to the absence of crossing over.

4. MITOSIS HELPS CELL REPLACEMENT

o Worn out, damaged cells can be replaced by exact copies of the cell to
retain normal functions.

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SECTION E QUESTION 12 PART B (II) 2011: Give 5 differences between mitosis and meiosis (5
marks).

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Has only one nuclear division Has two nuclear divisions

Happens in somatic and germ cells Happens in germ cells only

Two daughter cells are produced Four daughter cells are produced

Daughter cells have the same chromosome Daughter cells have half the chromosome

number of parent cell number of parent cell

All daughter cells have the same genetic All daughter cells have different genetic

content and are genetically identical content and are not genetically identical

SECTION E QUESTION 11 PART A 2016: With the aid of suitable diagrams, describe the
differences between the chromosomes in meiosis I and mitosis, particularly in the stages of
prophase, metaphase and anaphase (9 marks).

SECTION D QUESTION 10 PART B 2013: Discuss the differences between the chromosomes
during mitosis and meiosis I (8 marks).

MITOSIS PHASE MEIOSIS

Homologous chromosomes Homologous chromosomes
do not pair with each other pair, forming bivalents
Chiasma formed between
PROPHASE
No chiasma formed non-sister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes
No crossing over occurs Crossing over occurs
Chromosomes align at Bivalents align at the
METAPHASE
metaphase plate metaphase plate
Sister chromatids separate Bivalents separate
Centromeres do not divide
ANAPHASE
Centromeres divide and chromatids remain
together

KA 2017